Microbiology is the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye, including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, and algae. This document discusses microbiology and focuses on bacteria and urinary tract infections. It defines key terms related to pathogenicity and infection. It also outlines the structures and features of bacteria, how they are classified, and their role in both causing disease and benefiting humans. The document discusses the portals of entry for bacteria, including the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, skin, and mucous membranes. Finally, it examines the causes, definitions, and pathogenesis of urinary tract infections.
This document provides information about microorganisms and their classification. It discusses that microorganisms are very small organisms that cannot be seen with the naked eye, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. It also describes the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, and explains how microorganisms are classified based on their shape, staining properties, nutritional requirements, temperature and pH tolerances, and oxygen requirements. The document highlights different types of microbial reproduction including binary fission.
Microbial biotechnology is the use of microorganisms to obtain an economically valuable product or activity at a commercial or large scale.
Like any other man-made technology, microbial biotechnology has both positive and negative effects on the environment.
Biotechnology may carry more risk than other scientific fields: microbes are tiny and difficult to detect, but the dangers are potentially vast.
The use of biotechnical methods—including genetically-engineered microorganisms—is indispensable for the manufacture of many products essential to mankind.
For better or for worse, it is the mankind's task to tackle the problems that are associated with the use of this technology, and which to a high degree are located in the field of unwanted environmental impacts.
The use of biotechnology should be restricted to enhancing the quality of life for plants, animals and human beings only. Anything beyond that is unnatural and highly disastrous to us.
Medical Microbiology Laboratory (pathogenic bacteria classification)Hussein Al-tameemi
This document discusses the classification of pathogenic bacteria according to their morphological, anatomical, staining, environmental, and pathogenic properties. Bacteria can be classified into six main groups based on their cell shape and structure: cocci, bacilli, actinomycetes, spirochetes, mycoplasmas, and rickettsiae. Other classification schemes include whether bacteria are gram-positive or gram-negative, form spores or flagella, are acid-fast or not, and whether they are aerobic or anaerobic. Pathogenic bacteria are further classified based on if they cause disease, their relationship with the host, and their nutritional requirements.
This document discusses the requirements and processes for microbial growth. It begins by defining microbial growth as an increase in cell number through binary fission. The key requirements for microbial growth are then summarized as physical requirements like temperature, pH, and osmotic pressure, and chemical requirements like carbon, nitrogen, and other nutrients. The document also discusses culture media used to grow microbes in the laboratory and the different phases of bacterial growth in a liquid culture.
The document provides an overview of microbiology, focusing on acellular and procaryotic microbes. It discusses the structure and classification of viruses. Key points include that viruses consist of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat, they require a host cell to replicate, and are classified based on attributes like nucleic acid type and host. It also covers bacteriophages, latent virus infections, antiviral agents, and important pathogenic viruses. The document then discusses bacteria, describing their morphology, staining properties, motility, growth characteristics, and use in classification. Important pathogenic bacteria are highlighted. Finally, it notes unique prokaryotes like rickettsias, chlamydias, and mycoplasmas that live intracellular
This document provides information on fundamental principles of microbiology. It discusses that microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms and medical microbiology focuses on pathogens that infect humans. The main types of microorganisms covered are bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, and more. It provides details on the classification, structure, growth and diseases caused by different bacteria and fungi.
Bacteria require carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur as essential elements for growth. Additional minerals like potassium, calcium and iron are also needed in trace amounts. Organic growth factors like vitamins also support bacterial growth. Environmental factors such as temperature, pH, oxygen levels, osmotic pressure and nutrients availability influence the growth of bacteria. Bacterial growth follows distinct phases - lag phase, log or exponential phase, stationary phase and death phase as seen in a bacterial growth curve. Continuous culture techniques help maintain bacteria in the exponential growth phase.
Biofilms are common in the natural world.
Biofilms are a collective of one or more types of microorganisms that can grow on many different surfaces.
The vast majority of the earth’s microorganisms (99 %) live in biofilms.
Microorganisms that form biofilms include bacteria, fungi, algae and some enteric viruses.
The biofilm matrix is an important part of the biofilm containing the microbial cells, exopolysaccharides, and water.
Usually, the microbial cells in a biofilm are embedded in the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) Produced by themselves which is also called Slime.
EPS contains extracellular DNA, proteins, and polysaccharides which form slime.
Microbial cells in the biofilm are different from the planktonic cells that are single cells and can float on a liquid medium.
This document provides information about microorganisms and their classification. It discusses that microorganisms are very small organisms that cannot be seen with the naked eye, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. It also describes the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, and explains how microorganisms are classified based on their shape, staining properties, nutritional requirements, temperature and pH tolerances, and oxygen requirements. The document highlights different types of microbial reproduction including binary fission.
Microbial biotechnology is the use of microorganisms to obtain an economically valuable product or activity at a commercial or large scale.
Like any other man-made technology, microbial biotechnology has both positive and negative effects on the environment.
Biotechnology may carry more risk than other scientific fields: microbes are tiny and difficult to detect, but the dangers are potentially vast.
The use of biotechnical methods—including genetically-engineered microorganisms—is indispensable for the manufacture of many products essential to mankind.
For better or for worse, it is the mankind's task to tackle the problems that are associated with the use of this technology, and which to a high degree are located in the field of unwanted environmental impacts.
The use of biotechnology should be restricted to enhancing the quality of life for plants, animals and human beings only. Anything beyond that is unnatural and highly disastrous to us.
Medical Microbiology Laboratory (pathogenic bacteria classification)Hussein Al-tameemi
This document discusses the classification of pathogenic bacteria according to their morphological, anatomical, staining, environmental, and pathogenic properties. Bacteria can be classified into six main groups based on their cell shape and structure: cocci, bacilli, actinomycetes, spirochetes, mycoplasmas, and rickettsiae. Other classification schemes include whether bacteria are gram-positive or gram-negative, form spores or flagella, are acid-fast or not, and whether they are aerobic or anaerobic. Pathogenic bacteria are further classified based on if they cause disease, their relationship with the host, and their nutritional requirements.
This document discusses the requirements and processes for microbial growth. It begins by defining microbial growth as an increase in cell number through binary fission. The key requirements for microbial growth are then summarized as physical requirements like temperature, pH, and osmotic pressure, and chemical requirements like carbon, nitrogen, and other nutrients. The document also discusses culture media used to grow microbes in the laboratory and the different phases of bacterial growth in a liquid culture.
The document provides an overview of microbiology, focusing on acellular and procaryotic microbes. It discusses the structure and classification of viruses. Key points include that viruses consist of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat, they require a host cell to replicate, and are classified based on attributes like nucleic acid type and host. It also covers bacteriophages, latent virus infections, antiviral agents, and important pathogenic viruses. The document then discusses bacteria, describing their morphology, staining properties, motility, growth characteristics, and use in classification. Important pathogenic bacteria are highlighted. Finally, it notes unique prokaryotes like rickettsias, chlamydias, and mycoplasmas that live intracellular
This document provides information on fundamental principles of microbiology. It discusses that microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms and medical microbiology focuses on pathogens that infect humans. The main types of microorganisms covered are bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, and more. It provides details on the classification, structure, growth and diseases caused by different bacteria and fungi.
Bacteria require carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur as essential elements for growth. Additional minerals like potassium, calcium and iron are also needed in trace amounts. Organic growth factors like vitamins also support bacterial growth. Environmental factors such as temperature, pH, oxygen levels, osmotic pressure and nutrients availability influence the growth of bacteria. Bacterial growth follows distinct phases - lag phase, log or exponential phase, stationary phase and death phase as seen in a bacterial growth curve. Continuous culture techniques help maintain bacteria in the exponential growth phase.
Biofilms are common in the natural world.
Biofilms are a collective of one or more types of microorganisms that can grow on many different surfaces.
The vast majority of the earth’s microorganisms (99 %) live in biofilms.
Microorganisms that form biofilms include bacteria, fungi, algae and some enteric viruses.
The biofilm matrix is an important part of the biofilm containing the microbial cells, exopolysaccharides, and water.
Usually, the microbial cells in a biofilm are embedded in the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) Produced by themselves which is also called Slime.
EPS contains extracellular DNA, proteins, and polysaccharides which form slime.
Microbial cells in the biofilm are different from the planktonic cells that are single cells and can float on a liquid medium.
Bacterial cells have several structures that carry out important functions. These include a cell wall and cell membrane that provide shape and protection. Flagella and pili help with locomotion and adhesion. The cytoplasm contains ribosomes for protein synthesis and DNA in the nucleoid region. Some bacteria form spores as resistant structures during unfavorable conditions. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria have differences in their cell wall and membrane compositions that affect staining and antibiotic susceptibility.
This document provides information on the characteristics of bacteria. It begins by describing bacteria as unicellular microorganisms that can be found in almost every ecosystem on Earth. It then discusses the history of bacteria discovery and outlines the evolution of bacteria. The rest of the document covers bacterial classification, morphology, reproduction, growth, pathogenicity, and virulence factors. It provides details on bacterial cell structures, various classification methods, and the mechanisms bacteria use to cause disease and evade the immune system.
This document provides an overview of microbiology concepts including different types of microbes (bacteria, viruses, fungi), bacterial structure and classification. It discusses bacterial morphology, growth and methods of encouraging or inhibiting growth. Specific bacteria mentioned include Salmonella, E. coli, and Rickettsia. Key points covered are bacterial cell structure, the effects of staining techniques, and characteristics used for bacterial identification such as shape, staining properties, nutritional needs, and pathogenicity.
The document discusses bacteria and provides information on several topics related to bacteria. It defines bacteriology as the branch of biology studying bacteria. It describes bacteria as single-celled microorganisms that are smaller than eukaryotic cells and lack organelles. Bacteria are classified based on their shape, cell wall composition, presence of flagella, nutrition sources, and temperature requirements. The document also discusses the structure of bacterial cells and various methods of bacterial reproduction.
Introductions to scope of food and microbiology.docDrx Sharma
1. Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms including bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and viruses. It examines their structure, physiology, classification, and interactions with humans and other organisms.
2. Bacterial cells have a cell wall and plasma membrane, with some containing flagella, pili, or capsules. Their DNA is located in the nucleoid region. Gram staining distinguishes between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria based on differences in cell wall composition.
3. Microscopy techniques like brightfield, fluorescence, electron, and phase contrast microscopy are used to observe cellular and subcellular structures at different magnifications. Staining enhances contrast for visualization.
This document discusses the morphology, classification, and environmental requirements of bacteria. It describes the typical sizes and shapes of bacteria, including cocci, bacilli, vibrios, spirilla, and spirochetes. It also explains how bacteria can be arranged in pairs, chains, clusters, or other groupings. Additionally, it classifies bacteria based on their temperature and oxygen requirements, such as mesophiles, psychrophiles, thermophiles, hyperthermophiles, aerobes, anaerobes, and microaerophiles. Enzymes like catalase and superoxide dismutase that help bacteria detoxify harmful oxygen byproducts are also mentioned.
The document provides an introduction to medical microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and algae. It discusses the history of microbiology, including early pioneers like Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur, and Robert Koch. It also summarizes the classification of microorganisms into domains of bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Key aspects of bacteria, viruses, and other microbes are introduced.
Bacteriology physiology 1-mbbs-y2-5-oct2011---2Lawrence James
The document discusses bacterial physiology and growth. It covers the following key points:
1) Bacteria require nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus for growth. They also require growth factors and microelements.
2) Environmental factors that affect bacterial growth include temperature, pH, oxygen availability, and water availability.
3) Bacteria are commonly grown in the laboratory using solid or liquid culture media, which must be sterilized to obtain a pure culture and prevent contamination.
4) The bacterial growth curve consists of four phases: lag, log (exponential), stationary, and death phases. The bacteria acclimate, multiply rapidly, stop growing due to lack of nutrients,
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can exist in three basic shapes - rods (called bacilli), spheres (called cocci), or spirals. They reproduce through binary fission and consume nutrients in various ways. Bacteria are classified based on several factors including their shape, staining properties, oxygen requirements, environment, and cell wall composition. Some key groups of bacteria include phototrophic bacteria, gliding bacteria, sheathed bacteria, and spirochetes.
1) Bacteria are very small, single-celled prokaryotes that can be identified by their shape, including bacilli which are rod-shaped, spirilla which are spiral-shaped, and cocci which are sphere-shaped.
2) Bacteria have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and a single circular chromosome but no nucleus. They reproduce through binary fission.
3) Bacteria can be beneficial by aiding decomposition, producing antibiotics, or helping in agriculture through nitrogen fixation, but can also cause disease by secreting toxins or metabolizing their host.
Plant pathogenic bacteria are economically important as both harmful and beneficial agents. While some bacteria cause plant diseases, others are exploited for uses like fermentation, chemical manufacturing, bioremediation, and pest control. Bacterial plant pathogens can be difficult to control without chemicals due to lack of effective alternatives and risk of antibiotic resistance.
this presentation is related to the growth of microorganisms and the different stage by which they grow .different culture medium are also explaned in which the microbes can easily grow in in-vitro conditions.
Unit I General characteristics, classification and identification of yeasts, molds and group of bacteria important in food industry, sources of contaminations: air, water, sewage, post processing contamination. Factors influencing growth of microorganism on foods, Intrinsic factors and Extrinsic factors
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.
This document discusses various methods for controlling microbial growth, including sterilization, disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization. It describes how physical methods like heat, refrigeration, drying, and filtration can be used to destroy or inhibit microbes. The effectiveness of different antimicrobial methods depends on factors like the site being treated, the microorganism's susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the presence of organic materials. Precautions range from biosafety level 1 with minimal procedures to level 4 with the most stringent isolation and protective equipment.
Introduction to microbiology: Microbiology in daily life, Characteristics, and morphology of bacteria, fungi, virus, protozoa and algae. Control of micro-organisms- Growth curve; Influence of environmental factors on growth- PH, Water activity, O2 availability, Temperature, Pressure and Radiation.
Moxifloxacin Hcl....A market analysis of the API in IndiaSunil Kumar
The presentation is on the market report of Moxifloxacin Hcl API in India.
The presentation includes :---
1. Introduction
2. Moxiflxoacin Hcl
3. Moxifloxacin Hcl market overview
4.Total Market Size by Value in INR
5. Total Market Size by Volume
6. Average Market Price INR/Kg
7. Domestic Market Size by Value in INR
8. Domestic Market Size by Volume
9. Domestic Market Average Price in INR/Kg
10. Export Market Size by Value in INR
11. Export Market Size by Volume
12. Export Market Price in INR/Kg
13. Import Market by Value in INR
14. Import Market Size by Volume
15. Import Average Price in INR/Kg
16. Market Share in 2014
17. Export Market Share by Value in 2014
18. Export Market Share by Volume in 2014
19. Export Market Average Price INR/Kg in 2014
20. Domestic Vs Export Market Ratio by Value
21. Domestic Vs Export Market Ratio by Volume
22. Projected Market by Value
23. Projected Market by Volume
24. Projected Average Market Price in INR/Kg
25. Projected Domestic Market by Value in INR
26. Projected Domestic Market by Volume
27. Projected Domestic Price/Kg in INR
28. Projected Export Market by Value in INR
29. Projected Export Market by Volume
30. Projected Average Export Market Price in INR/Kg
31. Projected Import by Value
32. Projected Import by Volume
33. Projected Average Import in INR/Kg
34. Other Important Conditional Projection
Moxifloxacin is a 4th generation fluoroquinolone antibiotic. It is highly effective against respiratory pathogens like Streptococcus pneumoniae and atypical bacteria. It achieves high concentrations in the lungs and has benefits like once daily dosing. Studies show moxifloxacin provides faster clinical recovery than other antibiotics for respiratory infections and has excellent eradication rates of causative pathogens. It has a low risk of resistance and side effects are typically mild.
Bacterial cells have several structures that carry out important functions. These include a cell wall and cell membrane that provide shape and protection. Flagella and pili help with locomotion and adhesion. The cytoplasm contains ribosomes for protein synthesis and DNA in the nucleoid region. Some bacteria form spores as resistant structures during unfavorable conditions. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria have differences in their cell wall and membrane compositions that affect staining and antibiotic susceptibility.
This document provides information on the characteristics of bacteria. It begins by describing bacteria as unicellular microorganisms that can be found in almost every ecosystem on Earth. It then discusses the history of bacteria discovery and outlines the evolution of bacteria. The rest of the document covers bacterial classification, morphology, reproduction, growth, pathogenicity, and virulence factors. It provides details on bacterial cell structures, various classification methods, and the mechanisms bacteria use to cause disease and evade the immune system.
This document provides an overview of microbiology concepts including different types of microbes (bacteria, viruses, fungi), bacterial structure and classification. It discusses bacterial morphology, growth and methods of encouraging or inhibiting growth. Specific bacteria mentioned include Salmonella, E. coli, and Rickettsia. Key points covered are bacterial cell structure, the effects of staining techniques, and characteristics used for bacterial identification such as shape, staining properties, nutritional needs, and pathogenicity.
The document discusses bacteria and provides information on several topics related to bacteria. It defines bacteriology as the branch of biology studying bacteria. It describes bacteria as single-celled microorganisms that are smaller than eukaryotic cells and lack organelles. Bacteria are classified based on their shape, cell wall composition, presence of flagella, nutrition sources, and temperature requirements. The document also discusses the structure of bacterial cells and various methods of bacterial reproduction.
Introductions to scope of food and microbiology.docDrx Sharma
1. Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms including bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and viruses. It examines their structure, physiology, classification, and interactions with humans and other organisms.
2. Bacterial cells have a cell wall and plasma membrane, with some containing flagella, pili, or capsules. Their DNA is located in the nucleoid region. Gram staining distinguishes between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria based on differences in cell wall composition.
3. Microscopy techniques like brightfield, fluorescence, electron, and phase contrast microscopy are used to observe cellular and subcellular structures at different magnifications. Staining enhances contrast for visualization.
This document discusses the morphology, classification, and environmental requirements of bacteria. It describes the typical sizes and shapes of bacteria, including cocci, bacilli, vibrios, spirilla, and spirochetes. It also explains how bacteria can be arranged in pairs, chains, clusters, or other groupings. Additionally, it classifies bacteria based on their temperature and oxygen requirements, such as mesophiles, psychrophiles, thermophiles, hyperthermophiles, aerobes, anaerobes, and microaerophiles. Enzymes like catalase and superoxide dismutase that help bacteria detoxify harmful oxygen byproducts are also mentioned.
The document provides an introduction to medical microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and algae. It discusses the history of microbiology, including early pioneers like Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur, and Robert Koch. It also summarizes the classification of microorganisms into domains of bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Key aspects of bacteria, viruses, and other microbes are introduced.
Bacteriology physiology 1-mbbs-y2-5-oct2011---2Lawrence James
The document discusses bacterial physiology and growth. It covers the following key points:
1) Bacteria require nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus for growth. They also require growth factors and microelements.
2) Environmental factors that affect bacterial growth include temperature, pH, oxygen availability, and water availability.
3) Bacteria are commonly grown in the laboratory using solid or liquid culture media, which must be sterilized to obtain a pure culture and prevent contamination.
4) The bacterial growth curve consists of four phases: lag, log (exponential), stationary, and death phases. The bacteria acclimate, multiply rapidly, stop growing due to lack of nutrients,
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can exist in three basic shapes - rods (called bacilli), spheres (called cocci), or spirals. They reproduce through binary fission and consume nutrients in various ways. Bacteria are classified based on several factors including their shape, staining properties, oxygen requirements, environment, and cell wall composition. Some key groups of bacteria include phototrophic bacteria, gliding bacteria, sheathed bacteria, and spirochetes.
1) Bacteria are very small, single-celled prokaryotes that can be identified by their shape, including bacilli which are rod-shaped, spirilla which are spiral-shaped, and cocci which are sphere-shaped.
2) Bacteria have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and a single circular chromosome but no nucleus. They reproduce through binary fission.
3) Bacteria can be beneficial by aiding decomposition, producing antibiotics, or helping in agriculture through nitrogen fixation, but can also cause disease by secreting toxins or metabolizing their host.
Plant pathogenic bacteria are economically important as both harmful and beneficial agents. While some bacteria cause plant diseases, others are exploited for uses like fermentation, chemical manufacturing, bioremediation, and pest control. Bacterial plant pathogens can be difficult to control without chemicals due to lack of effective alternatives and risk of antibiotic resistance.
this presentation is related to the growth of microorganisms and the different stage by which they grow .different culture medium are also explaned in which the microbes can easily grow in in-vitro conditions.
Unit I General characteristics, classification and identification of yeasts, molds and group of bacteria important in food industry, sources of contaminations: air, water, sewage, post processing contamination. Factors influencing growth of microorganism on foods, Intrinsic factors and Extrinsic factors
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.
This document discusses various methods for controlling microbial growth, including sterilization, disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization. It describes how physical methods like heat, refrigeration, drying, and filtration can be used to destroy or inhibit microbes. The effectiveness of different antimicrobial methods depends on factors like the site being treated, the microorganism's susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the presence of organic materials. Precautions range from biosafety level 1 with minimal procedures to level 4 with the most stringent isolation and protective equipment.
Introduction to microbiology: Microbiology in daily life, Characteristics, and morphology of bacteria, fungi, virus, protozoa and algae. Control of micro-organisms- Growth curve; Influence of environmental factors on growth- PH, Water activity, O2 availability, Temperature, Pressure and Radiation.
Moxifloxacin Hcl....A market analysis of the API in IndiaSunil Kumar
The presentation is on the market report of Moxifloxacin Hcl API in India.
The presentation includes :---
1. Introduction
2. Moxiflxoacin Hcl
3. Moxifloxacin Hcl market overview
4.Total Market Size by Value in INR
5. Total Market Size by Volume
6. Average Market Price INR/Kg
7. Domestic Market Size by Value in INR
8. Domestic Market Size by Volume
9. Domestic Market Average Price in INR/Kg
10. Export Market Size by Value in INR
11. Export Market Size by Volume
12. Export Market Price in INR/Kg
13. Import Market by Value in INR
14. Import Market Size by Volume
15. Import Average Price in INR/Kg
16. Market Share in 2014
17. Export Market Share by Value in 2014
18. Export Market Share by Volume in 2014
19. Export Market Average Price INR/Kg in 2014
20. Domestic Vs Export Market Ratio by Value
21. Domestic Vs Export Market Ratio by Volume
22. Projected Market by Value
23. Projected Market by Volume
24. Projected Average Market Price in INR/Kg
25. Projected Domestic Market by Value in INR
26. Projected Domestic Market by Volume
27. Projected Domestic Price/Kg in INR
28. Projected Export Market by Value in INR
29. Projected Export Market by Volume
30. Projected Average Export Market Price in INR/Kg
31. Projected Import by Value
32. Projected Import by Volume
33. Projected Average Import in INR/Kg
34. Other Important Conditional Projection
Moxifloxacin is a 4th generation fluoroquinolone antibiotic. It is highly effective against respiratory pathogens like Streptococcus pneumoniae and atypical bacteria. It achieves high concentrations in the lungs and has benefits like once daily dosing. Studies show moxifloxacin provides faster clinical recovery than other antibiotics for respiratory infections and has excellent eradication rates of causative pathogens. It has a low risk of resistance and side effects are typically mild.
Avelox is an antibiotic prescribed to treat sinus and lung infections caused by bacteria like sinusitis and pneumonia. It works by killing bacteria but not viruses. Common side effects include skin rash, tingling, hives, and shortness of breath, while rare side effects include an allergic reaction. When taking Avelox, patients should drink plenty of water, avoid driving or operating machinery if dizzy, limit sun exposure, and wear protective clothing and sunscreen if outside to prevent dehydration and sun sensitivity.
This document summarizes information about the antibiotic Avalox (moxifloxacin) presented over multiple slides:
1) Avalox has a novel molecular structure that allows it to act on two bacterial targets, minimizing resistance. It demonstrates broad-spectrum in vitro activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative respiratory pathogens.
2) Clinical studies showed Avalox to be effective in treating complicated skin and skin structure infections when administered sequentially via IV then oral routes, with clinical cure rates comparable to piperacillin-tazobactam/amoxicillin-clavulanate.
3) For diabetic foot infections specifically, clinical cure rates for Avalox were 68% compared to 61% for the
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
This document provides an overview of basic tuberculosis (TB) terminology and the pathogenesis and transmission of TB. It defines TB as a communicable disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and describes tests used to determine TB infection such as the TB skin test and blood tests. It explains the difference between active TB disease, where bacteria are multiplying and attacking the body, and latent TB infection, where bacteria are inactive. The document also outlines how TB is transmitted via airborne droplets and describes the process of how it spreads in the lungs and body before forming granulomas that wall off the bacteria.
TB, or tuberculosis, is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is spread through airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Most people who breathe in the bacteria develop a latent TB infection with no symptoms, but they cannot spread the disease. Active TB disease develops when the bacteria multiply causing symptoms like coughing, chest pain, and weight loss. Diagnosis involves tests like the Mantoux skin test, chest x-ray, and sputum culture. Treatment requires a combination of antibiotics taken for 6-9 months to cure the infection. Drug resistance is a major problem, as some strains are resistant to multiple first-line antibiotics.
Training on tuberculosis for counselors 2012Madhu Oswal
This document provides information about a training for tuberculosis (TB) helpline counselors conducted by MCF. It begins with details about the venue and dates of the training. It then discusses why a TB helpline is needed, providing statistics on the global and local burden of TB. The document covers topics like what TB is, its transmission, diagnosis, drug-resistant TB, clinical features, and risk factors. It aims to equip counselors with knowledge to address callers' queries about TB.
Ranolazine is a new antianginal drug that represents a new class of drugs. It partially inhibits fatty acid oxidation and shifts energy production to a more efficient carbohydrate oxidation during ischemia. It also inhibits late inward sodium currents, reducing calcium overload and improving diastolic function and myocardial perfusion. Ranolazine has been shown to reduce angina frequency and improve exercise ability with no effects on blood pressure or heart rate. Its benefits and mechanisms of action were discussed along with its indications, studies, and potential role in other conditions such as diabetes and cardioplegia.
New pharmocological agents in the management of angina nicorandilJerin Kuruvilla
Nicorandil is a potassium channel activator used to treat angina. It works by dilating both epicardial coronary arteries through its nitrate-like properties as well as peripheral coronary arterioles through potassium channel activation. This dual mechanism of action decreases myocardial oxygen demand and increases supply. Nicorandil has been shown to be effective in treating stable and unstable angina, improving outcomes in acute myocardial infarction when administered before reperfusion, and preventing the no-reflow phenomenon during percutaneous coronary intervention. It provides cardioprotection through ischemic preconditioning with a good safety profile.
Warm Greetings from Chempro Pharma! Here is a brief presentation regarding our newest project/service offering - pharmaceutical product development. We have a highly specialized team that has worked with the likes of Novartis, Merck and many more market leaders within the pharmaceutical industry. Feel free to review this attachment and contact us at pharma@chemprogroup.net if you have any questions, thanks!
This document provides objectives and information about tuberculosis (TB) for students. It defines TB and identifies risk factors. It explains how TB is transmitted and defines latent TB and drug-resistant TB. It describes the history of TB, scientific discoveries about it, and breakthroughs in treatment. It outlines the pathophysiology, symptoms, diagnostic tools, treatment regimens, and patient monitoring for TB.
Inspection of the eyes reveals hollowness indicating volume deficiency of fat within the orbit related to the patient's severe malnutrition.
B. EYES
1. Conjunctiva Inspection Pink, moist, clear Conjunctiva pale Abnormal, pale conjunctiva may be due
conjunctiva pink in color to anemia
2. Pupils Inspection Equal, round, Equal, round, Normal
reactive to light reactive to light
3. Eye movements Observation Full range of Full range of Normal
motion in all motion in all
directions of gaze directions of gaze
C. EARS
1. External
“SWOT ANALYSIS OF NEW PHARMACEUTICAL COMPANY”Dharmik Bhatt
Main Objective
To find the Strength, weakness, Opportunities and threat of the company and all new pharmaceutical companies.
To find out the perception and expectation of doctors and retailers towards the new pharmaceutical company.
Sub Objectives
To find out the big player of the market (Tough Competitor).
To find the way for new pharmaceutical company from tough competition.
To create strategy for company with the help of research detail.
To analyze Vadodara market for company.
To create good communication bridge between new company to doctors and retailers, that full feel all require expectation of both.
Pharmaceutical industry pestel analysisRahul Pagaria
The pharmaceutical industry in India is a rapidly growing sector that produces low-cost, high-quality drugs. It has a total market size of over $20 billion and has grown at around 12.5% annually over the past five years. Key players in the industry include Ranbaxy, Dr. Reddy's, Cipla, and Lupin. A PESTEL analysis identified political issues like price controls, social factors like an aging population and increased patient expectations, economic challenges from the global crisis, opportunities from new technologies, and an increasing focus on the environmental impact of the industry.
The document discusses different types of angina pectoris and treatments for angina. It defines typical angina, variant angina, and unstable angina. It then explains drugs that can be used to treat angina by decreasing oxygen demand and/or increasing oxygen supply, including nitrates, calcium channel blockers, and beta blockers. Nitrates are described as being effective for treating acute angina by dilating blood vessels and reducing workload. Calcium channel blockers and beta blockers are also outlined as treatments that reduce oxygen demand. Combination therapies are noted to provide additive effects.
This document discusses the classification and typing of bacteria. It begins by explaining that bacteria can be grouped using phenotypic typing schemes utilized by clinicians, which examine bacterial morphology, staining properties, oxygen requirements, and biochemical tests. It also notes the importance of identifying the environmental reservoir and transmission means for clinicians. The document then provides details on various classification schemes for bacteria, including based on shape, staining, oxygen requirements, temperature tolerance, and structure. It focuses on the Gram stain technique and discusses characteristics of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
This document discusses microbiology and provides information on:
- The definition and branches of microbiology including bacteriology, virology, mycology, and parasitology.
- The classification of microorganisms as prokaryotes or eukaryotes.
- Characteristics of bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.
- Methods used to classify bacteria including shape, gram stain, oxygen requirements, pH tolerance, pathogenicity and drug susceptibility.
This document provides an overview of basic microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms that cannot be seen with the naked eye, including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi. It classifies microorganisms and describes bacterial cell structure and types, modes of bacterial reproduction, and viral replication. It also discusses factors affecting microbial growth and types of infections.
This document provides information on bacteria morphology and identification. It discusses that bacteria are microscopic, unicellular organisms that can perform essential life functions. It describes different bacterial shapes including cocci, bacilli, vibrios, spirilla, and spirochaetes. Gram staining is used to classify bacteria as either gram positive or gram negative. Common gram positive cocci like staphylococci and streptococci are examined in detail. Requirements for bacterial growth such as nutrients, oxygen, temperature, and pH are also reviewed.
MICRO FOR nurses introduction to microbiologyajadoon84
This document discusses key concepts in microbiology including:
- The classification of bacteria as prokaryotes and the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
- Characteristics of medically important microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.
- The structure of bacterial cells including the cell wall, cytoplasm, and differences between gram positive and gram negative bacteria.
- Important historical figures in microbiology like Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Antony van Leeuwenhoek and their contributions.
This document discusses diseases and bacteria. It begins by differentiating between congenital and acquired diseases, with congenital being inherited and acquired being contracted over a lifetime, such as from lifestyle or infectious causes. It then discusses pathogens, how they cause disease, and examples like bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. The document also classifies bacteria based on shape, discusses their structures, and how they can be gram positive or negative. It explains how bacteria cause disease by entering a host and reproducing while damaging tissues. Treatment options like antibiotics are also summarized.
Micro-organisms can be divided into 4 main groups: bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and viruses. Bacteria are the smallest and most primitive of these microbes, lacking nuclei and existing as single cells or colonies. Viruses are even smaller and simpler, able to replicate only inside host cells. More complex microbes include protozoa, which have true nuclei, and fungi, which resemble primitive plants. An overview of bacterial structure, classification, and important pathogenic species is provided, highlighting bacteria's role in causing infectious disease. The document also discusses how bacteria can become pathogenic and how the human body defends against infection.
Micro-organisms can be divided into 4 main groups: bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and viruses. Bacteria are the smallest and most primitive of these microbes, lacking nuclei and existing as single cells or colonies. Viruses are even smaller and simpler, able to replicate only inside host cells. More complex microbes include protozoa, which have true nuclei, and fungi, which resemble primitive plants. An overview of bacterial structure, classification, and important pathogenic species is provided, highlighting bacteria's role in causing infectious disease. The document also discusses how bacteria can become pathogenic and how the human body defends against infection.
Introduction to Microbiology , Microbes are every where , understand them so you can live with them . I hope you like this presentation my colleagues . it is useful to students and Infection control practitioners . ! Enjoy
This document provides an introduction to medical bacteriology. It defines key terms and describes the structure, growth, and types of bacteria. It discusses that bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that use binary fission to rapidly reproduce. Bacteria have a cell membrane, DNA, cytoplasm, and often a cell wall, flagella, pili, and capsule. Some bacteria are pathogens that can cause human disease, while others are harmless or even beneficial to humans. Disinfection and sterilization are used to eliminate bacteria from surfaces and equipment.
Normal flora, including bacteria, fungi and viruses, colonize various sites of the human body through mutualistic and commensal relationships. Microbiota commonly reside on the skin, in the mouth, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, eyes, and genital region through tissue specificity involving bacterial adherence and biofilm formation preferential for certain tissues. While generally beneficial, microbiota can become pathogenic under conditions like immunosuppression or change in location. References included Medical Microbiology and Jawetz Melnick & Adelbergs Medical Microbiology textbooks.
This document provides an overview of microbiology and bacterial cell structure. It discusses that microbiology is the study of microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. It then describes the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, focusing on their cell structures. The majority of the document discusses bacterial cell anatomy in detail, including the cell wall, cytoplasm, flagella, pili, and other structures. It also covers bacterial staining, morphology, growth phases, and environmental requirements for bacterial growth.
Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes that reproduce through binary fission and lack organelles. They can be classified according to morphology, metabolism, staining properties, and other characteristics. Important pathogenic bacteria that can infect the eye include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium tetani, Propionibacterium acnes, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Virulence factors such as toxins and enzymes allow bacteria to infect tissues and evade the immune system.
The document outlines the key topics covered in a microbiology course, including bacteriology, virology, parasitology, and mycology. It then provides details on bacteria, including their shapes (cocci, bacilli, spiral), structures (cell wall, capsule, flagella), and ability to form spores. Bacteria are classified based on their shape and include spherical, rod-shaped, and helical forms. Their structures help with functions like protection, movement, and survival in harsh environments.
The document discusses coccidian parasites, with a focus on Cryptosporidium parvum. It describes the parasite's morphology, life cycle, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical features. Cryptosporidium parvum causes cryptosporidiosis, an intestinal illness that typically results in self-limiting diarrhea but can cause serious, chronic diarrhea in immunocompromised patients like those with HIV/AIDS. Laboratory diagnosis involves examining stool samples microscopically to identify the parasite's oocysts.
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of diff...AyushiSharma843565
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of different types of bacteria. Many can be found in and on your body and are beneficial to you. These bacteria make up your microbiome, which keeps your body healthy
The document discusses bacteria at a high level. It defines bacteria as single-celled microorganisms that are smaller than eukaryotic cells and can be found in nearly every habitat on Earth. Bacteria are classified based on their shape, cell structure, presence of flagella, method of nutrition, and response to temperature. The document also discusses bacterial infection, how bacteria can cause diseases like carbuncles and gonorrhea in humans, and methods of bacterial reproduction including binary fission and transformation.
Infectious diseases are caused by various microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Microorganisms can be identified through direct microscopic examination, culture-based techniques, biochemical tests, and serological and molecular identification methods. Correct specimen collection, handling, and laboratory testing are essential for accurate microbial identification.
Ciprofloxacin is a broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibiotic that is highly effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. It was the first quinolone developed that could be administered orally to treat serious infections. A new extended release formulation, CiproMega, was developed to provide the benefits of once daily dosing for improved patient compliance compared to the previous twice daily dosing. Clinical trials demonstrated CiproMega was as effective as, and in some cases more effective than, the previous twice daily dosing regimen with fewer side effects.
This document summarizes information about components in a topical product for muscle and joint care. It discusses glucosamine sulfate, chondroitin, methylsulfonylmethane (MSM), eucalyptus oil, ginkgo biloba, gotu kola, clove oil, camphor, menthol, and glycerin. It describes the active constituents in each ingredient and their anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, and moisturizing properties which contribute to muscle and joint health.
1. The document discusses various aspects of selling, including definitions of salesmanship, obstacles to selling, qualifications for success in sales, and techniques for handling objections.
2. It provides advice for sales representatives on how to plan calls, conduct presentations, and overcome objections by anticipating, evaluating, and timing responses to objections.
3. The document emphasizes developing strong preparation, communication, and objection handling skills to enable sales representatives to qualify prospects and move sales forward successfully.
This document discusses different behavioral profiles - Driver, Expressive, Amiable, and Analytical - and provides tactics for dealing with each one. A Driver is assertive and focused on actions/results. An Expressive is emotive and decides based on feelings. An Amiable is agreeable and avoids conflict. An Analytical is logical and slow to decide, relying on facts/data. It also provides clues for recognizing each style based on speech, body language, and work environment preferences. The goal is to understand different social styles in order to communicate effectively.
4. 2012
Microbiology
It is the science of the microorganisms which
include unicellular organisms:
It consists of 5 groups of organisms:
Unicellular algae.
Bacteria
Viruses
Protozoa
fungi
4
5. 2012
Cell is the basic unit of life..
• Based on the organization of their cellular structures all living cells
can be divided into two groups:
• Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic
• e.g. Animals, plants fungi protozoa’s and algae all possess
Eukaryotic cell types, Only Bacteria have Prokaryotic cell types.
5
7. 2012
Structural Features of BacteriaFeatures Functions
All Bacteria Possess:
Nuclear Material
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Cytoplasmic Membrane
Cell Wall
The controlling center of the cell.
A viscous fluid containing the cellular contents.
Structures which manufacture proteins under direction of nuclear material
A selectively-permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm which
controls the flow of material into and out of the cell.
A freely permeable but rigid structure which gives the cell its shape.
Some Bacteria also Possess:
Capsule
Flagella
Fimbriae
Spores
A protective coating around the cell wall.
Long spiral thread proper the cell for movement.
Fine hairs which help the cell adhere to the surfaces.
A version of the bacterial cell which is highly resistant to adverse
conditions.
7
8. 2012
The Bacterial Cell Wall
The bacterial Cell Wall provides Structural Integrity to the cell.
The Bacterial Cell wall differs from that of all other organisms by the presences of
Peptidoglycan, which is located immediately outside of the Cytoplasmic Membrane.
Peptidoglycan is responsible for the Rigidity of the Bacterial Cell wall and for the
Determination of Cell Shape.
It is freely permeable to Water and Small Solutes. It ‘ld considered relatively porous
and not considered to be a permeability barrier.
N.B. Intracellular parasites such as Mycoplasma (contain peptidoglycan,
not all cell walls have the same overall structures)
8
9. 2012
Classification of Bacteria
Biological classification of bacteria is done
on basis of common characteristics such
as:
A: Morphology.
B: Gram Staining.
C: Oxygen Requirements.
9
10. 2012
Classification according to the Shape
1. Rod-shaped (Bacillus)
2. Round (Coccus, e.g. Streptococcus)
3. Spiral (Spirillum)
4. An additional group, (Vibrios), appears as
incomplete spirals.
10
12. 2012
Classification according to the Gram Stain
• Gram Positive Bacteria: Single layered Cell Wall
containing a thick peptidoglycan layer and
Teichoic acids.
• Gram Negative Bacteria: more complex Multi-
layered cell wall. Has two layer of phospholipid
and a thin Peptidoglycan layer located in the
Periplasm (the region between the outer and
inner Cytoplasmic membranes)
12
13. 2012
Classification according to the Oxygen Need
Strict (Obligatory) Anaerobes:
Grow only were oxygen is absent.
Clostridium, strict anaerobes grow only were oxygen is absent.
Microaerephilic:
Survive with a little oxygen.
Require oxygen but grow best just below the surface of the agar where oxygen is reduced.
Facultative Anaerobes:
Can survive with or without oxygen.
Escherichia, Enterobacter, and Proteus grow best in oxygen but can grow in the absence of
oxygen by stealing oxygen from foods such as nitrates, sugars.
Strict (Obligatory) Aerobes:
Can’t survive without oxygen (areas rich in blood)
13
14. 2012
Bacterial Nutrition
1.Carbon: Basic for all organic compounds.
Required in large quantities.
2. Water: Required for bacterial growth.
Some species survive without moisture in the form of spores.
3. Nitrogen: For protein synthesis.
4. Minerals: Phosphorous, K, Na, Sulpher, Fe, Mg & Ca.
5. Vitamins: For some bacteria. e.g. Gut bacteria
produce vitamins.
14
15. 2012
Phases of Bacterial Growth
15
Picture of
the phases
Individ
ual
bacteria
are
Maturi
ng &
not yet
able to
Divide!
Individual
bacteria at their
maximum rate,
therefore number
increases during
this phase
Growth rate
slows due to
depletion of
nutrients,
this phase is
reached as
bacteria
begin to
exhaust the
resources
that are
available to
them.
Bacteria run out
of nutrients and
die
16. 2012
Factors Affecting Bacterial Growth
1. Temperature:
Minimum Temperature: (from 0 to 10 C)
Most bacteria are unable to grow at these temperature.
Optimum Temperature: (from 10 to 50 C)
Optimum temperature for growth of many pathogens
Maximum Temperature: (up to 80 C)
Most pathogens are killed at this temperature
“Temperature required to kill spores ( from 90 to 120 C)”
2. Oxygen:
3. PH Range: Growth of majority is limited to PH range of 2 (one above to one below their
optimum PH)
• Acidophile (PH less than 5.4)
Neutrophile (PH 5.8- 8.5)
Alkaliphile (PH 7.0 -11.5)
4. Moisture. 5. Light 6. Nutrients
16
17. 2012
Organisms included in the study of
Microbiology
• 1. Bacteria
• 2. Protozoans
• 3. Algae
• 4. Parasites
• 5. Yeasts and Molds
– Fungi
• 6. Viruses
• Bacteriology
• Protozoology
• Phycology
• Parasitology
• Mycology
• Virology
Microorganisms - Microbes - Germs
18. 2012
Bacteria - what comes to mind?
• Diseases
• Infections
• Epidemics
• Food Spoilage
• Only 1% of all known bacteria cause human
diseases
• About 4% of all known bacteria cause plant diseases
• 95% of known bacteria are non-pathogens
19. 2012
Microbes Benefit Humans
• 1.Bacteria are primary decomposers - recycle
nutrients back into the environment (sewage
treatment plants)
• 2. Microbes produce various food products
– cheese, pickles, sauerkraut, green olives
– yogurt, soy sauce, vinegar, bread
– Beer, Wine, Alcohol
21. 2012
Bacteria synthesize chemicals that our body
needs, but cannot synthesize
• Example: E. coli
– B vitamins - for metabolism
– Vitamin K - blood clotting
• Escherichia coli
– Dr. Escherich
– Colon (intestine)
22. Some Important Pathogens:
COCCI
Gram positive Cocci Gram negative Cocci
Staphylococcus S. Saprophyticus
Staph. epidermidis
Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus spp S. Viridans
Strep. Pyogene
Strep. Pneumonia
Enterococcus spp E. faecalis, E. faecium
Viridans-type streps
Neissena spp.
Branhamella spp.(Chest infection)
Moraxella catarrhalis
22
26. 2012
PATHOGENICITY vs. VIRULENCE
PATHOGENICITY: the quality of producing disease or
the ability to produce pathologic changes or disease
VIRULENCE: a measure of pathogenicity; a measurement
of the degree of disease-producing ability of a microorganism
as indicated by the severity of the disease produced.
27. 2012
PATHOGENICITY vs. VIRULENCE
(Definitons)
DOSAGE: the number of pathogenic microorganisms
entering the host
LD50 = the number of microorganisms required to cause
lethality (death) in 50% of the test host
TRUE PATHOGEN: any microorganism capable of
causing disease; an infecting agent
OPPORTUNISTIC PATHOGEN: a usually harmless
microorganism that becomes pathogenic under favorable
conditions causing an opportunistic infection
28. 2012
INFECTION vs. DISEASE
INFECTION: the colonization and/or invasion and
multiplication of pathogenic microrganisms in the host
with or without the manifestation of disease
DISEASE: an abnormal condition of body function(s)
or structure that is considered to be harmful to the affected
individual (host); any deviation from or interruption of the
normal structure or function of any part, organ, or system
of the body
29. 2012
Bacterial Pathogenicity
Infection Results from:
Invasion of the body by pathogenic bacteria.
Contamination of tissues by normally harmless bacteria which
outside their normal habitat become virulent.
Predisposing Factors to Infection:
Immunosupressed Patients.
Extremes of Age.
Malnutrition.
Poor Personal Hygiene.
Diabetes.
Hospital Admission.
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31. 2012
1. Mucus Membranes
• A. Respiratory Tract
– microbes inhaled into
mouth or nose in
droplets of moisture or
dust particles
– Easiest and most
frequently traveled
portal of entry
32. 2012
Common Diseases contracted via
the Respiratory Tract
• Common cold
• Flu
• Tuberculosis
• Whooping cough
• Pneumonia
• Measles
• Strep Throat
• Diphtheria
33. 2012
Mucus Membranes
• B. Gastrointestinal Tract
– microbes gain entrance thru
contaminated food & water or
fingers & hands
– most microbes that enter the
G.I. Tract are destroyed by
HCL & enzymes of stomach or
bile & enzymes of small
intestine
35. 2012
Fecal - Oral Diseases
• These pathogens enter the G.I. Tract at one
end and exit at the other end.
• Spread by contaminated hands & fingers or
contaminated food & water
• Poor personal hygiene.
36. 2012
Mucus Membranes of the Genitourinary System - STD’s
Gonorrhea
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Syphilis
Treponema pallidum
Chlamydia
Chlamydia trachomatis
HIV
Herpes Simplex II
38. 2012
Introduction
* UTIs are common, especially among women
* UTIs in men are less common and primarily
occur after 50 years of age
* UTIs infection usually occur by ascending route (urethra to bladder)
* UTIs infection is less common by haematogenous spread (kidney)
* UTIs occur in two general settings: community-acquired and hospital
(nosocomially) acquired
39. 2012
Definitions
Urethritis : Infection of anterior urethral tract
dysuria, urgency
and frequency of micturition
- Dysuria (burning pain on passing urine)
- Urgency (the urgent need to pas urine)
- Frequency of micturition
* Cystitis : Infection of urinary bladder
dysuria, frequency, pyuria and
haematuria
* Bacteriuria: Presence of bacteria in urine
A count of 10 organisms/ml or more in urine
* Pyuria : Presence of pus in urine
(more than 10 cells/HPF)
• Pyelonephritis: Infection of kidney (lion pain, pyuria,
rigors
,fever
40. 2012
Etiology Of Urinary Tract Infections
* Causative organisms:
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella, proteus and pseudomonas
1- Bacterial S. aureus, S. epidermidis and S. saprophyticus
Enterococci (Strept. faecalis)
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma
2- Viral Rubella, Mumps and HIV
3- Fungal Candida, Histoplasma capsulatum
4- Protozoal T. vaginalis, S. haematobium
41. 2012
Notes on pathogens
* Escherichia coli : the commonest urinary pathogen
causing 60-90 % of urinary infections
* Pseudomonas, Proteus, Klebsiella and S. aureus
are associated with hospital acquired infections because their resistance to
antibiotics favor their selection in hospital patients
(catheterization, gynaecological surgery)
* Proteus infections are associated with renal stones
Proteus produce a potent urease which act on ammonia, rendering the urine
alkaline
* S. saprohyticus infections are found in
sexually active young women
42. 2012
Notes on pathogens
* Candida urinary infection is usually found in diabetic patients and
immunosuppression
* Infection of the anterior urinary tract (urethritis) is mainly caused
by N. gonorrhoae, staphylococci, streptococci and chlamydiae
* M. tuberculosis is carried in blood to kidney from another site of
infection
(e.g. respiratory T.B.)
43. 2012
Mechanical And Functional Factors Predispose to UTI
* Disruption of urine flow or complete emptying of bladder
- Pregnancy - Renal stones -Tumor
- Prostate hypertrophy - Strictures = narowing of ureter
* Loss of neurologic control of bladder and sphincters
Paraplegia, and multiple sclerosis
Paraplegia
multiple sclerosis
* Vesicouretral reflux
(reflux of urine from bladder up the ureter)
Anatomic abnormalities in children
* Catheterization facilitate bacterial access to bladder
- During insertion
- In situ, bacteria access to bladder
44. 2012
Virulence Factors of Causative Organisms
- Fimbriae enable adherence to urethral epithelium
- Capsular polysaccharide inhibite phagocytosis
- Haemolysin production by E. coli
-Membrane damaging toxin
- Production of urease enzyme (proteus spp.)
45. 2012
Healthy Urinary Tract
Bacterial colonization in urinary tract is
prevented by:
- pH of urine (acidic)
- Chemical content of urine
- Flushing mechanisms
46. 2012
Clinical Features
Acute lower UTIs (Urithritis and cystitis):
Rapid onset of:
- Dysuria (burning pain on passing urine)
- Urgency (the urgent need to pas urine)
- Frequency of micturition
Upper UTIs (Pyelonephritis):
- Fever
- Chills
- Dysuria
- Urgency
- Frequency of micturition
47. 2012
Chronic prostatitis
The most common pathogens in prostatitis
Etiologically recognized pathogens
Escherichia coli
Staphylococci
Klebsiella spp.
Chlamydia trachomatis
Proteus mirabilis
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Other pathogens of the Enterobacteriaceae family Mycoplasma
Enterococcus faecalis
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
48. 2012
Mucus Membranes
• D. Conjunctiva –
– mucus membranes that cover
the eyeball and lines the eyelid
• Trachoma
– Chlamydia trachomatis
49. 2012
2nd Portal of Entry: Skin
• Skin - the largest organ of the body. When
unbroken is an effective barrier for most
microorganisms.
• Some microbes can gain entrance thru
openings in the skin: hair follicles and sweat
glands
50. 2012
3rd Portal of Entry: Parentarel
• Microorganisms are deposited into the tissues
below the skin or mucus membranes
• Punctures
• injections
• bites
• scratches
• surgery
• splitting of skin due to swelling or dryness
51. 2012
Preferred Portal of Entry
• Just because a pathogen enters your body it
does not mean it’s going to cause disease.
• pathogens - preferred portal of entry
52. 2012
Preferred Portal of Entry
• Streptococcus pneumoniae
– if inhaled can cause pneumonia
– if enters the G.I. Tract, no disease
• Salmonella typhi
– if enters the G.I. Tract can cause Typhoid Fever
– if on skin, no disease
53. 2012
How do Bacterial Pathogens penetrate Host
Defenses?
1. Adherence -
almost all pathogens have
a means to attach to host
tissue
Binding Sites
adhesins
ligands
54. 2012
Adhesins and ligands are usually
on Fimbriae
• Neisseria gonorrhoeae
• ETEC (Entertoxigenic E.
coli)
• Bordetello pertussis
57. 2012
A. Leukocidins
• Attack certain types of WBC’s
• 1. Kills WBC’s which prevents phagocytosis
• 2. Releases & ruptures lysosomes
– lysosomes - contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes which
then cause more tissue damage
62. 2012
C. Coagulase - cause blood to coagulate
• Blood clots protect bacteria from phagocytosis
from WBC’s and other host defenses
• Staphylococci - are often coagulase positive
– boils
– abscesses
63. 2012
D. Kinases - enzymes that dissolve blood
clots
• 1. Streptokinase - Streptococci
• 2. Staphylokinase - Staphylococci
• Helps to spread bacteria - Bacteremia
• Streptokinase - used to dissolve blood clots in the Heart
(Heart Attacks due to obstructed coronary blood vessels)
64. 2012
E. Hyaluronidase
• Breaks down Hyaluronic acid (found in connective
tissues)
• “Spreading Factor”
• mixed with a drug to help spread the drug
thru a body tissue
65. 2012
F. Collagenase
• Breaks down collagen (found in many connective
tissues)
• Clostridium perfringens - Gas Gangrene
– uses this to spread thru muscle tissue
66. 2012
G. Necrotizing Factor
- causes death (necrosis) to tissue cells
“Flesh Eating Bacteria”
Necrotizing fasciitis
67. 2012
4. Toxins
• Poisonous substances produced by
microorganisms
• toxins - primary factor - pathogenicity
• 220 known bacterial toxins
– 40% cause disease by damaging the Eukaryotic cell
membrane
• Toxemia
– Toxins in the bloodstream
68. 2012
2 Types of Toxins
• 1. Exotoxins
– secreted outside the bacterial cell
• 2. Endotoxins
– part of the outer cell wall of Gram (-) bacteria
69. 2012
ENDOTOXINS
1.IInntteeggrraall ppaarrtt ooff cceellll wwaallll
2.Endotoxin is LLPPSS;
lipid A is toxic
3.Heat stable
4.Antigenic; questionable
immunogenicity
5.Toxoids not be produced
6.Many effects on host
7.Produced oonnllyy bbyy ggrraamm--
nneeggaattiivvee organisms
EXOTOXINS
1.RReelleeaasseedd ffrroomm tthhee cceellll
before or after lysis
2.PPrrootteeiinn
3.Heat labile
4.Antigenic and iimmmmuunnooggeenniicc
5.TTooxxooiiddss can be produced
6.Specific in effect on host
7.Produced by gram-positive
& gram-negative organisms
70. 2012
Summary of How Bacterial Pathogens
Penetrate Host Defenses
• 1. Adherence
• 2. Capsule
• 3. Enzymes
– A. leukocidins
– B. Hemolysins
– C. Coagulase
– D. Kinases
– E. Hyaluronidase
– F. Collagenase
– G. Necrotizing Factor
4. Toxins
72. 2012
Definitions of Antibiotics
• OLD: An antibiotic is a chemical substance
produced by various species of microorganisms that
is capable in small concentrations of inhibiting the
growth of other microorganisms
• NEW: An antibiotic is a product produced by a
microorganism or a similar substance produced
wholly or partially by chemical synthesis, which in low
concentrations, inhibits the growth of other
microorganisms
76. 2012
History
Selman Waksman
– Soil Streptomyces make antibiotics
– comes up with definition of antibiotic
ORIGIN: Penicillin development
DRUG: Streptomycin (1943)
NOBEL: 1952
(cont’d)
78. 2012
Factors that effect Antimicrobial
Activity
• 1. Temp
• 2. Time
• 3. Concentration of Antimicrobial agent
• 4. Type of Microbe
• 5. Activity of Microbe
• 6. Presence of organic matter
80. 2012
The Ideal Drug*
1. Selective toxicity: against target pathogen but not against host
– LD50 (high) vs. MIC and/or MBC (low)
1. Bactericidal vs. bacteriostatic
2. Favorable pharmacokinetics: reach target site in body with
effective concentration
3. Spectrum of activity: broad vs. narrow
4. Lack of “side effects”
– Therapeutic index: effective to toxic dose ratio
1. Little resistance development
* There is no perfect drug.
82. 2012
Antibacterial spectrum—Range of activity
of an antimicrobial against bacteria. A
broad-spectrum antibacterial drug can
inhibit a wide variety of gram-positive and
gram-negative bacteria, whereas a
narrow-spectrum drug is active only
against a limited variety of bacteria.
Bacteriostatic activity—-The level of
antimicro-bial activity that inhibits the
growth of an organism. This is determined
in vitro by testing a standardized
concentration of organisms against a
series of antimicrobial dilutions. The
lowest concentration that inhibits the
growth of the organism is referred to as
the minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC).
Bactericidal activity—The level of
antimicrobial activity that kills the test
organism. This is determined in vitro by
exposing a standardized concentration of
organisms to a series of antimicrobial
dilutions. The lowest concentration that
kills 99.9% of the population is referred to
as the minimum bactericidal
concentration (MBC).
Antibiotic combinations—Combinations of
antibiotics that may be used (1) to broaden
the antibacterial spectrum for empiric
therapy or the treatment of polymicrobial
infections, (2) to prevent the emergence of
resistant organisms during therapy, and (3)
to achieve a synergistic killing effect.
Antibiotic synergism—Combinations of
two antibiotics that have enhanced
bactericidal activity when tested together
compared with the activity of each
antibiotic.
Antibiotic antagonism—Combination of
antibiotics in which the activity of one
antibiotic interferes With the activity of the
other (e.g., the sum of the activity is less
than the activity of the individual drugs).
Beta-lactamase—An enzyme that
hydrolyzes the beta-lactam ring in the
beta-lactam class of antibiotics, thus
inactivating the antibiotic. The enzymes
specific for penicillins and cephalosporins
aret he penicillinases and
cephalosporinases, respectively.
83. 2012
Modes of Antimicrobial Action
83
Inhibition of Cell Wall
Synthesis:
Penicillins,
Cephalosporins,
Bacitracin, Vancomycin
Inhibition of Protein
Synthesis:
Chloramphenicol,
Neomycin, Tetracycline,
Streptomycin
Injury to Plasma
membrane:
Polymyxin B
Inhibition of synthesis of
essential metabolites:
Sulfanilamide,
Trimethoprime
Inhibition of
Nucleic acid
replication &
transcription:
Quinolones,
Rifampin
84. 2012
Mechanism of action of antibiotics
Inhibition of cell wall
synthesis Inhibit the construction of the bacterial cell wall by interfering
with the transpeptidase enzyme responsible for the formation of
peptide cross linkage preventing the cross linkage, finally the cell
bursts as a result of the growing internal pressure.
Penicillin
Cephalosporins
Bacitracin zinc
Inhibition of protein
synthesis
1.Inside a bacterial cell, proteins are manufactured at certain
structures known as Ribosomes
2. Erythromycin, lincomycin, and Chloramphenicol bind to the so
called 50s component of the ribosome and prevent the
movement of mRNA
3. Aminoglycosides and tetracycline bind to the so called 30s
component of the ribosome and interfere with protein synthesis
in other ways.
4. Protein synthesis comes to a halt and the bacterial cell
becomes unable to function and may die or susceptible to
destruction
Tetracycline
Neomycin
Macrolides
Chloramphenicol
84
85. 2012
Mechanism of action of antibiotic
Inhibition of DNA replication
Mode of action depends upon blocking
bacterial DNA replication by binding itself
to an enzyme called DNA gyrase, causing
double-stranded breaks in the bacterial
chromosome.
Quinolones
Inhibition of folic acid metabolism Folic acid (one of the B vits) is responsible
for the biosynthesis of nucleic acids (DNA
building blocks)Sulphonamide
Injury to Plasma membrane
Polymyxin B
85
86. 2012
Penicillin
Mode of action: Interfere with cell wall synthesis
Broad spectrum penicillin:
i. Ampicillin
ii. Amoxyclillin
iii. Amoxyclillin+ Clavulanic acid
iv. Amoxycillin + Cloxacillin
v. Amoxycillin + Flucoxacillin
vi. Ampicillin + Sulbatam
Narrow spectrum Penicillin:
i. Penicillin G
ii. Cloxacillin
iii. Fucoxacillin
86
87. 2012
Cephalosporins
Mode of action: Interfere with cell wall synthesis.
1st
generation
i. Cephazone
ii. Cephalexine
iii. Cephardine
iv. cephadroxil
2nd
generation
i. Cefuroxime
ii. Cephamandole
3rd
generation
i. Cefotaxime
ii. Ceftazidime
iii. Ceftraiaxone
iv. Cefoperazone
4th
generation
i. Cefepime
87
88. 2012
Quinolones
Mode of Action: Blocking Bacterial DNA replication by inhibiting
DNA gyrase enzyme
i. Ofloxacin
ii. Ciprofloxacin
iii. Levofloxacin
iv. Naledixic acid
v. Pefloexacin
vi. Nor floxacin
vii.Moxifloxacin
88
90. 2012
Aminoglycosides
• Aminoglycosides that are derived from bacteria of the Streptomyces
genus
• Mode of Action: Inhibition of protein synthesis
1. Amikacin
2. Arbekacin
3. Gentamicin
4. Kanamycin
5. Neomycin
6. Netilmicin
7. Paromomycin
8. Rhodostreptomycin
9. Streptomycin Tobramycin
10. Apramycin
90
92. 2012
Origin of Drug Resistance
• Genetic
– spontaneous mutation of old genes
• Vertical evolution
– Acquisition of new genes
• Horizontal evolution
• Chromosomal Resistance
• Extrachromosomal Resistance
(cont’d)
93. 2012
Implications
of Resistance
• Household agents
– they inhibit bacterial growth
– purpose is to prevent transmission of disease-
causing microbes to noninfected persons.
– can select for resistant strains
• NO evidence that they are useful in a healthy
household
94. 2012
Implications of Resistance
• Triclosan studies
– effect diluted by water
– one gene mutation for resistance
– contact time exceeds normal hand wash time (5
seconds)
• Allergies
– link between too much hygiene and increased allergy
frequency
What is the role of antibiotic in nature:
Germ Warfare- the production of compounds that discourage microbial competitors. Problem with this explanation is that antibiotic production by microbes growing in nature is so low that levels of antibiotics are undetectable.
May be signaling molecules
NO EVIDENCE FOR EITHER ROLE
Paul Ehrlich- derived from finding that dyes used in histochemistry became bound to cell-specific receptors. He asked” Why can’t such dyes be toxic for specific organisms?”
1910 looking for something to target Treponema pallidum. Looked at arsenic compounds and on the 606th one tested. Salvarsan- combo of salvation and arsenic. First documented case of a chemicla that could selectively kill pathogens w/o permanently harming the human host.
In 1934, found that protosil cured a fatal streptococcal infection in mice - did not work in test tube.
prontosil sulfanilamide
didn’t work in tt, but working in animal. Turns out that prontosil was split by a enzymes in animals blood into the first of the “Sulfa drugs”
The cure rates for some diseases were rising and these findings gave impetus to the efforts to purify penicillin.
Alexander Fleming
penicillin developed in US in 1941 - spores from mold on coats of scientists
Selman Waksman
streptomycin - bacteria produced antibiotics too. Many began screening soils looking for antibiotics.
Selective toxicity - greater harm to microbes than host, done by interfering with essential biological processes common in bacteria but not human cells.
LD50 vs. MIC - Therapeutic index (the lowest dose toxic to the patient divided by the dose typically used for therapy). High TI are less toxic to the patient.
Bactericidal vs. bacteriostatic
Static rely on normal host defences to kill or eliminate the patogen after its growth has been inhibited. (UTIs) CIDAL given when host defenses cannot be relied on to remove or destroy pathogen.
Favorable pharmacokinetics - drug interxns, how drug is distributed, metabolized and excreted in body (unstabel in acid, can it cross the Blood-brain barrier, etc)
Spectrum of activity
broad spectrum - wide
Narrow spectrum - narrow range (pathogen must be ID’d)
Lack of “side effects” allergic, toxic side effects, suppress normal flora
Little resistance development
Spontaneous evolution occurs at low rate (~1 in 10 million cells)
Grow up 10 to the 9 or tenth cells, there is a good chance one cell is resistant to Streptomycin due to mutation, plate the load, isolate the resistant.
Streptomycin: binds to 30S subunit of ribsome
causes distortion and misreading
Single target, easy to get spontaneuos mutation. Multiple targets are harder b/c several different mutations are required to prevent binding of the drug.
Plasmids
Transposons
Integrons
Thus if organism has two different plasmids, an antibiotic resistant gene can move from one to another. In this way, a gene could move from a narrow range host plasmid to a wide range host plasmid. Wide range host plasmids, in contrast to narrow range host plasmids, can replicate even if they are transferred to unrelated bacteria.
High therapeutic index
some block NAM elongation-Vancomycin
precursor transport blockage - Bacitracin
β-lactam drugs
beta lactam ring has structural similarity between normal substrate (for enzymes known as penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) By mimicking the substrate the beta lactam drugs are bound by PBPs thus competitively inhibiting their enzymatic activity. This causes a disruption in CW synthesis. B/c CW are only synthesized in actively multiplying cells, these are only effective against growing bacteria.
Some make beta lactamse, an enzyme that breaks down the ring structure and thus inactivates penicillins
Tend to be bactericidal and broad spectrum
Are actively transported onto the bacterial cell (this is one reason for selective toxicity - don’t work against animal cells) by a mechanism that involves ox phos. Therefore, they have little or no activity against strict anaerobes or those that metabolize only fermentatively (like streptococci)
Gentamicin
Tobramycin
Amikacin
Streptomycin - hardly used anymore b/c high-level and stable resistant mutants are frequently selected for during therapy
Kanamycin
Spectinomycin
Neomycin - used to reduce the facultative flora of the large intestine befroe certain types of intestinal surgury. It is poorly absorbed therefore is active in the bowel.
use along with other drugs for TB
Tend to be very toxic.
Have a cationic detergent effect, bind to cell membranes of Gm neg and alter permeability. Toxicity due to the effect that it has on cell membranes as well.
USed topically and have the advantage that resistance to them rarely develops
nephrotoxic and neurotoxic
broad spectrum, cidal?
Very few that do this.
Most useful are folate inhibitors sulfonamide and trimethoprim. Inhibit various steps in the pathway for folic acid that ultimately blocks the synthesis of a coenzyme required for nucleotide synthesis. Animal cells lack the enzymes in the folic acid synthesis portion of the pathway which is why folic acid is a dietary requirement.
Difference in the activity of the various sulfonamides reflect their ability to compete with PABA for the enzyme. High urine levels are achieved and is excreted in urine in active form therefore good for UTIs.