Fundamentally, education is about changing minds. Effective teaching means guiding students as they build new memories, strengthen thinking skills, and transform the ways in which they view the world. An understanding of key principles about how the mind works amplifies the impact of our teaching, shedding new light on the best ways to structure learning experiences that are memorable, compelling and effective. In this address, Dr. Michelle Miller, author of Minds Online: Teaching Effectively with Technology, will demonstrate and explain how processes within mind and brain drive learning, and how these principles can be applied to online teaching and course design practices, and inform our understanding of effective online learning.

1. Design for the Mind:
What Cognitive Science Tells Us
About Teaching with Technology
MICHELLE MILLER
DIRECTOR, FIRSTYEAR LEARNING INITIATIVE
PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCES
NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY
AUTHOR, MINDS ONLINE:TEACHING EFFECTIVELYWITHTECHNOLOGY
.

2. Memory
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Jiri
Kaipr
|
Dreams.me
Stock
Photos

5. Contemporary theories emphasize:
• Goal relevance and memory
• What is memory for?
• Working memory/multistore concept
• 7 +- 1?
• Relationship between working memory,
encoding and attention

6. Attention
the key to memory

7. Memory without attention?

8. Change Blindness
www.viscog.com
Daniel J. Simons
http://nivea.psycho.univ-paris5.fr/#CB
J.K. O’Regan
See also: Rensink, O’Regan, Clark, 1997
Simons Ambinder, 2005

9. Effortful, attentive practice: Useful
Passive exposure: Useless

10. Testing is an especially effective
form of practice
Especially when spacing and interleaving
are used, quizzes provide the best results
for time invested

11. Karpicke, J. D., Butler,A.C., Roediger, H. L. (2009). Metacognitive strategies in student learning:
Do students practice retrieval when they study on their own? Memory, 17, 471-479.
• Rereading was ranked as the #1 strategy by 55%
• Self-testing was ranked as #1 strategy by 1.2%
• Only 18% preferred to self-test vs. re-studying a
chapter they just read
According to a 2009 survey
of college students:

12. Take-aways:
• Don’t think of memory like a holding tank –
rather, a set of mechanisms for taking in and
getting back goal-relevant information
• Attention drives memory; without attention,
little will be remembered
• Retrieval practice (testing, quizzing) is
particularly powerful for building memory

13. What Technology Buys Us:
1. More
opportuni.es
to
take
advantage
of
the
tes.ng
effect

14. What Technology Buys Us:
1. More
opportuni.es
to
take
advantage
of
the
tes.ng
effect
2. More
op.ons
for
spacing
and
interleaving
prac.ce

15. What Technology Buys Us:
1. More
opportuni.es
to
take
advantage
of
the
tes.ng
effect
2. More
op.ons
for
spacing
and
interleaving
prac.ce
3. More
op.ons
for
aligning
material
with
individual
learners’
exis.ng
knowledge,
goals

17. Ask Students to Respond

18. Discourage Divided Attention

19. Resource for teaching students
about multitasking and learning
Interested
in
adap.ng
AIen.on
MaIers!
for
use
in
your
own
course?
Email
Michelle
Miller
to
get
started.

20. Harness theTesting Effect

21. Encourage Spaced Study

22. Tie In toWhat Students Know

23. Tie In toWhat Students Care About

24. Higher Thought
Processes

25. Try this reasoning task...

26. !
1.! ! 2.! 3.! 4.!
!
!
!
!
7 2
If
a
card
has
an
odd
number
on
one
side,
it
has
an
animal
on
the
other
side.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
Flip
Card
1
Flip
Card
2
Flip
Card
3
Flip
Card
4
Try
Another
Rule

27. !
1.! ! 2.! 3.! 4.!
!
!
!
!
2
If
a
card
has
an
odd
number
on
one
side,
it
has
an
animal
on
the
other
side.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
Back

28. !
1.! ! 2.! 3.! 4.!
!
!
!
!
7
If
a
card
has
an
odd
number
on
one
side,
it
has
an
animal
on
the
other
side.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
Back

29. !
1.! ! 2.! 3.! 4.!
!
!
!
!
7 2 4
If
a
card
has
an
odd
number
on
one
side,
it
has
an
animal
on
the
other
side.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
Back

30. !
1.! ! 2.! 3.! 4.!
!
!
!
!
7 2 3
If
a
card
has
an
odd
number
on
one
side,
it
has
an
animal
on
the
other
side.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
Back

31. Try another rule...

32. If
a
person
is
drinking
alcohol,
he/she
is
over
21.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
Finish
Flip
Card
1
Flip
Card
2
Flip
Card
3
Flip
Card
4

33. If
a
person
is
drinking
alcohol,
he/she
is
over
21.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
1.# # 2.# 3.# 4.#
#
!
! 17 Juice Age 30 Age 19
Back

34. If
a
person
is
drinking
alcohol,
he/she
is
over
21.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
1.# # 2.# 3.# 4.#
#
!
!Beer 20 Age 30 Age 19
Back

35. If
a
person
is
drinking
alcohol,
he/she
is
over
21.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
1.# # 2.# 3.# 4.#
#
!
!Beer Juice Red Bull Age 19
Back

36. If
a
person
is
drinking
alcohol,
he/she
is
over
21.
Choose
ALL
of
the
cards
you
would
need
to
turn
over
in
order
to
verify
that
the
rule
is
being
followed.
Choose
ONLY
the
cards
that
would
help
you
verify
the
rule.
1.# # 2.# 3.# 4.#
#
!
!Beer Juice Age 30 Margarita
Back

37. What does this tell us
about reasoning?

38. Other major challenges in reinforcing
thinking skills:
1. Creating effective transfer is notoriously difficult

39. Other major challenges in reinforcing
thinking skills:
1. Creating effective transfer is notoriously difficult
2. Thinking skills don’t just fall out of content knowledge

40. When
you
focus
on
structural
elements,
you’re
more
successful
–
and
more
likely
to
transfer
what
you’ve
prac.ced.

41. Critical Thinking

42. Critical Thinking
What gets in the way?

43. Critical Thinking
What gets in the way?
1. Failing
to
foreground
deep
structure
2. Failing
to
realize
cri.cal
thinking
is
needed
(cuing)
3. Effort
4. Mo.va.ons
to
maintain
illogical
beliefs

44. What helps?
• Focus on structural elements
• Practice identifying when to apply
• Focus on why (why an answer is right or
wrong, why you believe one thing or another)

45. Take-aways:
• Reasoning is context dependent and doesn’t
flow from content knowledge alone
• Success depends on identifying structural
elements of problems
• Students need abundant practice across
examples with common structural elements,
but varying surface elements

46. What Technology Buys Us:
1. More
ways
to
require
and
reinforce
prac.ce

47. What Technology Buys Us:
1. More
ways
to
require
and
reinforce
prac.ce
2. More
systema.c
presenta.on
of
problems

48. What Technology Buys Us:
1. More
ways
to
require
and
reinforce
prac.ce
2. More
systema.c
presenta.on
of
problems
3. More
opportunity
for
reflec.on,
delibera.on

50. Assign Students to Practice the
Thinking SkillsYouWantThemTo Have

51. Set UpVaried, Realistic Scenarios for Reasoning

52. Use Discussion to BuildThinking Skills

53. Closing thoughts:
What’s next as we seek a more evidence-
based approach to teaching with
technology?

54. • Learning that lives outside of courses
• Expert collaborations: subject matter + design
• Flipping the textbook?
• ABS:Anything but Slideshows

55. How do we get faculty on board?

56. Thank you – and keep up the good work!
michelle.miller@nau.edu
@MDMillerPHD
www.facebook.com/MichelleDMillerPhD
©
Jenny
Solomon
|
Dreams.me
Stock
Photos

57. References and recommended reading
Memory and attention
Ambrose, S., Bridges, M., DiPietro, M., and Lovett, M. (2010). How LearningWorks: Seven Research-Based Principles for SmartTeaching.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Atkinson, R.C. and Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory:A proposed system and its control processes. In The Psychology of
Learning and Motivation:Advances in Research andTheory,Volume 2, edited by K.W. Spence and J.T. Spence, 89-105. NewYork:
Academic Press.
Baddeley,A. D. (1998). Human Memory:Theory and Practice. Boston:Allyn Bacon.
Chabris, C., and Simon, D. (2010). The Invisible Gorilla:And OtherWays Our Intuitions Deceive Us. NewYork: Crown.
Chickering,A., and Ehrmann, S. (1996). Implementing the seven principles:Technology as lever. AAHE Bulletin, October, pp. 3-6.
Cowan, N.(2010).The magical mystery four: How is working memory capacity limited, and why? Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 19, 51-57.
Dickey, M.D. (2005). Engaging by design: How engagement strategies in popular computer and video games can inform
instructional design. EducationalTechnology Research and Development, 53, 67-83.
Mayer, R. (2009 ). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Miller, M.D., Brauer, E., and Shaber, J. (2011). Getting to Carnegie Hall: Novel timed homework practice to develop basic circuit
analysis skills. Paper presented by E. Brauer,Annual Conference Exposition,American Society for Engineering Education.
Miller, M.D. (2009) What the science of cognition tells us about instructional technology. Change:The Magazine of Higher Learning,
41, 71-74
Miller, M.D. (2011). What college teachers should know about memory:A perspective from cognitive psychology. CollegeTeaching,
59, 117-122.
Simons, D.J., Ambinder, M.S. (2005). Change blindness: Theory and consequences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14,
44-48.
Nickerson, R.S., Adams, M.J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 287-307.
Willingham, D. (2009). Why Don’t Students Like School? A Cognitive Scientist Answers Questions About How the MindWorks andWhat It
Means for the Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

58. References and recommended reading
Higher thought processes
• Bransford, J. D., Brown,A. L., Cocking, R. C. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school.Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
• Butler,A. C., Godbole, N., Marsh, E. J. (2013). Explanation feedback is better than correct answer feedback for promoting
transfer of learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 290-298. doi:10.1037/a0031026
• Carpenter, S. K. (2012).Testing enhances the transfer of learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science (Sage Publications
Inc.), 21(5), 279-283. doi:10.1177/0963721412452728
• Cheng, P.W., Holyoak, K.J. (1985). Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 391-416.
• Dennen,V.P. (2000). Task structuring for on-line problem based learning:A case study. EducationalTechnology Society, 3(3),
329-336.
• Halpern, D.F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains: Dispositions, skills, structure training, and
metacognitive monitoring. American Psychologist, 53(4), 449-455.
• Hennessey, B.A., Amabile,T. M. (2010). Creativity. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 569-598. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.
093008.100416
• Lilienfeld, S.O. (2005). The 10 commandments of helping students distinguish science from pseudoscience in psychology. APS
Observer, 18. Retrieved from http://www.psychologicalscience.org
• Pellegrino, J.W., Hilton, M. L. (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century.
National Academies Press.
• Şendağ, S., Ferhan Odabaşı, H. H. (2009). Effects of an online problem based learning course on content knowledge
acquisition and critical thinking skills. Computers Education, 53(1), 132-141. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.008
• Szabo, Z., Schwartz, J. (2011). Learning methods for teacher education:The use of online discussions to improve critical
thinking. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 20(1), 79-94.
• Van Gelder,T. (2007).The rationale for Rationale™. Law, Probability Risk, 6(1-4), 23-42. doi:10.1093/lpr/mgm032
• Wason, P.C. (1966). Reasoning. In B.M. Foss (Ed.), New horizons in psychology (pp. 135–151). Harmondsworth, United Kingdom:
Penguin.