Black British music originated from Jamaican ska music that was brought over by immigrants in the late 1950s. Ska fused American blues, do-wop and African styles and was popular among Jamaican youth subcultures. This music spread to British cities with large West Indian populations in the 1960s. By the 1970s, reggae emerged and addressed the experiences of institutional racism faced by second-generation black British youth. Fusions of punk and reggae in the mid-1970s helped transform the genre and appeal to working-class white British audiences facing similar issues. Labels like Two Tone in the late 1970s promoted indigenous multi-ethnic bands like The Specials and The Beat, exploring anti-racism

1. Black British Music
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2. n Black British music has its origins in the Jamaican music scene of the late
1950s and early 1960s through ska – took the form of bluebeat, dance
hall, rock steady and lover’s rock. Jamaica had previously been a
British colony that gained independence but maintained a close
relationship to Britain and the US. Ska drew on a mix of US blues, do-wop
and (later) traditional African musical styles
n Cheaply produced on an industrial basis by local entrepreneurs and
companies such as Coxsone Dodd, Studio One and Trojan Records -
For local consumption through Jamaican music dealers and radio
stations. Early examples of ska - bluebeat, and lover’s rock - include:
n The Valentines - Blam-Blam Fever
n Prince Buster - Whine ‘n’ Grine
n Delroy Wilson - Dancing Mood
n By the mid 1960s ska style became increasingly more complex –
emphasis away from horn/brass sections toward heavy electric bass and
bit part harmonies

3. New musical style found appeal amongst young adult males in Jamaican
street gangs commonly referred to as Rude Boys (Hebdidge 1978). Youth
subculture involved in petty crime or hustlin’ within an informal urbanised
‘ghetto’ economy which ‘exists on the blind-side of the law’ (Hall 352 1978)
These concerns which include drinking, gambling, womanising and street
crime in midst of poverty and unemployment played - out in the themes of
ska genre from mid-late 1960s:
The Pioneers - Long Shot Kick de Bucket
The Maytals - Sweet and Dandy
Slickers - Johnny Too Bad
The Maytals - 54-46 That’s My Number
The Melodians - Sweet Sensation
Harry J and the All-Stars - Liquidater
Sub-cultural and musical style of ska had an equally important impact within
the multi-ethnic British urban cities such as Birmingham, London, Coventry
and Leeds - drew in immigration from former colonies in West Indies,
notably Jamaica, Antigua and Trinidad, into manufacturing centres during
the 1950s and 1960s

5. n Significantly, rude-boy style had began to be taken up by white working
class British youth sub-cultures through the ‘skinheads’ from 1967
onward (Clarke 1976. Hebdidge 1977. Bennett 2001)
n Ska music arguably provided this sub-cultural group with a way of
recovering a ‘traditional’ working class identity and culture that was
perceived to be in decline or ‘under attack from outsiders’ – eg. Asian
immigrants (‘Paki Bashin’) (see Clarke 99-102 1976)
n Joe ‘The Boss’ - Skinhead Revolt
n Claudette and Corporation – Skinhead ‘a Bash ‘em
n Byron Lee and the Dragonaires – Elizabethan Reggae
n Rico - Brixton Cat
n Also taken up by Afro-Caribbean youth in British inner-cities amongst a
second generation of Black-British teenagers and young adults - the
experiences of institutional racism, police harassment (SUS Laws),
unemployment and the rise of ‘Powellism’ and the National Front had
the impact of ‘radicalising’ a second generation of Black-British youth

6. n A ‘militant consciousness’ of racial oppression and injustice emerged within
Black-British youth subcultures during mid 1970s against what was
perceived as ‘a white racist society’ termed ‘Babylon’ (Brake 116-143 1992)
n The early 1970s marked the emergence of Rastafarianism (Rastafari) and
‘Rasta’ style linked to developments in reggae, roots and dub. This music
was now being produced specifically for British, European and American
markets (often in the format of the album rather than the single) through
companies such as Island Records to target a much wider audience
n Lee ‘Scratch’ Perry - Arkology
n Linton Kweshi - Forces of Victory/Inglan is a Bitch
n Culture – Two Sevens Clash
n Junior Murvin – Police and Thieves
n Use of soulful melodic vocal, ‘bluesy guitar styles’ and ‘funk rhythms’
injected into the genre through Bob Marley. A series of ‘commercial
motivations’ contributed to the development of a distinct black musical
identity (see Negus 73-78 1991)

7. Rock Against Racism, Anti-Nazi League and Red Wedge
benefit concerts and albums of late 1970s consolidated alliance
between punk and reggae outfits (Steel Pulse, TRB, UB 40,
Culture, Billy Bragg) They ‘galvanised a white following for
reggae - empathised with the fundamental politics of its sound
and lyrical content’ . It fed into ‘shared local experiences and
cross racial affiliations’ - strong left wing university following
during 1980s (Bennett ibid 83)

8. n http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/arts_entertainment/music/rock+against+racism
+30+years+on/2082447
n Jones (1988) argues that this process of cultural hybridity was reinforced
in multi-ethnic cities such as Birmingham, Coventry Bradford, Leeds and
London. This image of multiculturalism contested ‘racist’ identities
assigned to ethnic groups by politicians, news media and the National
Front.
n Black and white communities steadily became more harmonised around
the ‘shared’ space of local neighbourhoods, streets, ‘dancehalls’ and pubs
– racial distinctions, particularly between young people, become far less
important to identities
n Within this cultural context an indigenous Black-British musical style and
independent production company - Two Tone - founded by Jerry
Dammers in Coventry in 1978 that drew equally upon the traditions of
punk, ska and reggae
n Other similar independent labels specialising in ‘ska-revival’ such as Go-
Feet launched in Birmingham and Stiff Records set up in East London.
All three companies enter distribution deal with Chrysalis Records

10. n Two Tone emerged against the background of ‘Thatcherism’ and
prominence of New Right political policy in Britain (1979-1997)
n One of the central strategies of New Right in Britain was to represent
the presence of Black British youth as a ‘social problem’ and unemployed
white youth as the ‘dangerous classes’
n Labelled within political and news discourse – popular tabloids, primetime
TV news - as a potential ‘enemy within’ (see Brake 1992)
n Pose a cultural threat to British national identity or ‘Britishness’
n Criminal activities represented as a crisis in law and particularly in tabloid
press (see Hiro 1991: Gilroy 1987). A series of media moral panics in
relation to ethnicity in Britain become common place – street crime,
welfare, violence welfare dependency etc
n Series of inner city riots between 1980-85 highlighted the plight of
disenfranchised inner city black-white youth during period of massive
unemployment and social deprivation (see Brake 1992)

13. n Main Two-Tone act The Specials - a multi ethnic outfit - produced a series
of punk-influenced ska cover versions and originals on self-titled first album
(1979). Songs also drew links with earlier ‘skinhead’ musical tradition
n Too Much Too Young
n Rudie, A Message to You
n Gangsters
n Doesn't Make it Alright, significantly, interrogated the ethics of racial
assaults and violence against ethnic minorities in British cities, indicting The
National Front as a threat to race relations in UK
n More importantly, second album More Specials (1981) further highlighted
political stance of group in alliance with Black-White British working class
youth with releases such as Do Nothing, Why? Racist Friend and Ghost
Town
n Ghost Town highly controversial release – tackles unemployment and
social breakdown in West Midlands home town of Coventry. Music video
showing urban decay (and hinting at social unrest and looting) given
minimal airplay by broadcasting authorities – coincided with inner-city riots
in Liverpool and Bristol protesting against social deprivation of black and
white youth
n http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=RZ2oXzrnti4

14. n Two Tone also included other bands such as The Selector and The Body
Snatchers (all-girl) Concentrated mainly on covers of ska ‘classics’ Too
Experienced, Do Rock Steady
n Reformation of band into Special AKA (1983) led to national campaign for
the release of imprisioned political activist Nelson Mandela in apartheid
controlled South Africa after commercial success of anti-racist anthem Free
Nelson Mandela
n National concert followed (1985) at Wembley Stadium raising social
awareness of racism in UK and South Africa - arguably helped bring about
the release of Mandela and eventual liberation of South Africa

15. n Birmingham based multi-ethnic outfit The Beat - who emerged in 1979 -
relied much more heavily on Jamaican reggae traditions of toasting
(rapping), over-dub production and intricate use of brass section.
n Hands Off She’s Mine
n Rough Rider
n Drowning
n Nevertheless the band retained militant stance against New Right politics
that celebrated multi-culturalism and promoted a breakdown of ethnic
boundaries
n Stand Down Margaret
n Doors of Your Heart
n Band played final concert at Gateshead Stadium in 1983 to raise
awareness of racism and apartheid along with The Police and U2 –
forerunner of ‘benefit gigs’ that have taken place in recent years
n The Beat still continue to tour raising awareness of multi-culturalism
giving financial support to Searchlight, Trade Unions and The Anti-Nazi
league

16. n In summary, Black-British music was initially bound up with the experiences
of second generation Afro-Caribbean immigrants in Britain
n Initially emerged through indigenous Jamaican ska during the 1960s. By
the 1970s this genre had began to be specifically targeted at Black and
White British audiences within multi-ethnic urban centres
n Fusion of punk and reggae during mid 1970s helped to transform genre
(militant political stance) which became popular with white working class
British audiences – through shared experience of unemployment, poverty
and deprivation – supported new ‘youth based’ multicultural identities
n Success of Two Tone and bands such as The Specials and The Beat
marked the emergence of indigenous multi ethnic outfits and explored
important concerns for black and white working class youth in post –
colonial Britain during the 1980s – provided an influence to later politically
committed and militant ‘second generation’ ethnic bands – Asian Dub
Foundation
n Initiated the launch of benefit concerts and raising of social awareness
amongst ‘white mainstream’ audiences. Street (1992) in Wagg (1995)
argues that such ‘events’ mark the final incorporation of resistant and
militant forms of music into the mainstream of the culture industry and
beginnings of corporate sponsored rock (eg.Band-Aid)

17. Bibliography
Chambers (1985) Urban Rhythms: Pop Music and Popular Culture (MacMillan)
Chambers (1986) Popular Culture: The Metropolitan Experience (MacMillan)
Clarke (1976) ‘Skinheads and the Magical Recovery of Community’ in (eds)
Hall (1976) Resistance Through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post War Britain (Routledge)
Brake (1992) Comparative Youth Culture (Routledge)
Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis (Methuen)
Bennett (2001) Cultures of Popular Music (OU Press)
Jones (1988) Black Culture, White Youth: The Reggae Tradition From JA to UK (MacMillan)
Price (1981) ‘Black Identity and the Role of Reggae’ in (eds)
Porter (1981) Society and the Social Sciences: an Introduction (Routledge)
Hebdidge (1978) Subculture: The Meaning of Style (Methuen)
Negus (1991) Producing Pop: Culture and Conflict in the Music Industry (Hodder Arnold)
Street (1992) ‘Shock Waves: The Authoritative Response to Popular Music’ in (eds)
Wagg (1995) Come on Down: Popular Media Culture in Post War Britain (Routledge)
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