A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing spatial or geographic data. Key components of a GIS include hardware, software, data, users and methods. GIS allows users to visualize, question, analyze and interpret data to understand relationships, patterns and trends. It has many uses such as performing geographic queries, improving organizational integration, and aiding in decision making for public and private sectors.
This document discusses space geodesy and techniques used in space geodesy projects. It defines space geodesy as using spatial techniques to study the shape of the Earth, its gravitational field, and behavior. It then describes several techniques used in space geodesy, including global navigation satellite systems, satellite laser ranging, very long baseline interferometry, and Doppler orbitography and radiopositioning integrated by satellite. It also provides brief descriptions of the Peruvian Space Agency and the PeruSAT-1 Earth observation satellite program.
This document discusses differential GPS (DGPS), which improves the accuracy of GPS positioning. It works by using a stationary GPS receiver at a known location to calculate error corrections, which are transmitted to a roving receiver to improve its position accuracy. DGPS can reduce GPS errors from sources like atmospheric delays, satellite orbit issues, and multipath effects, providing sub-meter accuracy compared to the 5-10 meter accuracy of standard GPS. It allows real-time position correction or post-processed correction through data from a fixed base station.
Brilliant Lecture delivered to me in Alagappa Engineering college Workshop.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite
based radio navigation system provided by the
United States Department of Defence. It gives
unequaled accuracy and flexibility in positioning
for navigation, surveying and GIS data collection.
This document provides an overview of satellite services. It discusses how satellites work, orbiting the earth to collect and transmit information via different frequency bands. Satellites are important for research, collecting data, global positioning, weather prediction, tracing vehicles, and controlling systems. The history of satellites is reviewed, from early theories to the first satellites launched in 1957.
Global Positioning System . It gives the idea about Global Positioning System. It is one type of satellite made by India. Which means Indian reasearch Navigation 🧭
Supervised and Unsupervised classification on ILWIS. Accuracy Assessment, Error Matrix, Clustering, Band Combination, LayerStacking, Image Composite, Import Image to ILWIS,
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing spatial or geographic data. Key components of a GIS include hardware, software, data, users and methods. GIS allows users to visualize, question, analyze and interpret data to understand relationships, patterns and trends. It has many uses such as performing geographic queries, improving organizational integration, and aiding in decision making for public and private sectors.
This document discusses space geodesy and techniques used in space geodesy projects. It defines space geodesy as using spatial techniques to study the shape of the Earth, its gravitational field, and behavior. It then describes several techniques used in space geodesy, including global navigation satellite systems, satellite laser ranging, very long baseline interferometry, and Doppler orbitography and radiopositioning integrated by satellite. It also provides brief descriptions of the Peruvian Space Agency and the PeruSAT-1 Earth observation satellite program.
This document discusses differential GPS (DGPS), which improves the accuracy of GPS positioning. It works by using a stationary GPS receiver at a known location to calculate error corrections, which are transmitted to a roving receiver to improve its position accuracy. DGPS can reduce GPS errors from sources like atmospheric delays, satellite orbit issues, and multipath effects, providing sub-meter accuracy compared to the 5-10 meter accuracy of standard GPS. It allows real-time position correction or post-processed correction through data from a fixed base station.
Brilliant Lecture delivered to me in Alagappa Engineering college Workshop.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite
based radio navigation system provided by the
United States Department of Defence. It gives
unequaled accuracy and flexibility in positioning
for navigation, surveying and GIS data collection.
This document provides an overview of satellite services. It discusses how satellites work, orbiting the earth to collect and transmit information via different frequency bands. Satellites are important for research, collecting data, global positioning, weather prediction, tracing vehicles, and controlling systems. The history of satellites is reviewed, from early theories to the first satellites launched in 1957.
Global Positioning System . It gives the idea about Global Positioning System. It is one type of satellite made by India. Which means Indian reasearch Navigation 🧭
Supervised and Unsupervised classification on ILWIS. Accuracy Assessment, Error Matrix, Clustering, Band Combination, LayerStacking, Image Composite, Import Image to ILWIS,
GPS has become a standard surveying technique due to its ease of use and reduced hardware costs. There are several GPS surveying techniques that can be used singly or in combination depending on the required accuracy, equipment availability, and project conditions. The most common techniques are static, fast static, kinematic, pseudo-kinematic and real-time kinematic. Each technique has advantages and limitations regarding accuracy, efficiency and data collection requirements. Careful planning is important to select the appropriate technique(s) for a given project.
1) The document discusses various coordinate systems used in photogrammetry including pixel, image, image space, and ground coordinate systems.
2) It also covers topics like interior orientation parameters (principal point, focal length), exterior orientation parameters (position and rotation angles), and two-dimensional coordinate transformations.
3) The relationships between the image, camera, and ground coordinates are defined using these parameters and coordinate systems to allow for mapping between the three domains.
The document outlines topics for a drone training in Nepal, including aerial mission planning, flight parameters, types of missions, mission planning for different terrain, ground control points, flight planning for 2D and 3D outputs, and executing an aerial image capture mission. It discusses concepts like overlap, ground sampling distance, flying height, and how elevation changes affect these. It also provides examples of different mission types and good/bad ground control point distribution.
The document summarizes the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS), which is being developed by ISRO as an autonomous regional satellite navigation system. The IRNSS constellation will consist of 7 satellites - 3 in geostationary orbit and 4 in geosynchronous orbit. The IRNSS will provide positioning accuracy of less than 20 meters over India. It will have a space segment of satellites, a ground segment of control stations, and will provide navigation signals to user receivers.
This document discusses key concepts related to data in GIS systems. It describes the different types of spatial and attribute data as well as vector and raster data formats. It explains how data is organized into layers and how those layers can be queried and overlaid to integrate information from different sources and analyze spatial patterns in the data.
High-Altitude Solar Glider for Internet AccessJeffrey Funk
These slides use concepts from my (Jeff Funk) course entitled analyzing hi-tech opportunities to analyze the increasing economic feasibility of high-altitude solar glider for Internet access. The falling cost of electronics and solar cells are making these glider economically feasible when compared to traditional satellites. They have lower manufacturing and launch costs than do traditional satellites and lower installation costs than do fiber optic cable. This enables them to provide cheaper Internet access in developing countries where Internet access is still limited to cities.
The document discusses various global and regional satellite navigation systems:
- GLONASS is Russia's system with 24 operational satellites. It provides improved precision and reliability when integrated with GPS.
- EGNOS and Galileo are Europe's systems to enhance GPS. EGNOS went live in 2004 as a precursor to Galileo, which launched its first satellites in 2016.
- BeiDou is China's system with 5 geostationary and 30 non-geostationary satellites. It began covering Asia-Pacific in 2012 and will cover the world by 2020.
- IRNSS is India's system consisting of 7 satellites, 3 geostationary and 4 geosynchronous, providing accuracy of 20 meters over India
This document discusses the application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for various purposes:
1) GIS is used for disaster and emergency management like mapping earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, floods, and fires. It allows for relief and rehabilitation efforts to be planned.
2) GIS enables crime mapping and prediction by analyzing patterns of past crimes.
3) Other applications include GIS-based analysis of parking availability, deforestation over time, and generating contour maps and studying topography.
GPS is a satellite-based navigation system consisting of 24 satellites used worldwide to determine precise locations. It was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense and first launched satellites in 1974 for military purposes. GPS works by triangulating the distance and timing signals from multiple satellites to determine a receiver's position. It has many uses including navigation in vehicles, boats and planes as well as applications on smartphones.
This document provides an overview of geographic information systems (GIS) and topology. It discusses how GIS uses topology to represent spatial relationships between geometric objects and define properties like connectivity, area definition, and contiguity. The document outlines sources of errors in GIS data and describes techniques for building and validating topology to identify errors. It provides examples of topological rules and explains how Esri's ArcGIS software is used to create, validate, and fix topology errors in GIS vector data.
This presentation is on utm ( universal transverse mercator )
the main content of this presentation are
OVERVIEW OF ZONES AND SUBZONES
FALSE VALUES OF ORIGIN
IDENTIFICATION OF 100*100KM SQ.
REGION AND SUB-REGIONS IDENTIFICATION
SUMMARY of UTM
Este documento describe el funcionamiento del sistema GPS, incluyendo sus segmentos espacial, de control y de usuarios. Explica cómo los satélites GPS transmiten señales que permiten calcular la posición, velocidad y tiempo de un receptor GPS. También describe las fuentes de error en GPS y cómo se pueden corregir, así como diferentes técnicas de medición como estático, cinemático y RTK.
CRITERIOS Y GENERALIDADES PARA LA PRODUCCION DE MAPAS TOPOGRAFICOS, CALIDAD EN LA PRODUCCIÓN CARTOGRÁFICA Mapa análogo (estandarización de la representación).
Mapa Digital (estandarización de la información)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that provides location and time information to users around the world. It was developed by the US Department of Defense in the 1970s and became fully operational in 1995. GPS uses 24 satellites and ground control stations to transmit timing signals that allow GPS receivers to calculate their precise location. It has both military and civilian applications in areas like navigation, mapping, timing, and tracking.
The document discusses geographic information systems (GIS) databases and data concepts. It describes how GIS databases organize spatial and attribute data into different data types. Spatial data represents location and shape, while attribute data describes characteristics. Metadata provides information about the data. GIS databases can represent data digitally as raster or vector formats. Raster data uses a grid of cells, while vector data uses points, lines, and polygons. The document also discusses relational database management systems and how they are well-suited for GIS applications due to flexibility and efficient data storage.
The document discusses Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) and how it compares to the Instrument Landing System (ILS). GBAS provides precision approaches for all runways at an airport, supports curved and segmented approaches, and can change procedures without infrastructure changes. It also enables Category I through III precision approaches with minima down to no decision height or visibility required. GBAS signals are more stable than ILS in adverse weather. The document outlines the benefits of GBAS for airlines, airports, and air navigation service providers, such as reduced track miles, increased airport capacity and flexibility in procedure design.
The document discusses orthorectification and triangulation. It defines orthorectification as the process of removing geometric errors from aerial photographs to produce orthophotos that have consistent scale and orthographic projection like a map but also have photographic detail. Triangulation is defined as determining the location of a point by measuring angles to it from other known points, rather than direct measurements. It can be used to orient aerial photographs and produce 3D point measurements. The document provides details on producing orthophotos using DEM data and forward or backward projection methods. It also gives an example of using triangulation to align a block of aerial images.
GPS has become a standard surveying technique due to its ease of use and reduced hardware costs. There are several GPS surveying techniques that can be used singly or in combination depending on the required accuracy, equipment availability, and project conditions. The most common techniques are static, fast static, kinematic, pseudo-kinematic and real-time kinematic. Each technique has advantages and limitations regarding accuracy, efficiency and data collection requirements. Careful planning is important to select the appropriate technique(s) for a given project.
1) The document discusses various coordinate systems used in photogrammetry including pixel, image, image space, and ground coordinate systems.
2) It also covers topics like interior orientation parameters (principal point, focal length), exterior orientation parameters (position and rotation angles), and two-dimensional coordinate transformations.
3) The relationships between the image, camera, and ground coordinates are defined using these parameters and coordinate systems to allow for mapping between the three domains.
The document outlines topics for a drone training in Nepal, including aerial mission planning, flight parameters, types of missions, mission planning for different terrain, ground control points, flight planning for 2D and 3D outputs, and executing an aerial image capture mission. It discusses concepts like overlap, ground sampling distance, flying height, and how elevation changes affect these. It also provides examples of different mission types and good/bad ground control point distribution.
The document summarizes the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS), which is being developed by ISRO as an autonomous regional satellite navigation system. The IRNSS constellation will consist of 7 satellites - 3 in geostationary orbit and 4 in geosynchronous orbit. The IRNSS will provide positioning accuracy of less than 20 meters over India. It will have a space segment of satellites, a ground segment of control stations, and will provide navigation signals to user receivers.
This document discusses key concepts related to data in GIS systems. It describes the different types of spatial and attribute data as well as vector and raster data formats. It explains how data is organized into layers and how those layers can be queried and overlaid to integrate information from different sources and analyze spatial patterns in the data.
High-Altitude Solar Glider for Internet AccessJeffrey Funk
These slides use concepts from my (Jeff Funk) course entitled analyzing hi-tech opportunities to analyze the increasing economic feasibility of high-altitude solar glider for Internet access. The falling cost of electronics and solar cells are making these glider economically feasible when compared to traditional satellites. They have lower manufacturing and launch costs than do traditional satellites and lower installation costs than do fiber optic cable. This enables them to provide cheaper Internet access in developing countries where Internet access is still limited to cities.
The document discusses various global and regional satellite navigation systems:
- GLONASS is Russia's system with 24 operational satellites. It provides improved precision and reliability when integrated with GPS.
- EGNOS and Galileo are Europe's systems to enhance GPS. EGNOS went live in 2004 as a precursor to Galileo, which launched its first satellites in 2016.
- BeiDou is China's system with 5 geostationary and 30 non-geostationary satellites. It began covering Asia-Pacific in 2012 and will cover the world by 2020.
- IRNSS is India's system consisting of 7 satellites, 3 geostationary and 4 geosynchronous, providing accuracy of 20 meters over India
This document discusses the application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for various purposes:
1) GIS is used for disaster and emergency management like mapping earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, floods, and fires. It allows for relief and rehabilitation efforts to be planned.
2) GIS enables crime mapping and prediction by analyzing patterns of past crimes.
3) Other applications include GIS-based analysis of parking availability, deforestation over time, and generating contour maps and studying topography.
GPS is a satellite-based navigation system consisting of 24 satellites used worldwide to determine precise locations. It was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense and first launched satellites in 1974 for military purposes. GPS works by triangulating the distance and timing signals from multiple satellites to determine a receiver's position. It has many uses including navigation in vehicles, boats and planes as well as applications on smartphones.
This document provides an overview of geographic information systems (GIS) and topology. It discusses how GIS uses topology to represent spatial relationships between geometric objects and define properties like connectivity, area definition, and contiguity. The document outlines sources of errors in GIS data and describes techniques for building and validating topology to identify errors. It provides examples of topological rules and explains how Esri's ArcGIS software is used to create, validate, and fix topology errors in GIS vector data.
This presentation is on utm ( universal transverse mercator )
the main content of this presentation are
OVERVIEW OF ZONES AND SUBZONES
FALSE VALUES OF ORIGIN
IDENTIFICATION OF 100*100KM SQ.
REGION AND SUB-REGIONS IDENTIFICATION
SUMMARY of UTM
Este documento describe el funcionamiento del sistema GPS, incluyendo sus segmentos espacial, de control y de usuarios. Explica cómo los satélites GPS transmiten señales que permiten calcular la posición, velocidad y tiempo de un receptor GPS. También describe las fuentes de error en GPS y cómo se pueden corregir, así como diferentes técnicas de medición como estático, cinemático y RTK.
CRITERIOS Y GENERALIDADES PARA LA PRODUCCION DE MAPAS TOPOGRAFICOS, CALIDAD EN LA PRODUCCIÓN CARTOGRÁFICA Mapa análogo (estandarización de la representación).
Mapa Digital (estandarización de la información)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that provides location and time information to users around the world. It was developed by the US Department of Defense in the 1970s and became fully operational in 1995. GPS uses 24 satellites and ground control stations to transmit timing signals that allow GPS receivers to calculate their precise location. It has both military and civilian applications in areas like navigation, mapping, timing, and tracking.
The document discusses geographic information systems (GIS) databases and data concepts. It describes how GIS databases organize spatial and attribute data into different data types. Spatial data represents location and shape, while attribute data describes characteristics. Metadata provides information about the data. GIS databases can represent data digitally as raster or vector formats. Raster data uses a grid of cells, while vector data uses points, lines, and polygons. The document also discusses relational database management systems and how they are well-suited for GIS applications due to flexibility and efficient data storage.
The document discusses Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) and how it compares to the Instrument Landing System (ILS). GBAS provides precision approaches for all runways at an airport, supports curved and segmented approaches, and can change procedures without infrastructure changes. It also enables Category I through III precision approaches with minima down to no decision height or visibility required. GBAS signals are more stable than ILS in adverse weather. The document outlines the benefits of GBAS for airlines, airports, and air navigation service providers, such as reduced track miles, increased airport capacity and flexibility in procedure design.
The document discusses orthorectification and triangulation. It defines orthorectification as the process of removing geometric errors from aerial photographs to produce orthophotos that have consistent scale and orthographic projection like a map but also have photographic detail. Triangulation is defined as determining the location of a point by measuring angles to it from other known points, rather than direct measurements. It can be used to orient aerial photographs and produce 3D point measurements. The document provides details on producing orthophotos using DEM data and forward or backward projection methods. It also gives an example of using triangulation to align a block of aerial images.
Rogaining maps are less detailed than orienteering maps but more detailed than base maps. They are typically scaled between 1:30,000 to 1:50,000 with 5m contour intervals. Two common methods are used to create the base map: starting with the base map and adding detail from orienteering maps, or starting with orienteering maps and removing unnecessary information. Fieldwork involves verifying and updating features. Producing rogaining maps requires negotiations with landowners and involves around 1 hour of fieldwork and drawing per square kilometer. Maps are printed on water-resistant plastic for competitions.
Presentation about orienteering sport to beginners.
Prepared by Edgars Bernāns, Rasa Brūna, Artūrs Pauliņš, Aija Skrastiņa, Laura Vīķe.
Owner and copy right holder Latvian Orienteering federation.
The brief overview of the situation in Baltic’s after the declaration of Latvian Republic, formation of the first Latvian military unit- Cesis company and the first firefight of the Latvian Independence war December 24, 1918.
Performance Comparison of PHP 5.6 vs. 7.0 vs HHVMJani Tarvainen
A lot has happened in the world of PHP and web development in terms of performance in the last few years. Facebook's HHVM runtime pushed the envelope with improved performance and efficiency, but now with PHP 7.0 out what is the case now?
Here are some numbers for running a Symfony application, eZ Platform through it's paces on PHP 5.6, PHP 7.0 and HHVM.
The SlideShare 101 is a quick start guide if you want to walk through the main features that the platform offers. This will keep getting updated as new features are launched.
The SlideShare 101 replaces the earlier "SlideShare Quick Tour".
How to Become a Thought Leader in Your NicheLeslie Samuel
Are bloggers thought leaders? Here are some tips on how you can become one. Provide great value, put awesome content out there on a regular basis, and help others.
2. Saturs
- Ievads
- Topogrāfijas un kartogrāfijas vēsture
- Kompasi
- Karšu veidi
- Koordināšu sistēmas
- Kartes sagatavošana
- Kartes lasīšana
- Kompasa izmantošana
- Orientēšanās sacensības/Uzvedība mežā
- Praktiskie uzdevumi
3. Ievads
- Artilērijas uguns vadības punktos UVP
- Autovadītājiem
- Pārvietojoties mežā
- Gaisa atbalsta izsaukšanai
4. Vēsture
- 2. gadsimts pirms mūsu ēras, Hans
Dinastijā, Dievidu Hu-Han provinču kartes
-10 gadsimts - pirmās kartes Ķīnā,
Babilonijā, Ēģiptē 10 gadsimtā
- 12 gadsimts – pirmās kartes Krievijā,
Livonijas Ordenis, daži pilsētu plāni, upes
- 16 gadsimts – Džiovanni Domeniko
Kassini, Itāļu izcelsmes inženieris un
astronoms sāka veidot Francijas teritorijas
karti. Izdots kartes atlass 1789
-1715. gadā pēc Pētera I pavēles Jūras
akadēmijā tika izveidota ģeodēzistu kurss 30
cilvēku sastāvā
- 21 gadsimts - kartes kļuvušas aizvien
precīzākas, to veidošanā izmanto areālo
fotografēšanu, satelītus. Sākusies “karšu
revolūcija”.
6. Kompasi
Pēc iedaļām:
- Civilie 360 grādi
- NATO standarts ar 6400
iedaļām
- Latvijā Zviedrijas
kompasi ar 6300 iedaļām
- Krievijā Bruņotie spēki
izmanto 6000 iedaļām
- citi kompasi 6200 iedaļas
u.c.
7. Kompasi
Pēc darbības principa kompasus iedala:
- magnētiskie kompasi
- žirokompasi - izmanto ātri rotējoša žiroskopa rotora īpašību nemainīt
ass virzienu,
- astronomiskie kompasi - tā peilers visu laiku vērsts pret kādu
astronomisku objektu,
- radiokompasi - fiksē virzienu uz radiobāku
- elektroniskie kompasi - izmanto magnētiskos sensorus un
mikroprocesoru magnētiskā meridiāna noteikšanai.
- lāzerkompasi - pa apli gar spoguļiem skrien gaismas stars, kura
pienākšanas laiks detektorā nosaka kompasa pagrieziena lenķi
pamatojoties uz gaismas ātruma nemainīgumu un relativitātes teoriju
- GPS kompasi - viena no otras atstatus vairākas uztvērējantenas nosaka
savstarpējo stāvokli pēc pozīciju atšķirības
10. Karšu iedalījums pēc satura
- Politiskās kartes
- Fiziskās jeb ģeogrāfiskās
- Topogrāfiskās kartes
- Klimatu kartes
- Ekonomiskās jeb resursu kartes
- Ceļa tīklu kartes
- Tematiskās kartes
11. Karšu iedalījums pēc mēroga
- Maza mēroga (1:1 000 000 - 1:500 000)
- Vidēja mēroga (1:200 000 - 1:100 000)
- Liela mēroga (1:50 000 un vairāk)
12. Karšu iedalījums pēc mērķa
- Kartes mērogā 1:25 000 – 1:100 000 komandieriem un štābu
personālam, lai plānotu operācijas, grupēšanās vietas raķešu, artilēriju
vienībām, kā arī inženiertehnisku būvju projektēšanā.
- Kartes mērogā 1:25 000 izmanto vienības, kur ir nepieciešams iegūt
detalizētāku informāciju par apvidu, piem., desantēšanās vietas uc.
mērķiem
- Kartes mērogā 1:50 000 izmanto vienības, kuras plāno realizēt
uzbrukuma un aizsardzības operācijas, šķērsot ūdens šķēršļus, gaisa
un jūras desantēšanās operācijām, kā arī plānot izvirzīšanos pilsētām,
kā arī vadīt kaujas apdzīvotās vietās
-Kartes mērogā 1:10 000 vai 1:25 000 var tikt iedalītas, lai vadītu
kaujas biezi apdzīvotā rajonā
-Kartes mērogā 1:100 000. Izmanto taktiskās vienības.
13. Karšu iedalījums pēc mērķa
- Kartes mērogā 1:200 000 un 1:500 000 izmanto, lai novērtētu apvidu,
operāciju plānošanā un sagatavošanā. Kā arī izmanto, lai plānotu karaspēku
vienību izvirzīšanās maršrutus.1:500 000 izmanto arī frontālā aviācija, aviācijas
kartes vietā.
- Kartes mērogā 1:200 000 izmanto, lai novērtētu transportu un ceļa tīkla
infrastruktūru.
- Kartes mērogā 1:1 000 000 izmanto štābu darbā, lai novērtētu un iegūtu
informāciju par ģeogrāfisko apvidu plašā teritorijā, kā arī izmanto lielu vienību
operāciju plānošanā.
14. Koordināšu sistēmas
- Ģeogrāfiskās koordinātes (WGS84) – decimālgrādos (DD) un grādos minūtēs
sekundēs (DMS);
- LKS92 (Latvijas koordinātu sistēma)
- UTM (WGS84)
- MGRS – NATO koordināšu sistēma
(Military Grid Reference system)
MGRS – atvasināta no UTM
sistēmas,
26. Atbildes
Noteikt koordinātes Z no Tumšupes, asfaltētā ceļa beigas
Noteikt koordinātes – Z daļa Lielais Kangaru Purvs
Noteikt koordinātes – D no Rūķīši
X – 5570, Y - 2265
X – 6275, Y - 1385
X – 3485, Y - 0970
40. Orientēšanās
Ja nesakrīt azimuts – kļūmes:
- Neprecīzs azimuts
- Neprecīzi noregulēts disks
- Metāla ietekme uz kompasu
- Kompass netiek turēts līmenī
- Bojāts kompass (>10 mm gaisa burbulis)
- Anomālās zonas
41. Dabā un realitātē
Kartes mērogs: 1: 50 000
2 mm uz kartes, kam vajadzētu
būt 100 metri, bet patiesībā….
….tikai 40 metri
48. Sadarbība starp vadītāju un navigatoru
-Autovadītājam jākontrolē
odometrs un jāmēra attālumi
apvidu, un jāinformē navigators
- Navigators novēro apvidu un
salīdzina karti ar apvidu un dod
komandas par maršrutu
Kaujas apstākļos braukšana var arī notikt naktī, pirmsmisiju
apmācībās, parasti notiek treniņi braukšanai tumšā laikā