1. The document discusses various measures used in epidemiology to measure mortality and morbidity. It describes rates such as crude death rate, specific death rates, and ratios such as case fatality rate and proportional mortality rate.
2. Methods for measuring morbidity are also outlined, including metrics for incidence, prevalence, and duration of illness.
3. The four levels of health prevention are defined - primordial, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Examples are provided for each level's strategies and interventions.
Economic analysis of malaria burden in kenyaNanyingi Mark
This framework uses a cost of illness approach to evaluate the burden of malaria. The evaluation is based on private direct costs (PDC) and private indirect cost (PIC) of malaria attack per episode.
Endemic canine rabies is a reemerging neglected zoonosis often underestimated in Kenya but remains a public health and economic burden to the rural poor. Understanding the transmission dynamics and distribution of dog bites over specified time period can assist in assessment of risk factors, design of interventions to exposure and the estimation of rabies burden
Epidemiologic investigations, Advance public health pharmay, 2016/2017 sessionMusa Abbas
This document defines key concepts in epidemiology and describes the steps involved in investigating a disease outbreak. It discusses the following:
- Descriptive, analytical, and experimental epidemiology and their purposes.
- The chain of infection and transmission, including reservoirs, modes of transmission, and susceptible hosts.
- The steps in an epidemiological investigation including establishing the outbreak, confirming diagnoses, defining cases, relating cases to time/place/person, formulating hypotheses, and implementing control measures.
- Epidemiological terms such as endemic, pandemic, incubation period, herd immunity, and the importance of outbreak investigations.
This report summarizes Kenya's annual malaria situation from July 2013 to June 2014. Some key points:
- The proportion of outpatient cases due to malaria declined from 21% in 2012-2013 to 17.7% in 2013-2014. Confirmation of malaria cases using rapid diagnostic tests or microscopy increased from 34.6% to 41.7% over the same period.
- Over 7.5 million doses of antimalarial medicines and 8.5 million rapid diagnostic tests were procured and distributed in 2013-2014. Additionally, 3 million long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets were procured in preparation for the next mass distribution campaign.
- Despite progress, fully implementing malaria control strategies may
Dynamics and Control of Infectious Diseases (2007) - Alexander Glaser Wouter de Heij
See also:
- https://food4innovations.blog/2020/03/26/montecarlo-simulaties-tonen-aan-wat-de-onzekerheid-is-en-dat-we-minimaal-1600-maar-misschien-wel-2000-2500-ic-plaatsen-nodig-hebben/
Selon une étude, publiée en décembre 2020, la population de la ville de Manaus (Brésil) aurait atteint l’immunité collective. Laurent AVENTIN, PhD – Consultant en santé publique, fait le point pour Le Courrier des Stratèges…
The document discusses a directed student learning session on vaccines and immunity. The objectives are to understand immunity, vaccination, and the Malaysian immunization schedule. Students are advised to visit several websites to learn about herd immunity, different vaccine types, and the cold chain system for maintaining vaccine integrity.
Powepoint On Epidemiological INDICES OF TB
Suitable For Community Medicine Students - KUHS
KERALA MEDICAL BOARD
Prepared By A Student from
Mount Zion Medical College , Chayalode Adoor
Economic analysis of malaria burden in kenyaNanyingi Mark
This framework uses a cost of illness approach to evaluate the burden of malaria. The evaluation is based on private direct costs (PDC) and private indirect cost (PIC) of malaria attack per episode.
Endemic canine rabies is a reemerging neglected zoonosis often underestimated in Kenya but remains a public health and economic burden to the rural poor. Understanding the transmission dynamics and distribution of dog bites over specified time period can assist in assessment of risk factors, design of interventions to exposure and the estimation of rabies burden
Epidemiologic investigations, Advance public health pharmay, 2016/2017 sessionMusa Abbas
This document defines key concepts in epidemiology and describes the steps involved in investigating a disease outbreak. It discusses the following:
- Descriptive, analytical, and experimental epidemiology and their purposes.
- The chain of infection and transmission, including reservoirs, modes of transmission, and susceptible hosts.
- The steps in an epidemiological investigation including establishing the outbreak, confirming diagnoses, defining cases, relating cases to time/place/person, formulating hypotheses, and implementing control measures.
- Epidemiological terms such as endemic, pandemic, incubation period, herd immunity, and the importance of outbreak investigations.
This report summarizes Kenya's annual malaria situation from July 2013 to June 2014. Some key points:
- The proportion of outpatient cases due to malaria declined from 21% in 2012-2013 to 17.7% in 2013-2014. Confirmation of malaria cases using rapid diagnostic tests or microscopy increased from 34.6% to 41.7% over the same period.
- Over 7.5 million doses of antimalarial medicines and 8.5 million rapid diagnostic tests were procured and distributed in 2013-2014. Additionally, 3 million long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets were procured in preparation for the next mass distribution campaign.
- Despite progress, fully implementing malaria control strategies may
Dynamics and Control of Infectious Diseases (2007) - Alexander Glaser Wouter de Heij
See also:
- https://food4innovations.blog/2020/03/26/montecarlo-simulaties-tonen-aan-wat-de-onzekerheid-is-en-dat-we-minimaal-1600-maar-misschien-wel-2000-2500-ic-plaatsen-nodig-hebben/
Selon une étude, publiée en décembre 2020, la population de la ville de Manaus (Brésil) aurait atteint l’immunité collective. Laurent AVENTIN, PhD – Consultant en santé publique, fait le point pour Le Courrier des Stratèges…
The document discusses a directed student learning session on vaccines and immunity. The objectives are to understand immunity, vaccination, and the Malaysian immunization schedule. Students are advised to visit several websites to learn about herd immunity, different vaccine types, and the cold chain system for maintaining vaccine integrity.
Powepoint On Epidemiological INDICES OF TB
Suitable For Community Medicine Students - KUHS
KERALA MEDICAL BOARD
Prepared By A Student from
Mount Zion Medical College , Chayalode Adoor
This document provides definitions and descriptions of key concepts in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as "the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations." It then discusses measures of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants. Some key points covered include different types of rates, ratios, and measures of association used in epidemiology. Criteria for evaluating causation such as temporal relationship, strength of association, and biological plausibility are also summarized.
This document discusses various measures used to describe disease frequency in populations. It defines key terms like prevalence, incidence, cumulative incidence, mortality rates and risk. Prevalence refers to existing cases at a point in time and is influenced by incidence, duration and cure rates. Incidence only counts new cases and is calculated based on person-time approaches. Mortality rates like crude mortality rate and standardized mortality ratio are also outlined. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculations and differences between measures.
This document discusses different measures of morbidity including frequency, duration, and severity. Frequency is measured by incidence and prevalence. Incidence refers to new cases in a defined time period, while prevalence refers to all current cases. Duration is measured by disability rate and severity by case fatality rate. The document provides definitions and formulas for calculating incidence rate, point prevalence, and period prevalence. It also discusses factors that influence prevalence and the relationship between incidence and prevalence.
BASIC MEASUREMENTS IN EPIDEMIOLOGY presentationPaul523674
Epidemiologists use various measurements to quantify disease occurrence in populations. Rates, ratios, and proportions are commonly used. A rate is a measure of events occurring in a population over time, comprising a numerator, denominator, time period, and multiplier. Specific rates measure events in subgroups, like infant mortality rate. A ratio expresses the relative size of two quantities. A proportion indicates the relation of a part to the whole, often expressed as a percentage. Incidence measures new disease cases over time while prevalence measures total current cases. Both help identify at-risk groups and plan health services and facilities.
Epidemiology is the study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in populations. Some key points about epidemiology include:
- It aims to describe disease problems, identify causes, and provide data to plan prevention and control efforts.
- Rates, ratios, and proportions are measurement tools used to compare disease occurrence between populations and time periods.
- Mortality data from death records can provide information about disease occurrence but have limitations like incomplete reporting.
- Morbidity data examines illness in populations and can be measured through incidence rates (new cases over time) and prevalence (all current cases).
- Descriptive studies examine disease frequency and distribution while analytical studies identify risk factors and experimental studies test hypotheses.
The document defines key epidemiological measures used to describe disease occurrence and impact, including prevalence, incidence, rates, and ratios. It provides examples of how to calculate and interpret these measures. The document concludes that prevalence describes the current disease burden, while incidence provides information on the risk of developing disease over time and is thus better suited for etiological studies.
This document provides information on key epidemiological measurements and concepts. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states and events in populations. The objectives are to learn measurements in epidemiology including rates, ratios and proportions. It discusses various types of rates like crude, specific and standardized rates. It also covers measurements of mortality like crude death rate, specific death rate and case fatality rate. For morbidity, it explains incidence, prevalence, and their relationship. Incidence measures new cases while prevalence includes old and new cases at a point in time. Overall, the document outlines fundamental epidemiological terms and calculations.
Measurement of Epidemiology
Radha Maharjan
MN (WHD)
Contents
5.1 Morbidity
Incidence
Prevalence
Attack Rate
Contents
5.2 Mortality
Crude Death Rate
Case Fatality Rate
Proportional Mortality Rate
Survival Rate
Standardized Death Rate
Contents
5.3 Disability
Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY)
Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALY)
5.4 Tools of Measurements
Rate
Ratio
Proportion
5.4 Tools of Measurements
Numerator
Numerator refer to the number of times an event (e.g. number of birth) has occurred in a population, during a specified time period.
Denominator
Numerator has little meaning unless it is related to the denominator. The epidemiologist has to choose an appropriate denominator while calculating a rate.
It may be related to:
(I) population
(II) the total events.
Denominator related to the population
Mid year population
Population at risk
Person – time
Sub groups of the population
Denominator related to the Total Events
Mid year population
The population size changes daily due to births, deaths and migration, the mid year population is commonly chosen as a denominator.
The population as on 1st July is mid-year population.
Population at risk
It is important to note that the calculation of measures of disease frequency depends on correct estimates of the numbers of people under consideration.
Ideally, these figures should include only those people who are potentially susceptible to the disease studied.
Population at risk
For instance, men should not be included in denominator for the carcinoma of cervix.
Part of population, which is susceptible to a disease is called the population at risk,
e.g., Occupational injuries occur only among working people so the population at risk is the workforce.
Person – time
In some epidemiological studies (e.g. cohort studies), person may enter into the study at different times.
Consequently, they are under observation for varying time period.
In such case, the denominator is a combination of person and time.
Person – time
The most frequently used person time is person- years.
Some times this may be person- months, person -weeks or man- hours.
For example, if 10 persons were observed in the study for 10 years, person time would be 100 person years of observation.
Person – time
The same figure would be derived if 100 persons were under observation for one year.
These denominators have the advantage of summarizing the experience of persons with different duration of observation or exposure.
Sub groups of the population
The denominator may be subgroups of population
e.g. under-five, female, doctors, etc.
Denominator related to the Total Events
In some instances, the denominator may be related to total events instead of the total population, as in the case of infant mortality rate the denominator is total number of live births.
Definition concept and comparison of ratio, proportion and rate.
This document discusses various measurement tools used in epidemiology including rates, ratios, proportions, prevalence, and incidence. It provides examples of how to calculate crude rates, specific rates, ratios, and proportions. Prevalence refers to all existing cases at a point in time or over a period of time. Incidence refers only to new cases occurring over a time period. Relationships between incidence, prevalence, and duration of disease are also examined.
This document discusses various indicators that can be used to measure health and disease in a population. It outlines different types of indicators including health status indicators like mortality and morbidity, quality of life indicators, socioeconomic indicators, health care delivery indicators, and environmental indicators. Specific measures are provided for different types of indicators, such as crude mortality rate, standardized mortality rates, incidence rate, and prevalence. The indicators can help health administrators assess problems, design health plans, and evaluate schemes. Ideal indicators should be valid, reliable, sensitive, specific, and feasible.
Introduction to epidemiology and it's measurementswrigveda
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations. It has three main components - distribution, determinants, and frequency. Measurement of disease frequency involves quantifying disease occurrence and is a prerequisite for epidemiological investigation. Rates, ratios, and proportions are key tools used to measure disease frequency and distribution. Incidence rates measure new cases over time while prevalence rates measure existing cases. These measurements are essential for describing disease patterns, formulating hypotheses, and evaluating prevention programs.
This document discusses epidemiology, which is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. Some key points covered include:
- Epidemiology measures disease frequency and uses rates, ratios, and proportions. It aims to describe disease distribution and magnitude, identify risk factors, and provide data to plan prevention.
- Tools for measurement include incidence rates, prevalence, mortality rates, and case fatality rates. Incidence refers to new cases, prevalence refers to all current cases, and mortality rates measure deaths.
- Epidemiological studies ask questions about what disease is occurring, where and when it is happening, who is
This document defines and provides examples of different types of frequency measures used in epidemiology and public health, including ratios, proportions, rates, and other measures. It discusses how ratios, proportions, and rates are calculated, and provides specific formulas and examples. It also covers measures of morbidity like incidence and prevalence, and measures of mortality like crude mortality rates, cause-specific mortality rates, and others.
This document defines and provides examples of different types of frequency measures used in epidemiology and public health, including ratios, proportions, rates, and other measures. It discusses how ratios, proportions, and rates are calculated, and provides specific formulas and examples. It also covers measures of morbidity like incidence and prevalence, and measures of mortality like crude mortality rates, cause-specific mortality rates, and others.
This document discusses various measures used to quantify health and disease states in populations. It defines key terms like measurement, ratios, proportions, rates, and describes how to calculate measures of morbidity and mortality such as incidence rates, prevalence rates, mortality rates including infant mortality rate. These measures are important for assessing population health status, planning health resources, and monitoring disease control programs.
mudule 3 Measure of health and Health Related Events.pdfteddiyfentaw
This document discusses various measures used to quantify health and disease in populations. It begins by defining key concepts like ratios, proportions, and rates. It then examines measures of morbidity like incidence rate and prevalence. Measures of mortality such as case-fatality rate and proportionate mortality ratio are also introduced. The document concludes by explaining measures of association between exposure and disease, including relative risk, odds ratio, and impact measures like attributable risk.
Periodontal disease is a widely prevalent disease worldwide which often gets unnoticed or it often ignored due to its slowly progressive nature. It is of concern since it can cause irrepairable damage to tooth supporting structures if not early diagnosed or treated.
This document defines and compares various epidemiological terms used to measure disease frequency and distribution in populations. It discusses rates, ratios, proportions, and their uses in measuring incidence, prevalence, mortality, and other disease determinants. Formulas are provided for calculating crude death rate, case fatality rate, and other measures. Factors that can impact prevalence over time are also explored.
Our backs are like superheroes, holding us up and helping us move around. But sometimes, even superheroes can get hurt. That’s where slip discs come in.
This document provides definitions and descriptions of key concepts in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as "the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations." It then discusses measures of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants. Some key points covered include different types of rates, ratios, and measures of association used in epidemiology. Criteria for evaluating causation such as temporal relationship, strength of association, and biological plausibility are also summarized.
This document discusses various measures used to describe disease frequency in populations. It defines key terms like prevalence, incidence, cumulative incidence, mortality rates and risk. Prevalence refers to existing cases at a point in time and is influenced by incidence, duration and cure rates. Incidence only counts new cases and is calculated based on person-time approaches. Mortality rates like crude mortality rate and standardized mortality ratio are also outlined. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculations and differences between measures.
This document discusses different measures of morbidity including frequency, duration, and severity. Frequency is measured by incidence and prevalence. Incidence refers to new cases in a defined time period, while prevalence refers to all current cases. Duration is measured by disability rate and severity by case fatality rate. The document provides definitions and formulas for calculating incidence rate, point prevalence, and period prevalence. It also discusses factors that influence prevalence and the relationship between incidence and prevalence.
BASIC MEASUREMENTS IN EPIDEMIOLOGY presentationPaul523674
Epidemiologists use various measurements to quantify disease occurrence in populations. Rates, ratios, and proportions are commonly used. A rate is a measure of events occurring in a population over time, comprising a numerator, denominator, time period, and multiplier. Specific rates measure events in subgroups, like infant mortality rate. A ratio expresses the relative size of two quantities. A proportion indicates the relation of a part to the whole, often expressed as a percentage. Incidence measures new disease cases over time while prevalence measures total current cases. Both help identify at-risk groups and plan health services and facilities.
Epidemiology is the study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in populations. Some key points about epidemiology include:
- It aims to describe disease problems, identify causes, and provide data to plan prevention and control efforts.
- Rates, ratios, and proportions are measurement tools used to compare disease occurrence between populations and time periods.
- Mortality data from death records can provide information about disease occurrence but have limitations like incomplete reporting.
- Morbidity data examines illness in populations and can be measured through incidence rates (new cases over time) and prevalence (all current cases).
- Descriptive studies examine disease frequency and distribution while analytical studies identify risk factors and experimental studies test hypotheses.
The document defines key epidemiological measures used to describe disease occurrence and impact, including prevalence, incidence, rates, and ratios. It provides examples of how to calculate and interpret these measures. The document concludes that prevalence describes the current disease burden, while incidence provides information on the risk of developing disease over time and is thus better suited for etiological studies.
This document provides information on key epidemiological measurements and concepts. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states and events in populations. The objectives are to learn measurements in epidemiology including rates, ratios and proportions. It discusses various types of rates like crude, specific and standardized rates. It also covers measurements of mortality like crude death rate, specific death rate and case fatality rate. For morbidity, it explains incidence, prevalence, and their relationship. Incidence measures new cases while prevalence includes old and new cases at a point in time. Overall, the document outlines fundamental epidemiological terms and calculations.
Measurement of Epidemiology
Radha Maharjan
MN (WHD)
Contents
5.1 Morbidity
Incidence
Prevalence
Attack Rate
Contents
5.2 Mortality
Crude Death Rate
Case Fatality Rate
Proportional Mortality Rate
Survival Rate
Standardized Death Rate
Contents
5.3 Disability
Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY)
Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALY)
5.4 Tools of Measurements
Rate
Ratio
Proportion
5.4 Tools of Measurements
Numerator
Numerator refer to the number of times an event (e.g. number of birth) has occurred in a population, during a specified time period.
Denominator
Numerator has little meaning unless it is related to the denominator. The epidemiologist has to choose an appropriate denominator while calculating a rate.
It may be related to:
(I) population
(II) the total events.
Denominator related to the population
Mid year population
Population at risk
Person – time
Sub groups of the population
Denominator related to the Total Events
Mid year population
The population size changes daily due to births, deaths and migration, the mid year population is commonly chosen as a denominator.
The population as on 1st July is mid-year population.
Population at risk
It is important to note that the calculation of measures of disease frequency depends on correct estimates of the numbers of people under consideration.
Ideally, these figures should include only those people who are potentially susceptible to the disease studied.
Population at risk
For instance, men should not be included in denominator for the carcinoma of cervix.
Part of population, which is susceptible to a disease is called the population at risk,
e.g., Occupational injuries occur only among working people so the population at risk is the workforce.
Person – time
In some epidemiological studies (e.g. cohort studies), person may enter into the study at different times.
Consequently, they are under observation for varying time period.
In such case, the denominator is a combination of person and time.
Person – time
The most frequently used person time is person- years.
Some times this may be person- months, person -weeks or man- hours.
For example, if 10 persons were observed in the study for 10 years, person time would be 100 person years of observation.
Person – time
The same figure would be derived if 100 persons were under observation for one year.
These denominators have the advantage of summarizing the experience of persons with different duration of observation or exposure.
Sub groups of the population
The denominator may be subgroups of population
e.g. under-five, female, doctors, etc.
Denominator related to the Total Events
In some instances, the denominator may be related to total events instead of the total population, as in the case of infant mortality rate the denominator is total number of live births.
Definition concept and comparison of ratio, proportion and rate.
This document discusses various measurement tools used in epidemiology including rates, ratios, proportions, prevalence, and incidence. It provides examples of how to calculate crude rates, specific rates, ratios, and proportions. Prevalence refers to all existing cases at a point in time or over a period of time. Incidence refers only to new cases occurring over a time period. Relationships between incidence, prevalence, and duration of disease are also examined.
This document discusses various indicators that can be used to measure health and disease in a population. It outlines different types of indicators including health status indicators like mortality and morbidity, quality of life indicators, socioeconomic indicators, health care delivery indicators, and environmental indicators. Specific measures are provided for different types of indicators, such as crude mortality rate, standardized mortality rates, incidence rate, and prevalence. The indicators can help health administrators assess problems, design health plans, and evaluate schemes. Ideal indicators should be valid, reliable, sensitive, specific, and feasible.
Introduction to epidemiology and it's measurementswrigveda
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations. It has three main components - distribution, determinants, and frequency. Measurement of disease frequency involves quantifying disease occurrence and is a prerequisite for epidemiological investigation. Rates, ratios, and proportions are key tools used to measure disease frequency and distribution. Incidence rates measure new cases over time while prevalence rates measure existing cases. These measurements are essential for describing disease patterns, formulating hypotheses, and evaluating prevention programs.
This document discusses epidemiology, which is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. Some key points covered include:
- Epidemiology measures disease frequency and uses rates, ratios, and proportions. It aims to describe disease distribution and magnitude, identify risk factors, and provide data to plan prevention.
- Tools for measurement include incidence rates, prevalence, mortality rates, and case fatality rates. Incidence refers to new cases, prevalence refers to all current cases, and mortality rates measure deaths.
- Epidemiological studies ask questions about what disease is occurring, where and when it is happening, who is
This document defines and provides examples of different types of frequency measures used in epidemiology and public health, including ratios, proportions, rates, and other measures. It discusses how ratios, proportions, and rates are calculated, and provides specific formulas and examples. It also covers measures of morbidity like incidence and prevalence, and measures of mortality like crude mortality rates, cause-specific mortality rates, and others.
This document defines and provides examples of different types of frequency measures used in epidemiology and public health, including ratios, proportions, rates, and other measures. It discusses how ratios, proportions, and rates are calculated, and provides specific formulas and examples. It also covers measures of morbidity like incidence and prevalence, and measures of mortality like crude mortality rates, cause-specific mortality rates, and others.
This document discusses various measures used to quantify health and disease states in populations. It defines key terms like measurement, ratios, proportions, rates, and describes how to calculate measures of morbidity and mortality such as incidence rates, prevalence rates, mortality rates including infant mortality rate. These measures are important for assessing population health status, planning health resources, and monitoring disease control programs.
mudule 3 Measure of health and Health Related Events.pdfteddiyfentaw
This document discusses various measures used to quantify health and disease in populations. It begins by defining key concepts like ratios, proportions, and rates. It then examines measures of morbidity like incidence rate and prevalence. Measures of mortality such as case-fatality rate and proportionate mortality ratio are also introduced. The document concludes by explaining measures of association between exposure and disease, including relative risk, odds ratio, and impact measures like attributable risk.
Periodontal disease is a widely prevalent disease worldwide which often gets unnoticed or it often ignored due to its slowly progressive nature. It is of concern since it can cause irrepairable damage to tooth supporting structures if not early diagnosed or treated.
This document defines and compares various epidemiological terms used to measure disease frequency and distribution in populations. It discusses rates, ratios, proportions, and their uses in measuring incidence, prevalence, mortality, and other disease determinants. Formulas are provided for calculating crude death rate, case fatality rate, and other measures. Factors that can impact prevalence over time are also explored.
Our backs are like superheroes, holding us up and helping us move around. But sometimes, even superheroes can get hurt. That’s where slip discs come in.
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One health condition that is becoming more common day by day is diabetes.
According to research conducted by the National Family Health Survey of India, diabetic cases show a projection which might increase to 10.4% by 2030.
Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
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3. Tools of measurements
1. Rates: a rate measures the occurrence of some particular
event
number of deaths in one year
Death rate= ------------------------------------x1000
mid- year population
Elements of rates:
numerator, denominator, time specification and multiplier
Categories of rates:
• Crude rates/unstandardized-actual observed rates
• Specific rates-actual observed rates due to specific causes,
groups, or time
• Standardized rates
4. 2. Ratio: Ratio expresses a relation in size between two
random quantities.
x
x:y or ---- eg. Sex ration
y
Proportion: a proportion is a ratio which indicates the
relation in magnitude of a part of the whole
No of children with scabies at a certain time
Eg. ----------------------------------------------------- x 100
Total no of children in the village at the same time
5. Measurement of mortality:
1. Death certificate
2. Uses of mortality data: mortality data
a. Explains trends and differentials in overall mortality
b. Indicates priority for health action and the allocation of
resources
c. Employed in designing intervention programs
d. Helps in monitoring of public health problems and
programs
e. Gives clue for epidemiological research
3.Limitations of mortality data:
a. Incomplete reporting of deaths
b. Lack of accuracy
6. c. Lack of uniformity
d. Choosing a single cause of death
e. Changing
f. Disease with low fatality
Mortality rates and ratios
1.Crude death rate
The no of deaths (from all causes) per 1000 estimated
mid-year population in one year, in a given place
No of death during the year
Crude death rate= ------------------------------------x1,000
mid year population
CDR lack comparability for communities with populations
that differ by age, sex, race, etc.
7. 2. Specific death rates:
specific death rates may be
a. Cause or disease specific e.g; TB, Cancer
b. Related to specific groups e.g; age specific, sex-specific
No of deaths from TB during a calendar year
specific death rate due to TB= ------------------------------------------x1,000
mid-year population
No of deaths in a particular population
Age specific death rate=------------------------------------------------x 1,000
Mid year population of that age group
8. No of deaths of person aged 15-20 during a
calendar year
Specific death rate in age group= ------------------------------------x 1,000
15-20 years Mid year population of person aged 15-20
Male deaths
Sex specific death rate=---------------------x 1, 000
Mid year population of males
No of deaths among males during a calendar year
Specific death rate for males= -----------------------------------------x1,000
mid-year population of males
9. Female deaths at specific aged 15-20 years
Age-Sex specific death rate=-----------------------------------------x 1,000
Female population aged 15-20 years
Deaths in January x 12
Death rate for January= -----------------------x 1,000
Mid- year population
Deaths in the week x 52
Weekly death rate = ---------------------------- x 1,000
Mid- year population
10. 3. Case fatality rate (Ratio)
Total number of deaths due to a particular disease
= ---------------------------------------------------------x100
Total number of cases due to the same disease
4. Proportional mortality rate (Ratio)
a. Proportional mortality from a specific disease
No of deaths from the specific disease in a year
= ---------------------------------------------------------x100
Total deaths from all causes in that year
b. Under -5 proportionate mortality rate
No of deaths under 5 years of age in the given year
= --------------------------------------------------------------x100
Total no of deaths during the same period
11. 5. Proportional mortality rate for aged 50 years and above
No of deaths of persons aged 50 years and above
= -------------------------------------------------------------x 100
Total deaths of all age groups in that year
d. Survival rate:
Total no patients alive after 5 years
= ------------------------------------------x100
Total no of patients diagnosed or treated
12. Measurement of morbidity
Morbidity is defined as “any departure, subjective, or
objective, from a state of physiological well-being”
Morbidity=sickness, illness, disability
Morbidity could be measured in terms of 3 units
a. persons who were ill
b. the illnesses (spells of illness) that these persons
experienced and
c. the duration of these illnesses
Morbidity rates:
Disease frequency=incidence and prevalence
Duration of illness=average duration/case or the disability rate
Severity of illness=case fatality rate
13. Value of morbidity data
a. They describe the extent and nature of the disease load in
the community and thus assist in the establishment of
priorities
b. They provide more comprehensive and more accurate and
clinically relevant information on patient characteristics
and therefore essential for basic research
c. They serve as starting point for etiological studies, and
thus play a crucial role in disease prevention
d. They are needed for monitoring and evaluation of disease
control activities
14. Incidence: “No of new cases occurring in a defined
population during a specified period of time”
No of new cases of specific disease during a
given time period
Incidence= -----------------------------------------------------------------x1,000
population at risk during that time
eg., New cases of an illness 500
population at risk 30,000
Incidence rate= 500/30,000x1000= 16.7 per 1000 per year
Incidence rate refers
* only to new cases
• during a given period
• In a specified population
15. Prevalence
“All current cases (new and old) existing at a given point time,
or over a period of time in a given population”
Types of prevalence
a. Point prevalence
b. Period prevalence
Point prevalence: the no of current cases of a disease at one
point in time in relation to a defined population
No of all current cases of a specified disease existing at a
given point in time
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------x100
Estimated population at the same point in time
16. Period prevalence:
Frequency of all current cases existing during a defined
period of time
No of all existing cases of a specified disease during a
given period of time interval
--------------------------------------------------------------------------x100
estimated mid interval population at risk
Prevalence = incidence x duration (P=I x D)
Uses of prevalence:
1. Helps to estimate the magnitude of health problems and
identify potential high risk population
2. Useful for administrative and planning purposes eg;hospital
beds, manpower needs, rehabilitation facilities
17. LEVELS OF HEALTH PREVENTION
1. PRIMORDIAL PREVENTION
2. PRIMARY PREVENTION
3. SECONDARY PREVENTION:
4.TERTIARY PREVENTION
18. 1. PRIMORDIAL PREVENTION :
It includes measures for prevention of
emergence of risk factor.
primary prevention for evidence of development
and continuation of such practices in the day to
day life which will lead to initiation of disease
E.g. Overeating, too much salt intake, smoking
of tobacco, alcohol consumption.
19. 2. PRIMARY PREVENTION:
Primary prevention can be defined as “action taken prior to
the onset of disease, which removes the possibility that a
disease will ever occur”.
PRIMARY PREVENTION:
A. Health Promotion
B. Specific Protection
20. A. Health Promotion
1. Health education to improve health consciousness
2. Improvement in standard of nutrition with relation to age, sex, occupation,
physiological condition and environment to promote and maintain growth
and development and health
3. Provision of socio-cultural environment for development of good personality
4. Better physical environment through adequate housing, water supply and
waste disposal facility.
5. Proper environment at the occupation
6. Good, usable, feasible recreational facilities
7. Marriage counseling
8. Sex and population education.
9. Application of principles of genetics to improve health
10. Periodic selective examination of general population and at risk population.
21. B. Specific Protection:
1. Use of specific immunizations
2. Use of specific drugs as chemoprophylactic agents
3. Use of specific nutrients e.g. vitamin A at the age of nine months with
measles vaccine for prevention of upper respirators infections by
strengthening respiratory mucosa and prevention of night blindness;
prevention against nutritional anaemia by provision of iron folic acid tablets
during childhood and antenatal period.
4. Protection against accidents and morbidity by use of helmets,
preventive maintenance of machinery and up-to-date cleaning of work place.
22. 3. SECONDARY PREVENTION:
Secondary prevention can be defined as “Action which
halts the progress of a disease and prevents
complications”.
Interventions:
1. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment.
2. To cure and prevent the disease process.
3. To prevent the spread of communicable disease.
4. To prevent the complications.
5. To shorten the period of disability.
23. 4.TERTIARY PREVENTION
Tertiary prevention can be defined as “all patient’s adjustment
to irremediable conditions”. Measures available to reduce or limit
impairments and disabilities, minimise suffering caused by existing
departures from good health.
1. Disability limitation
Disease - Infection ( pathogen in body)
Impairment - Any loss
Disability - unable to carry daily work
Handicap - result of disability
24. 2. Rehabilitation
Medical rehabilitation – restoration of the capacity to earn a
livelihood.
Vocational rehabilitation –restoration of family and social relationships
Social rehabilitation – restoration of family and social relationships.
Psychological rehabilitation – restoration of personal dignity and
confidence.