Microeconomics and macroeconomics are the two main categories of economic theory. Microeconomics deals with individual economic units like households and firms, and studies topics like supply and demand. Macroeconomics looks at the overall economy, analyzing issues like GDP, unemployment, and inflation. The key differences are that microeconomics focuses on small economic decisions and market equilibrium, while macroeconomics examines whole economies and factors like interest rates, unemployment, and fiscal/monetary policy. Both branches help explain economic behavior and guide policymaking, but they operate at different levels of analysis.

1. BASICS OF BUSINESS-1
MICRO AND MACROCONOMICS
SHWETA IYER

2. Introduction to Micro and Macro Economics
 The whole economic theory is broadly divided into two parts – Micro
economics and Macro economics.
 These two terms were at first used by Ragner Frisch in 1933. But these two
words became popular worldwide and most of the economist using
nowadays.
 The term ‘micro’ and ‘macro’ were derived from Greek words ‘Mikros’ and
‘Makros’ meaning ‘small’ and ‘large’ respectively.
 So micro economics deals with the analysis of an individual unit and macro
economics with economy as a whole.
 For example, in micro economics we study how price of goods or factors of
production are determined. In macro economics we study what are the
causes of high or low level of employment.

3. MACRO ECONOMICS

4. MICRO ECONOMICS

5.  So, according to Edwin Mansfield – “Micro economics deals with the
economic behaviour of individual units such as consumers, firms, and
resource owners; while macro economics deals with behaviour of
economic aggregates such as gross national product and the level of
employment.
 A. Smith, D.Ricardo, T.R. Malthus, J.S. Mill were mainly of micro
economic nature. A. Marshall, A.C. Pigou were of macro –economic
nature. But macro economics was developed and popularized only after
Keynes in 1936.
Meaning of Micro - economics
 The term micro was originated from Greek word ‘Mikros’ which means
small.
 Hence, microeconomics is concerned on small economic units like as
individual consumer, households, firms, industry etc.

6. which studies about the economic behaviour of individual economic
unit may be a person, a particular households, a particular firm and
an industry.
 The main objective of micro – economics is to explain the principles,
problems and policies related to the optimum allocation of
resources.
 According to K. E. Boulding, “Microeconomics is the study of
particular firm, particular households, individual price, wage, income
of the industry and particular commodity.”
 According to Mc. Connel –” In micro economics we examine the
trees not the forests.”
 Similarly according to A.P. Lerner – “ Micro economics consists of
looking at the economy through a microscope.”

7.  It is the study of individual tree not a whole forest.
 Hence, microeconomics tries to explain how an individual allocates
his money income among various needs as well as how an
individual maximize satisfaction level from the consumption of
available limited resources.
 Microeconomics also explains about the process of determination
of individual price with interaction of demand and supply.
 It helps to determine the price of the product and factor inputs.
 Therefore, it is also called as price theory or demand and supply
theory.
 Simply microeconomics is microscopic study of the economy.

8. Use or Importance of Micro – Economics
The importance of micro – economics can be analyzed
on the basis of following headings:
1) Efficient allocation of resources:
 Microeconomics also concern about how a consumer
and producers allocate available limited resources in various
aspects so that the consumer will be able to maximize the
level of satisfaction and the producers will be able to
maximize output.
 As for example, the consumer will be able to maximize
satisfaction.
 When, MUx/Px = MUy/Py Or, MUx/MUy = Px/Py
 Similarly, the process will be also to maximize output
when,
 MUx/Px = MPL/PL Or, MUx/MPL = Px/PL

9. Where,
MUx = Marginal utility of commodity x
MUy = Marginal utility of commodity y
Px = Price of commodity x, Py = price of commodity y
MPx = Marginal productivity of capital
MPL = Marginal productivity of labor
Px = price of capital(interest rate), PL = Price of labor(wage)
2. To understand the working of market economy:
 We know that in case of market economy there is very less role of the
government and the market forces i.e. demand and supply are responsible for
determining every economic variable.
 Micro economics also believe that in market economy demand and supply play
vital role.
 Hence, with the study of microeconomics, we will be able to understand how
an economy without the role of government will run.

10. 3. To provide tools for economic policies:
 Microeconomics is highly helpful in the formulation of economic policies that
will promote the welfare of the society.
 It gives tool and foundations for analysis of economic policy.
 The economic policy directly affects the economy and which leads to change
in allocation of resources.
 Thus, the policy related to tax, loans, price, demand and production etc. are
based on the microeconomic analysis.
 The price theory provides analytical tools for economic policies affecting price
and production.
 In this way, microeconomics assists private sectors as well as government to
make best use of scare resources.

11. 4) To examine the condition of social and economic welfare:
 The normative price theory is called welfare economics. Welfare economic studies
welfare of the people as producers and consumers.
 It suggests possible ways of improving welfare of people. It helps to avoid waste and
bring more social welfare .
 It defines and analysis the rules of economic efficiency or micro economics help in
suggesting ways and means of eliminating wastages in order to bring maximum social
welfare.
5) Helpful in international trade :
 Every economy depends on the economy either for goods, services, technical knowledge
or marginal skills.
 Micro economics tells us how two or more than two economy can gain from
international trade.
 It is the relative elasticity's of demand and supply between the two countries which are
the basis of determining trade .
 More over, the exchange rate determination between the two countries also depends
upon the micro economic instruments of demand and supply.

12. 6) Useful in Business Decision –Making:
 It helps business executives in the attainment of maximum production by the given
amount of resources.
 With the help of microeconomics, business firm can make decisions in demand
analysis, cost analysis and methods of calculating prices.
 The main areas in which microeconomics is helpful in business decision making
are:
a) Pricing Policy:
 Microeconomics examines the basic economic policies.
 It analyze the condition of demand, supply, elasticity of demand, consumer
behaviour etc. which are the main variables of price determination.
 Thus, with the help of these variables businessman determine the price of
product.

13. b) Optimal allocation of resources:
 Microeconomics studies about the optimum allocation of scarce resources
and which helps to the business firm to select efficient and least cost
production technique.
 Similarly, it helps to determine what to produced, how to produced and for
whom to produced.
c) Optimal production decision:
 Business firm use the various methods and technique of production.
 However, they have continuously faced the problem of appropriate
technique and method of production.
 Because, the resources like, labor, capital is limited.
 Microeconomics provides powerful tool for managerial decision making in
the solution of such problems and maximization of output in the production
process.

14. d) Demand analysis and forecasting:
 Demand analysis theory can be a source of many useful insights for
business decision making.
 The fundamental objective of demand theory is to identify and analyze the
basic determinants of consumer needs or wants.
 On the basis of this analysis a businessman forecast a future sales or
demand which is essential before making production schedules of employing
resources.
 The forecast helps the manager to expand the market and raise profits.
e) Analysis of cost of production:
 Microeconomics analyzes the different types of cost, factors determining
cost and way of minimizing the cost of production

15.  On the basis of these analyses business men estimate the cost of
production before making the production decision.
Macro –Economics ( meaning and definition
 The term macro- economics is derived from Greek word “ Makros”,
which means “ big”.
 Hence, macro- economics studies not individual units but all the
units combined together or the economy as a whole.
 Since it studies the economy in aggregate. It studies national
income, national output, general price level, total employment, total
savings, total investment and so on.
 It is also called “aggregate economics” or the “income theory”.

16.  According to K.E. Boulding –” Macro- economics deals not with
individual quantities but with aggregate of these quantities, not with individual
incomes, but with national income, not with individual prices but with price
level, not with individual output but with national output.”
 According to Gardner Ackley – “ Macro –economics deals with the
economic affairs in the large. It concerns the overall dimensions of economic
life. It studies the character of the forest independently of trees which
compose it.”
 Since the main objective of macro –economics is to study the principles,
problems and policies related to full employment and growth of resources.
 J.M. Keynes made and outstanding contribution in the development of
macro- economics. It is also known as Keynesian Phenomenon.

17. Difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics
Micro and macroeconomics differ as follows
1) Nature of the study of Economic Units:
 Microeconomics studies the individual or small economic variables of the
economy such as individuals consumption, saving investment and income, but
macroeconomics deals with aggregates like national income, full employment and
price level.
2) Objectives:
 Microeconomics studies principles, problems and policies concerning the
optimum allocation of resources whereas macroeconomics studies the problems,
policies and principles relating to full employment and growth of resources.
3) Subject Matter:
 The subject matter of microeconomics deals with the determination of price,
consumer’s equilibrium, distribution and welfare, etc, whereas the subject matter
of macroeconomics studies full employment, price level, national income, trade
cycles, etc.

18. MACRO AND MICROECONOMICS

19. 4) Methodology:
 Laws of microeconomics are formulated on assumptions such as, full
employment, constant production and income, ceteris paribus ( other things
being equal ).
 With the help of these assumptions, micro laws establish relationship
between the causes and effects of economic variables.
 In other words, micro laws such as the law of demand and the law of
supply become valid on assumptions i.e. other things being equal. This
method of study is also known as the ‘ partial equilibrium analysis’.
 Macroeconomics assumes how the factors of production are distributed.
On the basis of the assumption of the factors distribution, it explains how full
employment can be achieved.
 In macroeconomics, economic variables are categorized into aggregate
units like aggregate demand, aggregate supply, total consumption, price
level, total saving, etc.

20.  The total effect of an economic factor on the economy is taken in to account in
macroeconomic analysis. This method of study is called ‘ general equilibrium
analysis’.
5) Components of Equilibrium:
 Microeconomics studies the equilibrium between the forces of market demand
and supply. Hence, the basis of microeconomics is the price mechanism.
 On the other hand, macroeconomic analysis deals with the national income
output, employment, etc, an such economic variables are determined at the
point of equilibrium established between the forces of the whole economy ( i.e.
aggregate demand and aggregate supply).
6) Static and Dynamic Analysis:
 Microeconomics studies the equilibrium at a particular point of time. It does not
explain the time factor. Hence, microeconomics is regarded as the static
analysis.

21.  On the other hand, macroeconomics is based on time lag, rate of
change, past and expected value of variables. Hence,
macroeconomics is regarded as the dynamic analysis.
 In microeconomics, the economic basis is explained under the
assumption of ‘ ceteris paribus’ to ignore the time lag.
Macroeconomics does not make such unrealistic assumptions.
7) Solution of Current Issues and Problems:
 The study of microeconomics does not help to solve the
important current issues and problems such as decline in national
income, hyper inflation, widespread unemployment and so on.
 On the other hand, macroeconomics studies the causes, effects
and possible measures for the solution of these issues and
problems. Thus, macroeconomics helps to solve these problems.

22. Difference between Micro and Macro Economics
i) Derive from Greek word ‘Mikros’, i) Derived from the Greek word’s
which means small ‘Makros’ which means large
ii) Based on principles, problems and ii) Based on achievement of full
policies related to allocation of
resources employment
iii) Subject matter based on individual iii) Subject matter based on aggregate
units of an economy. issues of the economy.
iv) Laws and principles based on iv) Laws and principles far from
assumptions and propositions. assumptions and propositions.
v) Assumes full employment of all v) Considers how the factors of
factors of production in an economy production are allocated to achieve
full employment.
vi) Market equilibrium in microeconomics vi) Market equilibrium in macro
is determine by individual market economics is determined by
demand and supply. aggregate demand and supply.

23. Basic Microeconomic Issues:
 Scarcity and Choice:
 Scarcity and choice are the basic problems in economics. This concept
was introduced by Prof. Lionel Robins, a British economist in the decade of
1930s.
Scarcity
 The common meaning of scarcity refers to unavailability ( i.e. not easily
found) in the market of a certain commodity.
 The conceptual meaning of scarcity, in economics, is however different. A
commodity is scarce because it commands value. It commands price.
 We have to pay for any goods and services we want to consume. In
addition, the resources that we have are also always limited.

25.  A commodity is scarce, in economic sense, not because it is rare or
unavailable in the market, but because the means to have it are
limited.
 We have limited resources at our disposal, so there is a problem of
scarcity.
 Human wants are unlimited, but the means or resources to satisfy
them are always limited.
 Scarcity explains this relationship between limited resources and
unlimited wants and the problem therein.
Economic problems arise because the goods we need are scarce.
These scarce goods have many uses.
 Again, these uses are tempting and competing with each other.
There is a problem of choice- choice between alternative uses.
 Therefore, scarcity and choice guide the whole course of economic
activities.

26. Let us have a clear concept of these two important
terms;
It is not just an individual problem. It is the problem of
national economy as well. Its dimension changes when it is
applied to national economy. In other words, scarcity of
resources gives birth to national economic problems.
Scarcity brings broad human problems in to our notice.
There is a poverty and human misery because of scarcity of
resources.
 A poor man is poor because the resources accessible to
him are scarce. A country is poor because there is scarcity of
resources.
 Scarcity, in deeper sense, tells the story of human misery
and unhappiness around the earth.

27.  To understand and analyze the problem of poverty of a man and a
country, and to eradicate it, proper understanding of the problem of
scarcity is of utmost importance.
 Scarcity tells us about the importance of a commodity as well. It tells us
how valuable a good is because a lot of scarce resources is being spent to
get it.
 If the resources were not used for the specific purpose, these could
be used elsewhere.
 The resources are not only scarce but they have also alternative
uses. These uses produce different results – some use result into high
values and others low.

28. The resources is better used if it results into higher return.
Higher return signifies two meanings.
 For an individual consumer, it means higher level of
satisfaction and for producers it means higher level of
profits.
 In other words, all the economic units will aim at optimization
of their objectives.
 By using available resources the aim of the consumers,
producers and government will be to optimize satisfaction,
profit and welfare of the people.

29. Choice:
 The optimization objectives of the economic actors necessitates making
knowledgeable choice in the use of available resources.
 Choice is involved in economic activities at both consumption and production level.
 It also concerns individual and the state. The problem of choice begins with an
individual’s liking of how much time he would allot for work and how much for leisure.
 The more time he assigns for work, lesser time is available for leisure. At the same
time the more he works, the more he earns.

30. On the income earned, the choice is between how much to consume now
and how much to save for the future.
Choice in consumption means what to buy – food or clothes, sweets or
toys, or a combination of both in limited quantity, etc.
 Similarly, choice in the income saved is between where to deposit the
saving – in bank or hold idle cash at home. The bank too make choices
about where to invest the deposits it receives.
 It invests, of course, in such sectors where it is more profitable. That is the
chain of choice goes on deeper and deeper referring to the profitable use of
resources at the hand of economic actors.

31.  The meaning of scarcity is in relation to the nature of goods
that always command value and the relatively limited availability
of resources.
 Similarly, there is always a problem of choice because of
scarce resources and their alternative uses.
The problems which arise due to the scarcity of resources and
the areas where the choice is needed are as follows:
1) Problem of Production:
 The availability of the factors of production is less in
comparison to their needs for production. This creates the
problem that what and how much is to be produced by using
these resources.
 In such cases, choice is needed to use the factors in high
yielding sector.

32. 2) Problem of choosing production method:
 After the determination of the commodity to be produced, the problem arises
to choose the appropriate method of its production.
 Any of the methods between labor intensive and capital intensive techniques
can be used in the production process.
 But the choice is needed to determine the economic and useful method for
the available condition of resources in the economy.
3) Problem of distribution:
 The production of goods and services is the return of the factors of
production.
 So, the income derived from the sell of these commodities distributes among
these factors. When the problem of determining the remuneration of the
factors of production is created, then the economic problem arises.

34.  The choice is needed to solve this problem by providing remuneration
according to their contribution.
 Except this, the choice is needed to choose the sector of distribution of
income to decrease inequality for social welfare.
4) Problem of economic efficiency:
 Economic efficiency is the process of utilizing the resources in such a
way that the satisfaction or utility can be maximized.
 The choice is needed to determine how the limited resources should be
used in efficient sector among different areas of its use.
5) Problem of full utilization of resources:
 The availability of the factors of production is limited and its alternative
use is possible. Thus, choice is necessary to determine how and in
which sector these scarce resources must be used so that they are fully
employed.

35. 6) Problem of economic growth:
 In developing countries, the level of economic
development is very low. The necessity of these countries is
to reach in high level by increasing the level of development.
 But due to the scarcity of resources for development
works, the economic problem arises.
 To employ these limited resources in more return
providing sector, the choice is needed.
In this way, the problem of scarcity of resources for every
sector of economic activities and to choose them for optimum
utilization is the basic economic problem.

36. Efficient Allocation of Resources
( Efficiency and Alternative Uses of Resources)
 The productive resources ( like land, labor, raw materials,
machinery equipments etc.) are not adequately available.
 Because these resources are scarce, their use must be
carefully thought out.
 Besides, they have alternative uses; that is, only one use can
be chosen and all other uses have to satisfied.
 The pressure on appropriate use of such important factor is
naturally high. The allocation of resources discusses principles
of right sharing of resources among competing sectors.
 Allocation is related to the choice of how much of resources
to be allocated in what sector. It is the basic problem of every
economy.
1. The whole body of planning, programming, and even
budgeting are nothing, but statements of allocation of
resources.

37.  The objective is the achievement of optimal use of scarce resource. The
criterion is maximization of returns.
 Resource allocation occupies central position in economics. Sometimes
economics is defined in terms of resource allocation, too.
 According to Prof. Stigler, “economics is the study of principles governing
the allocation of scarce means among competing ends.
 The key issues in economic problems are the issues of allocation of
resources. There are various types of human needs.
 Not all of them can be satisfied simultaneously. We try to cover the
maximum number at one time. “ The allocation is best if it satisfy the most “
is its guiding principles. It is, therefore, closely related with economic
functions like production, exchange, etc.
 Where the demand for more resources never ceases(stopped). Its base
themes are as follows :

39. 1) What to produce:
 The first concern is related with “ what to produce ? How much to
produce? “ because resources are scarce, production of all goods and
services needed by a society are beyond its capacity.
 It is simple not possible for any economy no matter how developed it
might be. So, it has to select a set among various alternatives.
 Production must need the maximum social need. The first priority goes to
basic needs. However, production is guided by profit and profit knows no
social justice.
 An economy should follow social efficiency while reallocation resources.
The social norms and values should guide to maximize social satisfaction.
 So, allocation is best which satisfies the most. The problem of what to
produce and how much to produce depends on the necessity of the
citizens of the country.

40. 2) How to produce :
 The second question is concerned with the method of production.
 In some cases, labor may play a major role. It is called labor –
intensive technology. In others, capital may play a major role. It is
called capital – intensive.
 Labor intensive method creates more job favoring more employment.
It helps in mitigating unemployment problem.
 Capital –intensive production goes for large volume of production. It
commands rapid growth rate.
 The right decision depends on the current state of the economy.
3) For whom to produce :
 Production for masses or productions for profit are two major
choices that every economy has to decide.

42.  As the development level goes higher, production of superior goods proceeds
towards super profit.
 This issue is also related with maintaining social justice. Meeting the basic
requirements of all segments of population is the main criterion of resource
allocation.
4) Promotion of efficiency in economy ;
 “ How to run an economy efficiently” is the first concern of resource allocation.
 Economic efficiency is measured in additional welfare achieved without worsening
any result. It means that new reallocation of resource must not only be able to
maintain the existing level but also achieving new heights.
 Alternatively, reallocation may be profitable somewhere but incurring losses
elsewhere.
 The main objective is to increase aggregate profitability of the economy.

43.  Beside needs of common people can not be ignored.
Of course, the priority goes to wage goods production.
5) Balance in the economy:
 Another purpose of resource allocation is the
maintenance of balance among different sectors of the
economy.
 The balance between rural and urban sectors,
between home consumption and export promotion,
between consumer goods and capital goods
production and regional balance are the healthy signs
of any economy.
 Investment in these different sectors are very
important. How much to invest in what sector? This is
the major question, which is studied in this topic.

44. Opportunity Cost
 The opportunity cost of an item is what you give up to get that item or the
second best alternative forsaken to produce or consume a commodity is
known as opportunity cost.
 Limited resources and unlimited wants lead to the compulsion of choice.
So, to produce or consume a commodity a numbers of others has to be
forsaken.
 The ability to fulfill desire is limited by scarcity of resources, stage of
technology, techniques of production, limited income, and so on.
 The resources available can be used to produce or consume some
commodities at the cost of some others.
 Opportunity cost arises due to the presence of alternative use of
resources.
 If resources had limited uses, opportunity cost would be out of question or
if there were infinite resources, these could be used to produce everything
and nothing had to be given up to produce a commodity.

46.  Though there may be a number of alternative uses of the resources, only
the best option forsaken is the opportunity cost.
 The value of the second best commodity forsaken for the production or
consumption of some other is opportunity cost and this arises due to the
scarcity of resources and their possible alternative uses.
 For example, in a plot of land, various crops can be planted. If rice is
planted, the yield is worth Rs. 1000.
 If millet and wheat are planted the yield per month is Rs. 800 and Rs. 900
respectively.
 In this case, the opportunity cost of planting rice is the yield of wheat. This
is because wheat is the best option forsaken for planting rice in that plot of
land.
 Similarly the opportunity cost of planting wheat or millet is planting rice.

47. Concept of positive and normative science
 All the economist have accepted the economics is a
science. But there is the dispute about its type.
 Here, the views given for economics as positive science
and normative science are explained.
 In order to the meaning and implication of these
sciences, they are explained in the following heading:
1) Positive science:
 The science which shows the cause and effect
relationship by explaining the actual condition of an event
or situation is known as positive science.
 It formulates the law on the basis of cause and effect
relationship.

48.  The function of the positive science is to deal the things as they are.
It remains neutral about its end and refuses to pass moral judgment.
 It is not related to the rightness or wrongness of things. Its work is
not to provide idealism or to give message about morality but to
explain the reality.
 According to Keynes- “ A positive science may be defined as a
body of systemized knowledge concerning what is”.
 Economics also establishes the relationship between cause and
effect of economic activities of human beings.
Therefore, it is positive science. For example, in the explanation of
the law of demand, it says that utility goes on decreasing when
additional units of consumption goods are increased.

49.  Similarly, the law of demand says that the demand decreases when the price of a
commodity increases.
 In the explanation of these laws, the cause and effect relationship are established.
So, economics is positive science.
 In the opinion of Robbins, Economics is not concerned with the aspects like right or
wrong and good or bad.
 Instead, it is neutral about the problems concerning rightness or wrongness.
It is concerned only with what the reality is . For example, economics does not say
that it is harmful to smoke. But it explains how it provides maximum satisfaction to the
consumers.

50.  Therefore, it is a positive science. In the words of Robbins –” The
function of economics is merely to explore and explain: not to
advocate and condemn.”
 It means, the laws of moral science will not be applicable in it. It
has propounded different theories on the basis of cause and effect
relationship which are based on reality. Thus, it describes the reality
and it is a positive science.
2) Normative science:
 It is concerned with the ideals of humans life. The aspects like right
or wrong, good or bad are studied in it.
 It explains the situation of ‘ what ought to be’. It means, it gives
judgment about rightness or wrongness.
 According to Keynes –”A normative science is a body of
systematized knowledge relation to the criteria of what ought to be”.

51.  It formulates the policy to eradicate unnecessary and undesirable aspects
contained in situation to analyze it.
 For example, if smoking is harmful to health then it says that it is not good to
smoke and we do not have to smoke.
 Welfare economist have assumed economics as a normative science and said that
it has to make right decision considering the behavioral aspects of the propounded
theories.
 Therefore, economics can not be neutral about its objective. Instead, to make right
decision is its objective.
 For example, after the explanation of poverty and unemployment contained in a
country, economics must teach the method of their solution.
 In the opinion of Marshall, economics is a normative science. Therefore, he says, it
has to make the decision in favor of reality after the study of rightness or wrongness
and must suggest for what ought to be.

52.  He says- chewing of tobacco is injurious to health. Thus, it must suggest
that capital should be transferred to other useful industries by discouraging
the investment in tobacco.
 It clears that normative science presents the fact of goods and events and
separates the thing is right or wrong.
 It provides the knowledge about what the ideal is and what the conditions
of the idealism are. So, it is a normative science.
 In reality, the laws and theories of economics are concerned with cause
and effect relationship.
 It also finds conclusions about what the proper is and what ought to be in
the sector of economic policy, economic activities, economic programs etc.
 Hence, economics is both positive and normative science.

53. Economic Models ( Meaning and definition )
 The economic model is a simplified framework designed to illustrate complex
processes.
 Economic theory aims at the construction of models which describe the economic
behavior of individual units ( consumers, firms, government agencies) and their
interactions which create the economic system of a region, a country or the world as
a whole.
 A model is a simplified representation of a real situation. It includes the main
features of the real situation which it represents.
 A model implies abstraction from reality which is achieved by a set of meaningful
and consistent assumptions, which aim at the simplification of the phenomenon or
behavioral pattern that the model is designed to study.

54.  The degree of abstraction from reality depends on the purpose for which the model
is constructed.
 The series of assumptions in any particular case are chosen carefully so as to be
consistent, to retain as much realism as possible and attain a ‘ reasonable’ degree of
generality.
 However, abstraction does not imply unrealism, but is a simplification of reality. It is
the beginning of understanding the great complexity of the real economic world.
 A model can be constructed at different levels of aggregation, detail and
sophistication depending on its purpose.
 There are two main purposes for which a model is built – analysis and prediction.
 Analysis implies the explanation of the behavior of economic units, consumers or
producers.

55.  Prediction implies the possibility of forecasting the effects of changes in
some magnitudes in the economy.
 For example, a model of supply might be used to predict the effects of
imposition of a tax on the sales of firms.
 The validity of model may be judged on several criteria. Its predictive
power, the consistency and realism of its assumptions, the extent of
information it provides, its generality ( that is, the range of cases to which it
applies) and its simplicity.
 Model should be constructed in such a way so as to be testable, that is, to
be capable of being verified when compared with the true economic facts,

57. Use of Economic Models
 Forecasting economic activity in a way in which conclusions
are logically related to assumptions:
 Proposing economic policy to modify future economic activity.
 Presenting reasoned arguments to politically justify economic policy at
the national level, to explain and influence company strategy at the level
of the firm, or to provide intelligent advise for household economic
decisions as the level of households.
 Planning and allocation, in the case of centrally planned
economies, and on a smaller scale in logistics and management
of businesses.
 A model establishes an argumentative framework for applying
logic and mathematics that can be independently discussed and
tested and that can be applied in various instances. Policies
and arguments that rely on economic models have a clear basis
for soundness, namely the validity of the supporting model.

58. Questions:
1) Distinguish between micro and macro economics. Explain the
importance of micro economics.
2) Define micro and macro economics. Explain the importance of
micro economics in business decision.
3) Explain the scarcity definition of economics.
4) How does a consumer make choice with scarce resources.
5) Distinguish between positive and normative science.
7) What is positive and normative science? Economics is a positive
science why?
8) Scarcity of the resources brings the need of choice, explain.
9) Explain the basic economic problem and causes of need of
choice.
10 What is proper allocation of resources.
11) Define opportunity cost.
12) What do you mean by economic model? What are its uses?

59. MACROECONOMIC FACTORS IN FASHION

60. MACRO ECONOMIC FACTORS IN GARMENT
INDUSTRY
 Macroenvironmental factors affecting the clothing industry
are those which lie outside small companies and their
competitors.
 Business owners have less control of these external
factors, and their impact in changing them is minimal.
Instead, small companies must adapt to these
macroenvironmental factors, which include consumer
characteristics, technology, government influence and the
economy.
 The way small companies adapt to macroenvironmental
factors determines both their ability to differentiate
themselves from key competitors and overall success.
 .

61. CONSUMER FACTORS
 Consumer microenvironmental factors include cultures, norms,
lifestyle, demographics and population changes.
 These factors affect the clothing industry in different ways. For
example, a small clothing manufacturer needs to create styles
that appeal to those of different cultures, especially if those
cultural groups represent large enough segments of its market.
 Contrarily, clothing manufacturers, wholesalers and retailers
avoid creating too many clothing items that fall outside the
norms of society, such as styles worn 100 years ago.
 An aging population may increase the demand for larger jeans
and pants sizes, such as relaxed or looser-fitting styles.
Generally, many people become more sedentary when they
get into their 40s and 50s. Consumers' waistlines expand so
they need larger sizes and more room for comfort. Also,
decreases in birth rates in some areas will lower the demand
for baby clothes.

62. TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS
 Technological micro environmental factors affecting the clothing industry
include availability of resources, demand and production. For example,
the scarcity of certain materials, such as leather, may force retail and
wholesale clothing companies to sell more faux or substitute leather
products.
 Retailers may increase the prices of cotton clothing if they encounter
shortages of this raw material, as they must pay their manufacturers
more. The introduction of new clothing styles by a competitor can shift
demand away from older fashions.
 Hence, a small clothing manufacturer may need to discontinue certain
clothing lines and produce new ones that meet the needs of consumers.
Moreover, clothing companies may add more advanced equipment in
their plants like robots, which may force companies to fire some workers

63. LEGAL AND POLITICAL FACTORS
 A number of legal and political macroenvironmental factors affect
small businesses in the clothing industry. The industry has repeatedly
been affected by issues such as workers' rights and child labor laws.
 Union workers in clothing manufacturing plants may picket their
employers, especially if their wages or medical benefits are less
favorable than workers in comparable industries.
 Workers picketing their clothing employers impacts production. This
can cause delays for retailers in getting spring or fall fashions on
time. Activists who are not employed by the companies may also
picket retailers who purchase clothing from countries known for
violating child labor laws.
 This negative publicity may impact a small clothing retailers' sales
and profits. Also, a trade embargo against another company's
imports would force clothing wholesalers to find different suppliers.

64. ECONOMIC FACTORS
 Economic factors can have both positive and negative impacts on the clothing
industry.
 During economic boom periods, people have more disposable income. Hence,
they may buy more clothing, increasing sales for clothing manufacturers,
wholesalers and retailers.
 However, recessions have the opposite effect. Sales for these various clothing
entities may be significantly lower. Consequently, retailers may be stuck with
large amounts of inventory.
 And they may have to sell the clothing at substantially reduced prices. Clothing
manufacturers and retailers may also need to sell lower-priced clothing brands
to compete with more generic brands. Consumers often shop for cheaper
brands when they have less disposable income.

65. SIX MICROENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT
AFFECT BUSINESSES
 In economics, macroeconomics encompasses societal
perspective on resource allocation. Microeconomics involves
factors of resources availability and usage that impact individuals
and businesses. As a company operator, understanding the core
microeconomic factors affecting your business helps in planning
and preparation, as well as long-term business strategy
development. Six microeconomic business factors that affect
almost any business are customers, employees, competitors,
media, shareholders and suppliers.
 Customers
 Customers have the most direct microeconomic impact on a
business. The simple fact is that you can't successfully operate a
for-profit company without attracting targeted customers. Knowing
your ideal customer types and developing and presenting
effective marketing campaigns are integral to building a customer
base and generating revenue streams.

66.  Employees
 Your workers produce, sell or service the goods and service that
drive your business. The availability of qualified, motivated
employees for your business type is vital to economic success. If
you operate a highly technical business, for instance, you might
have to pay more in salary to attract a limited number of
available, specialized workers.
 Distribution Channels and Suppliers
 Sourcing goods used in production or resale and distributing your
inventory to customers are important as well. Manufacturers rely
on materials suppliers and resale companies rely on
manufacturers or wholesalers to transport goods. To operate
profitably, you need to get good value on products and supplies
and, in turn, offer good value to your customers with accessible
solutions.

67. MICROENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

68.  Competitors
 The level of competition also impacts your economic livelihood. In
theory, more competitors means your share of dollars customers spend
diminishes. However, a large number of competitors in an industry
usually signifies lots of demand for the products or services provided. If
an industry lacks competition, you might not find enough demand to
succeed in the long run.
 Investors
 Shareholders and investors may help fund your company at start-up or
as you look to grow. Without funds to build and expand, you likely can't
operate a business. You could look to creditors, but you have to repay
loans with interest. By taking on investors, you share the risks of
operating and often gain support and expertise. You do give up some
control, though.
 Media and the General Public
 Your local community and media also affect your ongoing business
image. Communities often support companies that provide jobs, pay
taxes and operate with social and environmental responsibility. If you
don't do these things, you may run into negative public backlash. Local
media often help your story proliferate, for better or worse.

69. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 smallbusiness.chron.com › Advertising &
Marketing › Other Advertising & Marketing
 Macroeconomics-By Roger A. Arnold
 http://www.lidderdale.com/econ/104/ch2Lect.
html

70. THANK YOU