Macomolecules are crucial life leaders of every creature. Each of which are considerably components of life patterns and without it life is impossible. Even if higher their importance, if large amount in the body it will cause difficulty and abnormality.
The Root cause and Culprit behind Chronic Diseases, Cancer and Aging is well recognized by many authorities now. 1- A state of chronic low grade inflammation. 2- Mitochondrial dysfunction.
Mitochondria Our body’s lifeline. Mitochondria are tiny organelles in our cell, thousands of them comprising 15 to 50% of the cell volume. Red blood cells and skin cells have very little to none, while germ cells have 100,000, but most cells have one to 2,000 of them. They're the primary source of energy for our body. They supply over 90% of our body’s energy. Converting the food we eat and the air we breathe into usable energy. It have enormous potential to influence our health, specifically cancer, and optimizing mitochondrial metabolism may be at the core of effective cancer treatment.
The Root cause and Culprit behind Chronic Diseases, Cancer and Aging is well recognized by many authorities now. 1- A state of chronic low grade inflammation. 2- Mitochondrial dysfunction.
Mitochondria Our body’s lifeline. Mitochondria are tiny organelles in our cell, thousands of them comprising 15 to 50% of the cell volume. Red blood cells and skin cells have very little to none, while germ cells have 100,000, but most cells have one to 2,000 of them. They're the primary source of energy for our body. They supply over 90% of our body’s energy. Converting the food we eat and the air we breathe into usable energy. It have enormous potential to influence our health, specifically cancer, and optimizing mitochondrial metabolism may be at the core of effective cancer treatment.
Calmodulin is a low molecular weight, acidic, calcium binding protein .
It is a multifunctional intermediate calcium-binding messenger protein expressed in all eukaryotic cells.
It is an intermediate target of the secondary messenger Ca 2+.
The binding of calcium is required for the activation of calmodulin
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to their appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it. Proteins can be targeted to the inner space of an organelle, different intracellular membranes, plasma membrane, or to exterior of the cell via secretion.
Proteoglycans are proteins that are heavily glycosylated*. The basic proteoglycan unit consists of a "core protein" with one or more covalently attached glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain(s).
Details of cytoskeleton element-microtubule. The Microtubule associated protein-type and function, Treadmilling and dynamic instability, Structure of cilia and flagella
Calmodulin is a low molecular weight, acidic, calcium binding protein .
It is a multifunctional intermediate calcium-binding messenger protein expressed in all eukaryotic cells.
It is an intermediate target of the secondary messenger Ca 2+.
The binding of calcium is required for the activation of calmodulin
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to their appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it. Proteins can be targeted to the inner space of an organelle, different intracellular membranes, plasma membrane, or to exterior of the cell via secretion.
Proteoglycans are proteins that are heavily glycosylated*. The basic proteoglycan unit consists of a "core protein" with one or more covalently attached glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain(s).
Details of cytoskeleton element-microtubule. The Microtubule associated protein-type and function, Treadmilling and dynamic instability, Structure of cilia and flagella
What is biochemistry?
Biochemistry explores chemical processes related to living organisms. It is a laboratory-based science combining biology and chemistry.
Biochemists study the structure, composition, and chemical reactions of substances in living systems and, in turn, their functions and ways to control them. Biochemistry emerged as a separate discipline when scientists combined biology with organic, inorganic, and physical chemistry. They began to study areas such as:
How living things get energy from food
The chemical basis of heredity
What fundamental changes occur in disease
Biochemistry includes the sciences of molecular biology, immunochemistry, and neurochemistry, as well as bioinorganic, bioorganic, and biophysical chemistry.
What do biochemists do?
Biochemists interact with scientists from a wide variety of other disciplines, usually on problems that are a very small piece of a very large and complex system.
Biochemists in industry are interested in specific applications that will lead to marketable products
Biochemists in academia or government labs conduct more basic and less applied research
Where is biochemistry used?
Biochemistry has obvious applications in medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine. Other applications include:
Food Science
Biochemists determine the chemical composition of foods, research ways to develop abundant and inexpensive sources of nutritious foods, develop methods to extract nutrients from waste products, and/or invent ways to prolong the shelf life of food products.
Agriculture
Biochemists study the interaction of herbicides/insecticides with plants and pests. They examine the structure–activity relationships of compounds, determine their ability to inhibit growth, and evaluate the toxicological effects on surrounding life.
Pharmacology, Physiology, Microbiology, Toxicology, and Clinical Chemistry
Biochemists investigate the mechanisms of drug actions; engage in viral research; conduct research pertaining to organ function; or use chemical concepts, procedures, and techniques to study the diagnosis and therapy of disease and the assessment of health.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
The ASGCT Annual Meeting was packed with exciting progress in the field advan...
Macromolecules, (importance), ppt
1. Adama Science and Technology University
School of Applied Natural Science
Department of Applied Biology postgraduate program
Advanced Biochemistry (Biol5021)
Biochemical and physiological use of
macromolecules
By: Temesgen Assefa
Adama, Ethiopia
January 3, 2018
1
3. Introduction
January 3, 2018 3
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological
chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in the
cell.
It deals with the structures, functions and
interactions of biological molecules which provide the
structure of cells and perform many of the functions
associated with life.
Macromolecules are polymers of monomers.
Includes; Carbohydrates, Protiens, Nucliec acids and Lipids
4. Cont…
Polymers of simple sugars
Carbon compounds that contain large
quantities of hydroxyl groups.
Allows to interact with the aqueous
environment and to participate in hydrogen
bonding, both within and between chains.
Represented by the formula (CH2O) n
January 3, 2018
4
A. Carbohydrates
5. . C,H &O ratio = 1:2:1
Carbohydrates are classified into three
subtypes based on the basis of the number of
forming units (sugar).
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
polysaccharides
January 3, 2018
5
Cont…
6. Cont…
January 3, 2018 6
Monosaccharides
simple sugars
May exist as a linear chain or as ring-
shaped molecules.
In aqueous solutions, they are usually
found in the ring form
7. January 3, 2018
7
Example: glucose, galactose, and fructose =
isomeric monosaccharides, meaning that they
have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6)
but slightly different structures.
Linear structure of monosaccharides
Cont…
10. .
January 3, 2018
10
Disaccharides formed when two monosaccharides
undergo a dehydration reaction.
During this process, the hydroxyl group (–OH) of
one monosaccharide combines with a hydrogen atom
of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of
water (H2O) and forming a covalent bond between
atoms in the two sugar molecules.
include
lactose=Milk sugar; glucose + galactose
Maltose= malt sugar; glucose +glucose
Sucrose= Table sugar; glucose+ fructose
Cont…
12. January 3, 2018
12
Cont…
Polysaccharide is a long chain of monosaccharides
linked by covalent bonds.
May be branched or unbranched (linear).
Examples: Starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin…
Starch= plant reserved food
Glycogen= animal reserved food and more branched
Cellulose = plant cell wall component
Chitin=insects exoskeleton & fungal cell wall
Peptidoglycan= bacterial cell wall
13. January3,2018
Cont…
Biochemical and physiological Functions of carbohydrates
Energy storage and production. E.g. Monosaccharides
supply 3.74 kcal/g, disaccharides 3.95 kcal/g, while starch 4.18 kcal/g;
on average 4 kcal/g.
Exert a protein-saving action
Form other bio molecules
Necessary for the normal lipid metabolism
“Fats burn in the fire of carbohydrates“ L. Pasteur
Oxygen transport
Indispensable for the maintenance of the integrity
of nervous tissue (Some CNS areas use glucose to
produce energy)
Two sugars, ribose and deoxyribose, are part of
the bearing structure of RNA and DNA. 13
14. January 3, 2018 14
For example, at hepatic level glucuronic acid,
synthesized from glucose, combines with endogenous
substances, as hormones, bilirubin etc., and exogenous
substances, as chemical, bacterial toxins or drugs,
making them atoxic, increasing their solubility and
allowing their elimination.
Act as a reaction intermediates or accessories.
For example vitamin B12 (Riboflavin) has ribose sugar
and it is involved in vital reactions at cellular level.
Detoxifying processes
Cont…
15. Aid in gut motility
January 3, 2018
15
Cont…
They are also found linked to many
proteins and lipids.
Structural elements
E.g. cellulose and chitin (homopolysaccharides)
and peptidoglycan (heteropolysaccharide).
16. January 3, 2018 16
Cont…
Simple diagrammatic representation about (CH2O)n
17. January 3, 2018
17
B. Proteins
Cont…
Polymers of amino acids
aa’s are covalently attached to one another
to form long linear chains called polypeptides.
Molecular structure
of polypeptides
showing the
sequence of amino
acids
18. January 3, 2018
18
Cont…
It may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or
protective; they may serve in transport, storage, or
membranes; or they may be toxins or enzymes.
The functions of proteins is very diverse because
there are 20 different chemically distinct amino acids
that form long chains.
Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure.
NH2 (Amino group)
Carboxyl group (–COOH)
hydrogen atom and
R-group.
20. January 3, 2018
20
The chemical nature of the R group determines the
chemical nature of the amino acid within its protein
(that is, whether it is acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar).
The sequence and number of amino acids
ultimately determine a protein’s shape, size,
and function.
Each amino acid is attached to another amino
acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide
bond, which is formed by a dehydration
reaction.
Cont…
21. Four levels of protein structure:
primary
secondary
Tertiary
quaternary
January 3, 2018
21
Cont…
Protein Structure
The shape of a protein is critical to its function
22. January 3, 2018
22
Cont…
The unique sequence and number of amino
acids in a polypeptide chain is its primary
structure.
Folding patterns resulting from interactions
between the non-R group portions of amino
acids yields secondary protein structure.
The most common are the alpha (α)-helix
and beta (β)-pleated sheet structures.
In the alpha helix, the bonds form between
every fourth amino acid and cause a twist in
the amino acid chain.
23. January 3, 2018
23
Cont…
In the β-pleated sheet, the “pleats” are formed by
hydrogen bonding between atoms on the backbone of
the polypeptide chain
The α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures are found
in many globular and fibrous proteins.
24. January 3, 2018
24
Cont…
It is caused by chemical interactions between various
amino acids and regions of the polypeptide.
The unique three-dimensional structure of a
polypeptide is known as its tertiary structure
Some proteins are formed from several
polypeptides, also known as subunits, and the
interaction of these subunits forms the quaternary
structure.
25. January 3, 2018
25
Cont…
The four levels of protein structure (Source: National Human Genome Research Institute)
26. January 3, 2018
26
Cont…
Biochemical and physiological Roles of Protein
catalyzing chemical reactions
synthesizing and repairing DNA
transporting materials across the cell
receiving and sending chemical signals
responding to stimuli
providing structural support
27. January 3, 2018
27
Cont…
Structure
Structural proteins form the basis of your cells,
which come together to form organs, muscle tissue,
bones, skin, hair and nails.
Movement
Muscle fibers consist of the proteins actin and
myosin, organized in a manner that allows them to
slide back and forth to shorten or lengthen a muscle
Communication
Some proteins function as chemical-signaling
molecules called hormones. And also enzymes.
Immunity
WBC’s synthesize several antibodies and chemokines, to help
protect you against infection and inflammation.
28. January 3, 2018
28
Cont…Transport and Storage
Hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen to the
tissues throughout your body
Myoglobin stores small amounts of oxygen in your
muscles
Respiratory system
Hemoglobin (composed of four protein subunits)
transports oxygen for use in cellular metabolism
Energy
protein can provide energy to your cells
Catalysis
Proteins are enzymes and involved in synthesis and
breakdown reaction (Drive Biochemical Reactions)
29. January 3, 2018
29
Cont…
Role Examples Functions
Digestive enzyme Amylase, lipase, pepsin Break down nutrients in
food into small pieces that
can be readily absorbed
Transport Hemoglobin Carry substances
throughout the body in
blood or lymph
Structure Actin, tubulin, keratin Build different structures,
like the cytoskeleton
Hormone signaling Insulin, glucagon Coordinate the activity of
different body systems
Defense Antibodies Protect the body from
foreign pathogens
Contraction Myosin Carry out muscle
contraction
Storage Legume storage proteins,
egg white (albumin)
Provide food for the early
development of the
embryo or the seedling
Generalized Protein types and functions
30. January 3, 2018
30
Cont…
C. Nucleic Acids
Key macromolecules in the continuity of life.
Carry the genetic information of a cell.
Two types : DNA and RNA
DNA is the genetic material found in all living
organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to
multicellular mammals.
RNA is mostly involved in protein synthesis
31. January 3, 2018
31
Cont…
The main function of DNA is to store the genetic
information that cells in the body need to function.
RNA plays an important role in converting the
information from DNA into proteins.
DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as
nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is made up of three components: a
nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar, and a
phosphate group.
33. Is a double-helical structure/double stranded
The strands are bonded to each other at their bases
with hydrogen bonds, and the strands coil about each
other along their length
January 3, 2018
33
Cont…DNA
34. January 3, 2018
34
Cont…
The sugar and phosphate groups forms the backbone of the
DNA and the bases act as a ladder.
The rule is that nucleotide A pairs with nucleotide T, and G
with C as follows
35. January 3, 2018
35
Cont…
RNA
Ribonucleic acid
Convert genetic information from genes into amino
acid sequences of protein.
In some viruses, RNA contains the genetic
information. E.g Tobacco mosaic virus
RNA is of three types, they are tRNA , mRNA and
rRNA.
mRNA - Carries genetic information between
DNA and ribosome, and it also directs protein
synthesis.
36. January 3, 2018
36
Cont…
r-RNA- a major component of the ribosome;
they catalyze the formation of peptide bond.
t-RNA act as a carrier molecule for the amino acids
that are used in protein synthesis. It is also responsible
for decoding the mRNA
37. January 3, 2018 37
Biochemical and physiological functions of nucleic acids
Cont…
Serve as energy storage
Form a portion of several important
coenzymes such as NAD+, NADP+ and FAD.
Serving as mediators of numerous important cellular
processes such as second messengers in signal
transduction events. E.g. cyclic-AMP
Controlling enzymatic reactions through allosteric
effects on enzyme activity.
38. January 3, 2018
38
Serving as neurotransmitter and as signal receptor
ligands. Adenosine can function as an inhibitory
neurotransmitter, while ATP also affects synaptic
neurotransmission throughout the central and
peripheral nervous systems. ADP is an important
activator of platelet functions resulting in control of
blood coagulation.
Serving as activated intermediates in numerous
biosynthetic reactions. E.g. S-adenosylmethionine (S-
Ado Met or SAM= involved in methyl transfer rxn.
It store and transfer genetic information & directs
synthesis of proteins
Cont…
39. January 3, 2018
39
Cont…
D. Lipids
Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are
nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature b/c it
include only nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-
hydrogen bonds. E.g. fats and oils, waxes,
phospholipids, and steroids.
Fats and oils are a stored form of energy and
can include triglycerides.
Triglyceride, consists of two main
components glycerol and fatty acids.
40. January 3, 2018
40
Cont…
Fatty acids may be
saturated= only single bonds b/n C atoms
unsaturated= chain contains a double bond
Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room
temperature and are called oils b/c the
double bond causes a bend or a “kink” that
prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly,
keeping them liquid at room temperature.
Based on no of double bonds:
Mono unsaturated- one double bond. E.g.
Olive oil
Poly unsaturated- more than one double bond.
E.g Canola oil
43. January 3, 2018
43
Cont…
Saturated fats tend to get packed tightly and
are solid at room temperature. E.g Animal fats
Mammals store fats in specialized cells called
adipocytes, where globules of fat occupy most of the
cell.
In plants, fat or oil is stored in seeds and is used as a
source of energy during embryonic development
Unsaturated fats help to improve blood cholesterol
levels, whereas saturated fats contribute to plaque
formation in the arteries, which increases the risk of a
heart attack.
44. January 3, 2018 44
Cont…
Unlike the phospholipids and fats, steroids
have a ring structure
Phospholipids are modified so that a phosphate
group (PO4
–) is added to one of the fatty acids.
Waxes are made up of a hydrocarbon chain with an
alcohol (-OH) group and a fatty acid.
Steroids are hydrophobic. All steroids have four, linked carbon
rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail. E.g
Cholesterol synthesized in liver
45. January 3, 2018
45
Cont…
Biochemical and physiological Function of Lipid
Chemical messengers
Storage and provision of energy
Storage lipids are triacylglycerols = fatty acids and a
glycerol
Lipids are insoluble in aqueous solutions and hence can be
stored readily in the body as a food reserve.
Maintenance of temperature
Layers of subcutaneous fat under the skin also help in
insulation and protection from cold
Membrane lipid layer formation
Membrane lipids are made of polyunsaturated fatty acids
46. January 3, 2018 46
Cont…
Cholesterol formation
Much of the cholesterol is located in cell
membranes
It maintains the fluidity of membranes by
interacting with their complex lipid components,
specifically the phospholipids such as
phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin.
Also it is the precursor of bile acids, vitamin D and
steroidal hormones
47. January 3, 2018 47
Cont…
Prostaglandin formation and role in inflammation
The essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acids
are precursors of many different types of eicosanoids,
including the hydroxyeicosatetraenes, prostanoids
(prostaglandins, thromboxanes and prostacyclins),
leukotrienes (and lipoxins) and resolvins etc. these play
an important role in pain, fever, inflammation and
blood clotting.
48. January 3, 2018 48
Cont…
Essential nutrients
Some lipids are essential nutrients like fat-soluble
vitamins A, (necessary for vision) and D (necessary
for calcium metabolism) present in some fats and oils
of animal origin, vitamin E (prevention of
autoxidation of unsaturated lipids), present in
vegetable oils, and vitamin K (normal clotting of
blood) present in green leaves, essential fatty acids,
in particular linoleic and α-linolenic acids, founders
of the family of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids
respectively.
49. January 3, 2018 49
Cont…
Structural component
Lipids are an important constituent of the cell
membrane
Antibiotic agent
Squalamine, a steroid from the blood of sharks, has
been shown to be an antibiotic and antifungal agent
of intense activity and sharks rarely contract
infections and almost never get cancer.
Fatty acid absorption
Phospholipids play an important role in the
absorption and transportation of fatty acids.
50. January 3, 2018 50
Cont…Hormone synthesis
The sex hormones, adrenocorticoids, cholic acids
and also vitamin D are all synthesized from
cholesterol, a steroidal lipid.
Vitamin carriers
Lipids act as carriers of natural fat-soluble
vitamins such as vitamin A, D and E.
Blood cholesterol lowering
stearic acid diet lowers blood cholesterol by 14%
of palmitic acid diet and 10% of oleic acid diet.
(Scott Grundy and Andrea Bonanome (1988),
University of Texas )
