High‐efficiency, environment friendly, renewable energy‐based methods of desalination represent attractive and potentially very powerful solutions to the long‐standing problem of global water shortage. Many new laboratory‐scale materials have been developed for photothermal desalination but the development of low‐cost, easy‐to‐manufacture, and scalable materials and systems that can convert solar irradiation into exploitable thermal energy in this context is still a significant challenge. This paper presents work on a geopolymer–biomass mesoporous carbon composite (GBMCC) device with mesoporous and macroporous structures for harvesting solar energy, which is then used in a device to generate water vapor with high efficiency using negative pressure, wind‐driven, steam generation. The GBMCC device gives water evaporation rates of 1.58 and 2.71 kg m−2 h−1 under 1 and 3 suns illumination, with the solar thermal conversion efficiency up to 84.95% and 67.6%, respectively. A remarkable, record high water vapor generation rate of 7.55 kg m−2 h−1 is achieved under 1 sun solar intensity at the wind speed of 3 m s−1. This is a key step forward todays efficient, sustainable and economical production of clean water from seawater or common wastewater with free solar energy. Advanced Functional Materials, Volume28, Issue47, November 21, 2018, 1803266 Pub Date : 2018-11-19 , DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201870332
Fenghua Liu; Binyuan Zhao; Weiping Wu; Haiyan Yang; Yuesheng Ning; Yijian Lai; Robert Bradley. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/adfm.201803266
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/adfm.201870332
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF HYDROGEN FUELED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINEijsrd.com
In the history of internal combustion engine development, hydrogen has been considered at several phases as a substitute of hydrocarbon-based fuels. Starting from the 70’s, there have been several attempts to convert engines for hydrogen operation. Together with the development in gas injector technology it has become possible to control precisely the injection of hydrogen for safe operation. Here we are using stainless steel plate as electrode in the electrolytic cell, the electrolyte being water and NACL salt. The electrolytic cell we used is a 12V battery case made of plastic. The cross sectional layers are cut such that the stainless steel plate fix in the battery case. The plates are separated by very small distance and the plates are given parallel holes for electron flow to be uniform. The power source to the kit is provided by a 12V and 9Ams battery. We used a transparent tube to supply the hydrogen produced in the kit to the air hose tube of our motor cycle. In order to keep the battery charged we used two 6 Amp diode to power the battery while running. There is a separate switch to power the kit and to protect the battery from getting drained. The stainless steel plates are of 50cm length, 25cm height, 2 millimeter thickness. The battery case can hold up to 5 liters of electrolyte. The use of hydrogen with petrol to power the vehicle has resulted in increase in vehicle mileage, accelerating speed with most important task of reduction in exhaust emission.
Effect of pollution and dust on PV performanceIJCMESJOURNAL
Photovoltaic or PV systems are one of the next generation’s renewable energy sources for our world energy demand. It’s a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity. When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through. But only the absorbed light generates electricity. An electrical field is created near the top surface of the cell where these two materials are in contact. The PV system affected highly by the dust and pollutants accumulation on its surface as it reduces the solar light reaches the cell; as a result reduce the cell outcome. In this experimental work, three types of Iraqi construction materials (cement, plaster, and borax) were used as pollutants to evaluate their effect on the PV cell performance. The results reveal that borax has the lowest impact on the cell current while plaster has the maximum level. The output power and efficiency were influenced by these impacts and plaster ranked the minimum efficiency with about 25.8% reduction compared to clean cell.
Review of water-nanofluid based photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) systemsIJECEIAES
Solar energy is secure, clean, and available on earth throughout the year. The PV/T system is a device designed to receive solar energy and convert it into electric/thermal energy. Nanofluid is a new generation of heat transfer fluid with promising higher thermal conductivity and improve heat transfer rate compared with conventional fluids. In this review, the recent studies of PV/T using nanofluid is discussed regarding basic concept and theory PV/T, thermal conductivity of nanofluid and experimentally and theoretically study the perfromance of PV/T using nanofluid. A review of the literature shows that many studies have evaluated the potential of nanofluid as heat transfer fluid and optical filter in the PV/T system. The preparations of nanofluid play an essential key for high stability and homogenous nanofluid for a long period. The thermal conductivity of nanofluid is depending on the size of nanoparticles, concentration and preparation of nanofluids.
Single-atom catalysts for biomass-derived drop-in chemicalsPawan Kumar
Conversion of biomass to fuel and drop-in chemicals is envisaged to solve the problem of depleting fossil fuel reserves while leveling-off the staggering CO2 concentration. By-passing the natural carbon cycle via the transformation of abundant lignocellulosic biomass into chemicals does not add any extra CO2 to the environment and the net CO2 concentration remains the same. The paradigm shifts from fossil fuel-based chemicals to biomass-derived products will rely on efficient and cost-effective catalysts that can compete with cheap and readily available fossil fuels. Existing transition and noble metal-based nanoparticle catalysts either in the supported or unsupported form are crippling due to poor activity/selectivity, deactivation of catalytically active sites, and the complex composition, recalcitrant nature, and high moisture content of biomass. Single-atom catalysts (SACs) possessing single-atom centers decorated on support have shown great promise in biomass conversion due to their unique geometric configuration, electronic properties, and ensemble effect. In contrast to traditional catalytic systems, SACs encompass the advantages of both heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts with improved performance and easy recyclability. Because of the availability of each metal center for the reaction and unique geometrical configuration, SACs have displayed exceptional catalytic activity and selectivity (~95% in most cases). In addition, the SACs show increased thermal and chemical stability due to the stabilization of the metal center on the support. The present chapter highlights the various aspects of SACs for efficient and selective biomass conversion into drop-in chemicals.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF HYDROGEN FUELED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINEijsrd.com
In the history of internal combustion engine development, hydrogen has been considered at several phases as a substitute of hydrocarbon-based fuels. Starting from the 70’s, there have been several attempts to convert engines for hydrogen operation. Together with the development in gas injector technology it has become possible to control precisely the injection of hydrogen for safe operation. Here we are using stainless steel plate as electrode in the electrolytic cell, the electrolyte being water and NACL salt. The electrolytic cell we used is a 12V battery case made of plastic. The cross sectional layers are cut such that the stainless steel plate fix in the battery case. The plates are separated by very small distance and the plates are given parallel holes for electron flow to be uniform. The power source to the kit is provided by a 12V and 9Ams battery. We used a transparent tube to supply the hydrogen produced in the kit to the air hose tube of our motor cycle. In order to keep the battery charged we used two 6 Amp diode to power the battery while running. There is a separate switch to power the kit and to protect the battery from getting drained. The stainless steel plates are of 50cm length, 25cm height, 2 millimeter thickness. The battery case can hold up to 5 liters of electrolyte. The use of hydrogen with petrol to power the vehicle has resulted in increase in vehicle mileage, accelerating speed with most important task of reduction in exhaust emission.
Effect of pollution and dust on PV performanceIJCMESJOURNAL
Photovoltaic or PV systems are one of the next generation’s renewable energy sources for our world energy demand. It’s a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity. When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through. But only the absorbed light generates electricity. An electrical field is created near the top surface of the cell where these two materials are in contact. The PV system affected highly by the dust and pollutants accumulation on its surface as it reduces the solar light reaches the cell; as a result reduce the cell outcome. In this experimental work, three types of Iraqi construction materials (cement, plaster, and borax) were used as pollutants to evaluate their effect on the PV cell performance. The results reveal that borax has the lowest impact on the cell current while plaster has the maximum level. The output power and efficiency were influenced by these impacts and plaster ranked the minimum efficiency with about 25.8% reduction compared to clean cell.
Review of water-nanofluid based photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) systemsIJECEIAES
Solar energy is secure, clean, and available on earth throughout the year. The PV/T system is a device designed to receive solar energy and convert it into electric/thermal energy. Nanofluid is a new generation of heat transfer fluid with promising higher thermal conductivity and improve heat transfer rate compared with conventional fluids. In this review, the recent studies of PV/T using nanofluid is discussed regarding basic concept and theory PV/T, thermal conductivity of nanofluid and experimentally and theoretically study the perfromance of PV/T using nanofluid. A review of the literature shows that many studies have evaluated the potential of nanofluid as heat transfer fluid and optical filter in the PV/T system. The preparations of nanofluid play an essential key for high stability and homogenous nanofluid for a long period. The thermal conductivity of nanofluid is depending on the size of nanoparticles, concentration and preparation of nanofluids.
Single-atom catalysts for biomass-derived drop-in chemicalsPawan Kumar
Conversion of biomass to fuel and drop-in chemicals is envisaged to solve the problem of depleting fossil fuel reserves while leveling-off the staggering CO2 concentration. By-passing the natural carbon cycle via the transformation of abundant lignocellulosic biomass into chemicals does not add any extra CO2 to the environment and the net CO2 concentration remains the same. The paradigm shifts from fossil fuel-based chemicals to biomass-derived products will rely on efficient and cost-effective catalysts that can compete with cheap and readily available fossil fuels. Existing transition and noble metal-based nanoparticle catalysts either in the supported or unsupported form are crippling due to poor activity/selectivity, deactivation of catalytically active sites, and the complex composition, recalcitrant nature, and high moisture content of biomass. Single-atom catalysts (SACs) possessing single-atom centers decorated on support have shown great promise in biomass conversion due to their unique geometric configuration, electronic properties, and ensemble effect. In contrast to traditional catalytic systems, SACs encompass the advantages of both heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts with improved performance and easy recyclability. Because of the availability of each metal center for the reaction and unique geometrical configuration, SACs have displayed exceptional catalytic activity and selectivity (~95% in most cases). In addition, the SACs show increased thermal and chemical stability due to the stabilization of the metal center on the support. The present chapter highlights the various aspects of SACs for efficient and selective biomass conversion into drop-in chemicals.
In this paper, a mathematical model is developed to study the performance of a parabolic trough collector (PTC). The proposed model consists of three parts. The first part is a solar radiation model that used to estimate the amount of solar radiation incident upon Earth by using equations and relationships between the sun and the Earth. The second part is the optical model; This part has the ability to determine the optical efficiency of PTC throughout the daytime. The last part is the thermal model. The aim of this part is to estimate the amount of energy collected by different types of fluids and capable to calculate the heat losses, thermal efficiency and the outlet temperature of fluid. All heat balance equations and heat transfer mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation, have been incorporated. The proposed model is implemented in MATLAB. A new nanofluids like Water+PEO+1%CNT, PEO+1%CNT and PEO+0.2%CUO where tested and were compared with conventional water and molten salt during the winter and the summer to the city of Basra and good results were obtained in improving the performance of the solar collector. The results explained both the design and environmental parameters that effect on the performance of PTC. Percentage of improvement in the thermal efficiency at the summer when using nanofluids (Water+PEO+1%CNT, PEO+1%CNT and PEO+0.2%CUO) Nano fluids are (19.68%, 17.47% and 15.1%) respectively compared to the water and (10.98%, 8.93% and 6.7%) respectively compared to the molten salt, as well as the percentage decreases in the heat losses by using the Nano fluids through the vacuum space between the receiver tube and the glass envelope compared with water (86 %, 76 % and 66 %) and molten salt (79.15 %, 64.34 % and 48.47 % ) . As final a Water+PEO+1%CNT nanofluid gives the best performance
Electro-Disinfection of Municipal Wastewater: Laboratory Scale Comparison bet...IJERA Editor
Electrodisinfection of wastewater has been investigated extensively in the past, although a consensus over the use of direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) as the most efficient electricity source has not been reached to date. The research presented herein compares the use of DC and AC in electrodisinfection of municipal wastewater aiming to provide conclusive evidence on the benefits of using one type of current over the other. During the experimental phase, a bench-scale electrodisinfection reactor equipped with iridium oxidecoated titanium electrodes was operated continuously, and E.coli inactivation, free and total chlorine generation were measured. The results observed indicate that, under the experimental conditions, DC represents a more efficient and economical alternative to electrodisinfection than AC.
Carbon-cuprous oxide composite nanoparticles
were chemically deposited on surface of thin glass tubes of spent
energy saving lamps for solar heat collection. Carbon was
obtained from fly ash of heavy oil incomplete combustion in
electric power stations. Impurities in the carbon were removed by
leaching with mineral acids. The mineral free-carbon was then
wet ground to have a submicron size. After filtration, it was
reacted with concentrated sulfuric/fuming nitric acid mixture on
cold for 3-4 days. Potassium chlorate was then added drop wise on
hot conditions to a carbon slurry followed by filtration.
Nanocarbon sample was mixed with 5% by weight PVA to help
adhesion to the glass surface. Carbon so deposited was doped with
copper nitrate solution. After dryness, the carbon/copper nitrate
film was dipped in hydrazine hydrate to form cuprous oxide -
carbon composite, It was then roasted at 380-400 °C A heat
collector testing assembly was constructed of 5 glass coils
connected in series with a total surface area of 1250 cm2
. Heat
collection was estimated by water flowing in the glass coils that
are coated with the carbon/copper film,. Parameters affecting the
solar collection efficiency such as time of exposure and mass flow
rate of the water were studied. Results revealed that the prepared
glass coil has proven successful energy collector for solar heat.
In this paper, a mathematical model is developed to study the performance of a parabolic trough collector (PTC). The proposed model consists of three parts. The first part is a solar radiation model that used to estimate the amount of solar radiation incident upon Earth by using equations and relationships between the sun and the Earth. The second part is the optical model; This part has the ability to determine the optical efficiency of PTC throughout the daytime. The last part is the thermal model. The aim of this part is to estimate the amount of energy collected by different types of fluids and capable to calculate the heat losses, thermal efficiency and the outlet temperature of fluid. All heat balance equations and heat transfer mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation, have been incorporated. The proposed model is implemented in MATLAB. A new nanofluids like Water+PEO+1%CNT, PEO+1%CNT and PEO+0.2%CUO where tested and were compared with conventional water and molten salt during the winter and the summer to the city of Basra and good results were obtained in improving the performance of the solar collector. The results explained both the design and environmental parameters that effect on the performance of PTC. Percentage of improvement in the thermal efficiency at the summer when using nanofluids (Water+PEO+1%CNT, PEO+1%CNT and PEO+0.2%CUO) Nano fluids are (19.68%, 17.47% and 15.1%) respectively compared to the water and (10.98%, 8.93% and 6.7%) respectively compared to the molten salt, as well as the percentage decreases in the heat losses by using the Nano fluids through the vacuum space between the receiver tube and the glass envelope compared with water (86 %, 76 % and 66 %) and molten salt (79.15 %, 64.34 % and 48.47 % ) . As final a Water+PEO+1%CNT nanofluid gives the best performance
Electro-Disinfection of Municipal Wastewater: Laboratory Scale Comparison bet...IJERA Editor
Electrodisinfection of wastewater has been investigated extensively in the past, although a consensus over the use of direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) as the most efficient electricity source has not been reached to date. The research presented herein compares the use of DC and AC in electrodisinfection of municipal wastewater aiming to provide conclusive evidence on the benefits of using one type of current over the other. During the experimental phase, a bench-scale electrodisinfection reactor equipped with iridium oxidecoated titanium electrodes was operated continuously, and E.coli inactivation, free and total chlorine generation were measured. The results observed indicate that, under the experimental conditions, DC represents a more efficient and economical alternative to electrodisinfection than AC.
Carbon-cuprous oxide composite nanoparticles
were chemically deposited on surface of thin glass tubes of spent
energy saving lamps for solar heat collection. Carbon was
obtained from fly ash of heavy oil incomplete combustion in
electric power stations. Impurities in the carbon were removed by
leaching with mineral acids. The mineral free-carbon was then
wet ground to have a submicron size. After filtration, it was
reacted with concentrated sulfuric/fuming nitric acid mixture on
cold for 3-4 days. Potassium chlorate was then added drop wise on
hot conditions to a carbon slurry followed by filtration.
Nanocarbon sample was mixed with 5% by weight PVA to help
adhesion to the glass surface. Carbon so deposited was doped with
copper nitrate solution. After dryness, the carbon/copper nitrate
film was dipped in hydrazine hydrate to form cuprous oxide -
carbon composite, It was then roasted at 380-400 °C A heat
collector testing assembly was constructed of 5 glass coils
connected in series with a total surface area of 1250 cm2
. Heat
collection was estimated by water flowing in the glass coils that
are coated with the carbon/copper film,. Parameters affecting the
solar collection efficiency such as time of exposure and mass flow
rate of the water were studied. Results revealed that the prepared
glass coil has proven successful energy collector for solar heat.
Theoretical Model Computations for Different Components of a Hot Box Type Sol...IJCMESJOURNAL
Many countries having tremendous solar potentials are also the victim of the power crises since the available solar energy is not utilized efficiently. It has been recognized that the widespread use of solar thermal appliances (STA) for domestic work is being held back by excessive cost, low efficiency, high weight, and inconvenience of user and by lack of confidence in the long term durability of the material. In the present work, the limitations of materials used in various components of commercial available STA have been underlined and it has been shown that use of polymeric materials as specific component in solar thermal appliances can solve most of the existing limitations and may improve the efficiency of the existing appliances. In this paper theoretical model computations have been done for different components of a hot-box type solar cooker viz., glaze, insulation and casing material for the spectral transmittance, the solar flux absorbed and the optical efficiency, thermal efficiency, heat loses, weight, thermal profile and adjusted cooking power for several suitable materials, both conventional as well as new polymeric materials. Significant improvement in all the mentioned characteristic properties /figures of merit of the solar cooker can be achieved if right combination of polymeric materials is used in making glaze, insulation and casing. The present study offers that component improvements of a system results into cost reduction, extended lifetime and makes system easy to handle. This shall surely help in popularization of the solar appliances and enhancement of eco-friendly environment.
Comparative Investigation for Solar Thermal Energy Technologies SystemJameel Tawfiq
The multiple uses of fossil fuels make them depleted in the coming years. Also, the large
amount of pollution produced by the use of this fuel has made the world seriously think of
environmentally familiar alternative sources of energy. Universal energy is vast and diverse energy, with
the ability to cover the individual's energy needs in various fields in the coming years. The focus of this
study was a parabolic dish system. There are different uses solar of parabolic dish applications that can be
limited by two main groups: thermal generation and electric power generation. A thermal generation used
to generate steam, solar cooking, water heating, and water distillation. The briefly objective is to review
and analysis the thermal generation published by taken into considering used parabolic collector system.
Also, evaluate solar dish operators in differences covering like, the composition of concentrators, the
material of reflector, receiver design, parabolic dish diameter, rim angle, and focal length. These
characteristics drive to entire structure possible for a parabolic dish. Finally, this article may be useful for
the new research worker to consider the requirement for Thermal solar generation integrated with a
parabolic dish.
INTEGRATION OF SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS ON FACADES: A REVIEW OF INSTITUTIONAL...paperpublications3
Abstract: The utilisation of alternative energy in buildings are getting closer to being a basic process in the construction of projects with the need of having sustainable building outlines with energy efficiency and expanding the exploration and utilisation of renewable energy sources in the industry with examples in solar energy, wind energy and geothermal energy. Solar thermal systems have turned into alternatives in the energy efficiency of current buildings, therefore less energy expending buildings, utilising the solar energy as an alternative in process are increasing and this has a tendency to give answers for energy issue which furthermore increase the lifecycle and decrease the upkeep of the buildings in general. Solar thermal systems integration in buildings have increased the performance through utilizing most building components and envelope for the generation of energy or reduction of its use which are the use of mounting solar panels ,integration of PV in windows, facade and roof of buildings. For better understanding, this paper will compare some institutional buildings which use solar collector integrated facades, analyse the methods of application on façade, efficiency of the generation and a critic of the general use of solar collectors integrated facades. The final result of this work will help and encourage designers on specifications and integration techniques and know-how of which method of integration is best suited to be used on their building projects.
Experimental Investigation of Solar Water Heater Integrated with a Nanocompos...ijtsrd
This present work contributes to the improvement in thermal energy storage capacity of an all glass evacuated tube solar water heater by integrating it with a phase change material PCM and with a nanocomposite phase change material NCPCM .. Paraffin wax as PCM and a nanocomposite of paraffin wax with 1.0 mass GeO2 nanoparticles as NCPCM had been used during the experiments. Three different cases, namely, without PCM, with PCM, and with NCPCM, were considered. The testing procedure involved the observation of total temperature variation in the tank water from 6.00 a.m. to 6.00 a.m. of next morning.OBJECTIVEThe main objective of my project is to increase the performance of solar water heater integrated storage tank with PCM and NCPCM which would serve the varying demands. Shashi Kumar | Prof. Ranjeet Arya "Experimental Investigation of Solar Water Heater Integrated with a Nanocomposite Phase Change Material" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd35820.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/35820/experimental-investigation-of-solar-water-heater-integrated-with-a-nanocomposite-phase-change-material/shashi-kumar
Thermal Performance Evaluation of Wax Type Solar Distillation SystemIOSRJMCE
The alternative energy sources are new option in front of world to overcome energy crisis and pollution related issues. The solar energy, wind energy and bio mass are three major sources and out of these three energy sources solar energy is the easiest source to extract useful energy because the wind energy can be useful particularly in coastal area where there is high wind velocity and energy extraction bio mass needs either chemical conversion or thermo chemical conversion process. The objective of present work is to developed solar distillation system consists of wax as phase change material to improve the thermal performance.
ENHANCEMENT OF THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF NANOFLUID FLOWS IN A FLAT SOLAR COLLECTO...Barhm Mohamad
Flat plate solar collector (FPSC) is popular for their low cost, simplicity, and ease of installation and operation. In this work, FPSC thermal performance was analyzed. It's compared to diamond/H2O nanofluids. The volume percentage and kind of nanoparticles are analyzed numerically that validation with experimental data available in the literature. The hot climate of Iraq is employed to approximate the model. The numerical study is performed by using ANSYS/FLUENT software to simulate the case study of problem. Due to less solar intensity after midday, temperatures reduction. The greatest collector thermal efficiency is 68.90% with 1% ND/water nanofluid, a 12.2% increase over pure water. The efficiency of 1% nanofluid is better than other concentrations because of a change in physical properties and an increase in thermal conductivity. Since the intensity of radiation affects the outlet temperature from the solar collector and there is a direct link between them, this increases the efficiency of the solar collector, especially around 12:30 pm at the optimum efficiency.
Sunlight-driven water-splitting using two-dimensional carbon based semiconduc...Pawan Kumar
The overwhelming challenge of depleting fossil fuels and anthropogenic carbon emissions has driven research into alternative clean sources of energy. To achieve the goal of a carbon neutral economy, the harvesting of sunlight by using photocatalysts to split water into hydrogen and oxygen is an expedient approach to fulfill the energy demand in a sustainable way along with reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. Even though the past few decades have witnessed intensive research into inorganic semiconductor photocatalysts, their quantum efficiencies for hydrogen production from visible photons remain too low for the large scale deployment of this technology. Visible light absorption and efficient charge separation are two key necessary conditions for achieving the scalable production of hydrogen from water. Two-dimensional carbon based nanoscale materials such as graphene oxide, reduced …
Sunlight-driven water-splitting using two dimensional carbon based semiconduc...Pawan Kumar
The overwhelming challenge of depleting fossil fuels and anthropogenic carbon emissions has driven research
into alternative clean sources of energy. To achieve the goal of a carbon neutral economy, the harvesting of
sunlight by using photocatalysts to split water into hydrogen and oxygen is an expedient approach to fulfill
the energy demand in a sustainable way along with reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. Even though
the past few decades have witnessed intensive research into inorganic semiconductor photocatalysts, their
quantum efficiencies for hydrogen production from visible photons remain too low for the large scale
deployment of this technology. Visible light absorption and efficient charge separation are two key necessary
conditions for achieving the scalable production of hydrogen from water. Two-dimensional carbon based
nanoscale materials such as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nitride, modified 2D carbon
frameworks and their composites have emerged as potential photocatalysts due to their astonishing
properties such as superior charge transport, tunable energy levels and bandgaps, visible light absorption,
high surface area, easy processability, quantum confinement effects, and high photocatalytic quantum yields.
The feasibility of structural and chemical modification to optimize visible light absorption and charge
separation makes carbonaceous semiconductors promising candidates to convert solar energy into chemical
energy. In the present review, we have summarized the recent advances in 2D carbonaceous photocatalysts
with respect to physicochemical and photochemical tuning for solar light mediated hydrogen evolution
Sunlight-driven water-splitting using twodimensional carbon based semiconductorsPawan Kumar
The overwhelming challenge of depleting fossil fuels and anthropogenic carbon emissions has driven research
into alternative clean sources of energy. To achieve the goal of a carbon neutral economy, the harvesting of
sunlight by using photocatalysts to split water into hydrogen and oxygen is an expedient approach to fulfill
the energy demand in a sustainable way along with reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. Even though
the past few decades have witnessed intensive research into inorganic semiconductor photocatalysts, their
quantum efficiencies for hydrogen production from visible photons remain too low for the large scale
deployment of this technology. Visible light absorption and efficient charge separation are two key necessary
conditions for achieving the scalable production of hydrogen from water. Two-dimensional carbon based
nanoscale materials such as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nitride, modified 2D carbon
frameworks and their composites have emerged as potential photocatalysts due to their astonishing
properties such as superior charge transport, tunable energy levels and bandgaps, visible light absorption,
high surface area, easy processability, quantum confinement effects, and high photocatalytic quantum yields.
The feasibility of structural and chemical modification to optimize visible light absorption and charge
separation makes carbonaceous semiconductors promising candidates to convert solar energy into chemical
energy. In the present review, we have summarized the recent advances in 2D carbonaceous photocatalysts
with respect to physicochemical and photochemical tuning for solar light mediated hydrogen evolution.
Characterization of a flat plate solar water heating system using different n...Barhm Mohamad
Flat-plate solar collectors (FPSCs) are the most effective and environmentally friendly heating systems available. They are frequently used to convert solar radiation into usable heat for a variety of thermal applications. Because of their superior thermo-physical features, the use of Nano-fluids in FPSCs is a useful technique to improve FPSC performance. Nano-fluids are advanced colloidal suspensions containing Nano-sized particles that have been researched over the last two decades and identified a fluid composed of strong nanoparticles with a diameter of smaller than (100 nm). These micro-particles aid in improving the thermal conductivity and convective heat transfer of liquids when mixed with the base fluid. The current study provides an in-depth review of the scientific advances in the field of Nano-fluids on flat-plate solar collectors. Previous research on the usage of Nano-fluids in FPSCs shows that Nano-fluids can be used successfully to improve the efficiency of flat-plate collectors. Though several Nano-fluids have been reviewed as solar collector operatin fluids. Nano-fluids have greater pressure drops than liquids, and their pressure drops andhence pumping power rise as the volume flow rate increases. Additionally, the article discusses the concept of Nano-fluids, the different forms of nanoparticles, the methods for preparing Nano-fluids, and their thermos-physical properties. The article concludes with a few observations and suggestions on the usage of Nano-fluids in flat-plate solar collectors. This article summarizes the numerous research studies conducted in this region, which may prove useful for future experimental studies.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
3D Hybrid PIC simulation of the plasma expansion (ISSS-14)
Low Cost, Robust, Environmentally Friendly Geopolymer–Mesoporous Carbon Composites for Efficient Solar Powered Steam Generation
1. See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327872507
Low Cost, Robust, Environmentally Friendly Geopolymer-Mesoporous Carbon
Composites for Efficient Solar Powered Steam Generation
Article in Advanced Functional Materials · September 2018
DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201803266
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2. A short summary and the Imagine of Table of Contents
Low Cost, Robust, Environmentally Friendly Geopolymer-Mesoporous Carbon Composites for
Efficient Solar Powered Steam Generation
Fenghua Liu, Binyuan Zhao*, Weiping Wu*, Haiyan Yang, Yuesheng Ning, Yijian Lai and Robert
Bradley
Geopolymer-Biomass Mesoporous Carbon Composites (GBMCC) enable low cost, robust,
environmentally friendly and efficient solar steam generation. A remarkable, record high water vapor
generation rate up to 7.55 kg m−2
h−1
has been achieved under 1 sun solar intensity at the wind speed
of 3 m s−1
. This is 15 folders that of natural water evapouration rate (0.502 kg m−2
h−1
).
3. 1
DOI: 10.1002/(No. adfm.201803266)
Article type: Full paper
Low Cost, Robust, Environmentally Friendly Geopolymer-Mesoporous Carbon Composites for
Efficient Solar Powered Steam Generation
Fenghua Liu, Binyuan Zhao*, Weiping Wu*, Haiyan Yang, Yuesheng Ning, Yijian Lai and Robert
Bradley
Dr. F. Liu, Prof. B. Zhao, Dr. H. Yang, Y. Ning, Y. Lai
State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites,
School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, 200240, China
Email: byzhao@sjtu.edu.cn
Dr. W. Wu
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
School of Mathematics, Computer Science and Engineering,
City, University of London,
Northampton Square, London, EC1V 0HB, United Kingdom
Email: Weiping.Wu@city.ac.uk
Prof. R. Bradley
Department of Materials, University of Oxford,
16 Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PH, United Kingdom
MatSurf Technology Ltd.
The Old Stables Marion Lodge, Little Salkeld, Penrith,
Cumbria, CA10 1NW, United Kingdom
Corresponding Authors
*Email: byzhao@sjtu.edu.cn
*Email: Weiping.Wu@city.ac.uk
Keywords:
Solar Stream Generation; Ideal Solar Absorber; Porous nano Carbon Materials; Biomass Carbon
and Geopolymer; Energy
4. 2
Abstract
High-efficiency, environment friendly, renewable energy based methods of desalination represent
attractive and potentially very powerful solutions to the long-standing problem of global water
shortage. Many new laboratory-scale materials have been developed for photothermal desalination
but the development of low-cost, easy-to-manufacture and scalable materials and systems that can
convert solar irradiation into exploitable thermal energy in this context is still a significant challenge.
In this paper we present work on a Geopolymer-Biomass Mesoporous Carbon Composite (GBMCC)
device with mesoporous and macroporous structures for harvesting solar energy which is then used
in a device to generate water vapor with high efficiency using negative pressure, wind-driven, steam
generation. The GBMCC device gives water evapouration rates of 1.58 kg m−2
h−1
and 2.71 kg m−2
h−1
under 1 sun and 3 suns illumination, with the solar thermal conversion efficiency up to 84.95%
and 67.6%, respectively. A remarkable, record high water vapor generation rate of 7.55 kg m−2
h−1
have been achieved under 1 sun solar intensity at the wind speed of 3 m s−1
. This is a key step forward
todays efficient, sustainable and economical production of clean water from seawater or common
wastewater with free solar energy.
5. 3
The global water resource is currently under such huge pressure from rapidly growing demands, and
also from climate change, that half of the 60 largest economies in the world are facing a serious risk
of water shortages in the near future. Despite the development of advanced water technologies and
managements, seawater desalination is known to offer the most effective long-term solution to the
freshwater shortage challenge.[1]
At present, reverse osmosis membrane and thermal steam
evapouration are the two most widely used technologies in seawater desalination, however, they are
not energy efficient or ecnomical processes.
Very recently, solar steam generation using free, renewable solar energy, has been proposed as a
new, clean and sustainable approach to address the issue of freshwater shortage. The biggest
challenge for solar-driven steam generation is to develop easy-to-manufacture, large area,
inexpensive materials that can convert solar irradiation into exploitable thermal energy with high
efficiency and which are scalable to levels which can realistically address the problem. To that end,
achieving maximum heat localisation within the thin evapouration surface, is critical in maximizing
solar absorption and reducing thermal loss and so obtaining enhanced conversion efficiency.
Various novel materials have been proposed as ideal solar absorbers, such as vertically aligned
single-walled carbon nanotubes,[2, 3]
plasmonic metal particles,[4-8]
black nano metal oxides,[9-12]
and
carbides[13]
for localizing heat generation. Besides, the localizing heat, water transpiration have been
greatly enhanced by carbon materials with tailored surface structures, such as functionalized
graphene,[14-19]
vertically aligned graphene sheet membranes,[20]
carbon-nanotubes,[21-23]
carbon-
black,[24]
hydrophobic hollow carbon beads,[25]
and carbon composite materials.[26-29]
Although most
of these materials can convert solar energy to heat, most also have intrinsic limitations for water vapor
generation notably such, high cost (noble metals and nano materials), environmental hazards (nano
materials and some of the metal oxides), and poor mechanical properties.
Another main challenge is how to achieve optimized thermal management to enhance the
efficiency[29]
. In an ideal solar thermal water vapor device, the top layers and coatings function as the
layer for photothermal conversion, the support materials should be hydrophilic possessing sufficient
6. 4
calillarity with appropriate open porosity, so that water will be able to be freely transported to the
heat localization zone rapidly and efficiently. In order to reduce the heat loss, the thermal conductivity
and geometry of the support is also critical. A combination of foams with black surface for efficient
sunlight absorption and thermal management have been investigated, such as AAO membranes,[30-32]
gauzes,[24]
papers,[33, 34]
polystyrene foams,[35, 36]
wood,[37-41]
and macroporous silica.[42]
In order to form water paths to meet the water supply and the thermal management simultaneously,
many research works have been done by compositing the two-dimensional (2D) channel paths with
the insulate structures, examples include cotton rod,[43]
fabric wick,[44]
mushroom stipe[45]
and
bacterial nanocellulose.[46]
Unfortunately, the optical absorption properties of these materials, are not
sufficient to generate steam fast enough.
Because of these challenges and difficulties, optimized or ideal combinations of materials leading
to workable systems have not yet been achieved. Scale up into large devices is also significantly
hindered by cost and also the complexity of the synthesis processes. Photothermal materials with
inherent relatively low chemical and mechanical stability have difficulties to scale up and be
recycled/degraded in various nature environment. Therefore, it still remains a huge challenge to
develop low cost, high performance, robust, scalable, and environmental friendly materials for solar
steam generation.
Herein, we introduce and demonstrate a new class of geopolymer-biomass mesoporous carbon
composite materials, and a new structure design for high efficiency water steam generation. Two
sustainable porous materials, are synthesized completely with raw materials containing
environmental compatible chemical elements, which are also known as rock-forming minerals of
geological origin. The geopolymeric materials used as the support part have ultralow thermal
conductivity 0.15-0.48 W m−1
K−1
that contributes to the ideal thermal management.[47]
The biomass
mesoporous carbon (BMC) derived from plant biowaste, has high surface areas up to 467 m² g−1
,
enabling highly efficient solar absorbtion and water transportation through pores during solar steam
generation process. The design is inspired by the water transpiration behavior in plants where water
7. 5
is transported from the soil and released to the atmosphere through the leaves. The water transport
rate highly depends on the differential pressure and diffusion resistance. Based on this principle and
the two novel materials, we introduce a robust, low-cost and environmental friendly composite
materials, the Geopolymer-Biomass Mesoporous Carbon Composites (GBMCC), and our novel solar
steam-generation device.
The bioinspired geometry of the device as shown in Figure 1a, includes an umbrella-shaped disk,
with a fibrous stipe with a small cross section. The significant advantage is that the mechanical
strength is high enough for practical installations in any natural environment. Since all the materials
and devices can be formed by press molding (see the experimental section), the mechanical strength
is high enough to apply them in practical fields steadily to couple with solar and wind energy at large
scale. The physical pictures, and the schematic of the heat transportation behavior of the device, are
showed in Figure 1a and 1b, respectively. The integrated structures successively consist of the BMC
layer, geopolymer part, and polystyrene foam. The GBMCC device was placed on the top of sea
water. Water can be quickly transported from the bottom to the BMC layer by capillary action through
geopolymer. When the water reached the top BMC layer which have absorbed enough solar energy,
the heat located in the thin layer can help the evapouration to be activated instantly. Besides, the wind
can accelerate the water vapor generation due to the reduced pressure, this effect also can be found
in plants where the negative water vapor pressure greatly promotes the transpiration. Both the
geometry and dimention of the devices were optimized to minimize all the three paths of heat loss,
heat conduction, heat convection, and heat radiation. The ability of water vapor generation under
ambient or concentrated sunlight proved the successful design of the materials and structures. Also,
it can be expected to achieve significant cost reduction of existing solar thermal systems. Due to the
controllability of the shape and structure of GBMCC, it is relatively easy to meet the requirements
for heat transfer, heat dissipation, and water conduction.
The BMC layer was made from corn straw and the details are included in Supplementary
(Section 1). The obtained BMC materials have excellent mechanical properties (compressive strength:
8. 6
35 MPa, bending strength: 14 Mpa, the testing curves are showed in Supplementary, Figure S1),[48]
proper pore size (3 nm to 5 nm), relatively low thermal conductivity (0.43 W m−1
K−1
), ideal
broadband solar absorption which lead to excellent photothermal conversion capabilities. In addition,
the thin and porous BMC layer contributes to vapor escape and heat localization. The geopolymer,
an environment protection material, consists of AlO6 octahedral and SiO4 tetrahedral units that allow
to form three-dimensional (3D) structures easily.[49]
With excellent hydrophily and proper pore
structures, the geopolymer can transport bulk water rapidly from bottom to the top BMC layer where
the heat localized zone locates. The polystyrene (PS) foam, a good thermal insulator (thermal
conductivity 0.034-0.04 W m−1
K−1
) [33]
, encompassing the GBMCC serves as an effective thermal
barrier to alleviate thermal losses to the bulk water. It can also be used to float the whole device,
resulting in efficient solar steam generation right at the water-air interface.
Due to the bulk structures and the use of dust free and non-toxic materials, the devices show
excellent durability and stabiltiy inlcuding high resistance to chloride, acid, thermal, freeze-thaw and
efflorescence. They are safe to handle during production, shipping, installations and water
evapouration operation (more discussion in the Supplementary Section 3). The cost of the device is
very low, as our carbon materials cost only about $0.0147 per gram, much cheaper than the graphene
oxide GO ($26.5 per gram), Ti2O3 ($4.65 per gram) or other nano materials (Supplementary Section
3). The cost of one GBMCC device (3.62 g Geopolymer, 1.8 g BMC) is only $0.0273. The estimated
large area GBMCC devices cost $39 per square meter only ($39/m2
). More importantly, with the
robust device, we introduced wind to the system, enabling to capture extra energy from wind, another
most important source of renewable energy besides the solar radiation. With the help of wind, the
evapouration rate can be greatly enhanced.
The preparation processes of the GBMCC device are showed in Figure 1c, the details are described
in experimental section. Briefly, geopolymer powder was blended with DI water, then stirred at the
speed of 2000 rpm for 2 min. After that, a certain amount of hydrogen peroxide (30 wt%) was added,
the mixture was stirred at the same speed for another 20 s. The prepared geopolymer slurry was
9. 7
transfered into a mold, and then dried in an oven at 60 °C for 24 h to form the geopolymer sample.
Also, the BMC can be adhered to the geopolymer block with the same slurry to get the GBMCC.
The structures and morphologies of the BMC, the geopolymer and the interface were carefully
examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The interface between the geopolymer and BMC
(Figure 2a), is the boundry and direct connections created during the two simple forming processes.
From the SEM imagine, two materials with different colors can be found obviously, the upper layer
is the BMC, the lower part is the geopolymer. With the closely connected interface between the BMC
and geopolymer, as shown distinctly in the middle of the photo, the structure of GBMCC can
effectively transport water from the bottom upward to the contiguous porous BMC layer, forming
continuous bottom-up water transport pathways.
The porous structures of a geopolymer have larger pores, whose microstructure is shown in Figure
2b, consisting of 10-20 μm intercommunicating pores (Supplementary Figure S2). The macroporous
structure provide ideal channels for supplying water because of capillary force. The mesoporous
structures with intercommunicating mesh-like channels spread all over the BMC layer were clearly
observed, showed in Figure 2c and 2d. These channels provide excellent paths for efficient vapor
escape. The surface area of BMC is 467 m² g−1
, the average pore size is about 4 nm (Supplementary
Figure S3), conforming the evapouration layer possess the high surface area and mesoporous
structures. The TEM images in Figure 2e and 2f clearly show that the BMC has mesoporous structures.
The BMCs consist of interconnected pores with diameters around 3 nm to 5 nm, which is consistent
with the pore parameters calculated using the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) method (Figure S3).[50]
The optical absorption of the BMC coated on the geopolymer was carefully measured with an
Ultraviolet-Visible-Near-Infrared (UV-Vis NIR) spectrophotometer equipped with an integrating
sphere. As shown in Figure 3a, the GBMCC has high (90-95%) light absorption over a broad solar
spectrum (250 nm-2500 nm), while a geopolymer has relative low (≈25-40% within 500 nm-1800
nm) absorption of solar energy. We also compared the optical properties of dry and wet GBMCC
layers. The dry GBMCC has an absorption of about 89% ranges from 250 nm to 1300 nm, and then
10. 8
decrease when wavelength increases from 1300 nm to 2500 nm. Two main reasons can explain the
wavelength dependent of the NIR optical absorption. Firstly, carbon materials with dominating sp2
bonds, the real (ε′) and imaginary (ε″) parts of the complex effective are determined by free carriers
at IR wavelengths. Secondly, for long wavelength IR light, the depth of penetration of incident light
decreases leading to a decrease in absorption and increase in reflectance. The near infrared reflectivity
depends on the relative refractive index of the BMC surface and that of its surrounding medium and
wavelength of the incident light. More difference between the refractive indices BMC and air-voids
in porous structure also caused the reflectance increasing.[51]
Therefore, the improved optical
absorption has been observed in the wet GBMCC sample. The impact of the wavelength dependent
absorption on the solar steam generation is low. Of the light that reaches Earth's surface, infrared
radiation makes up 49.4% of while visible light provides 42.3%. The heat-producing region of the
infrared radiations from the sun is from 700 nm to 1100 nm,[52]
which falls into the high absorption
wavelength region of our materials, so the energy loss of our device is small.
The surface chemical compositions and functional groups of BMCs were identified by X-ray
Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Figure 3b
displays the XPS spectra of BMC and geopolymer. Strong C 1s (284.72 eV) and O 1s (532.22 eV)
peaks were observed, as it can be expected from biomass driven carbon materials. The surface
chemical element composition also can be derived from the XPS results, the amount of Carbon (C)
is about 85.02%, Oxygen (O) is about 11%. In addition, the N 1s (401.02 eV) signal was also detected
in BMC layer with a weak peak corresponding to C-N/N-H, and the concentration of Nitrogen (N)
atoms is about 1.72%. The nitrogen element is from the biomass, as the C-N/N-H chemical structures
have been formed during high temperature process when synthesis the materials. Meanwhile, the
peaks in FTIR spectra (Figure 3c) for BMC are observed at 3419 cm−1
and 1109 cm−1
, 1402.9 cm−1
and 1631 cm−1
further confirm the existence of C-N/N-H chemical structures in the materials. While
for the geopolymer, the existent of -OH and Si-O-Si, Al-O-Si are confirmed by the XPS data. The
11. 9
oxygen-containing functional groups can contribute to the hydrophilic properties for the BMC and
geopolymer.
The functional groups make the surface be highly hydrophilic, which is highly beneficial for
efficient solar steam generation. The hydrophilic nature of both geopolymer and BMC enables very
efficient water supply when the GBMCC is floating on the surface of water. We monitored the process
of fast water capillarity effect using real-time wetting process images captured by an infrared (IR)
camera (Figure 3d). To obtain adequate contrast in the IR imagines, the experiment had been carried
out without illumination using a water bath with slightly higher temperature (30 ℃) than the GBMCC
device at the room temperature (25 ℃). Once GBMCC came in contact with water, the whole piece
of GBMCC could be entirely filled with water within 30 seconds. It indicates that the highly
hydrophilic GBMCC can pump water rapidly from bottom up to the evapouration area
(Supplementary Video S1), and it is the prerequisite for efficient solar steam generation.
Another key factor to control the heat effectively located in the evapouration layer not transferred
to the bulk water and the environment is the shape of the device. As mentioned previously, the
geometry of GBMCC can be easily optimized for minimizing the heat loss including conduction,
convection, and radiation (Figure 1a). The rough surface of the top BMC with a large surface-
projected area ratio enables stronger evapouration and also consequently convection and radiation
losses are expected to be suppressed. The geometry of geopolymer was machined to various shapes,
such as pie, cylinder and cone, and finally the slender stipe can satisfy both the water supply and
smallest contact area to environment which can reduce the heat loss maximally. We machined the
geopolymer part to be slender stipe immersed into bulk water, the size was designed to match with
the water supply. With this structure, the majority of the generated heat will not be transferred to the
bulk water. The thickness of the BMC also should be kept in proper range, because too thick BMC
can reduce the evapouration rate due to increased path for water vapor. If the BMC layer is too thin,
the solar thermal absorption will be reduced because of increasing reflectivity and transmissivity,
moreover, the mechanical strength of thin BMC layer will not be high enough.
12. 10
The thermal conductivity of the geopolymer is also a critical factor in the water evapouration. The
thermal conductivity of geopolymer is 0.261 W m−1
K−1
(the details of the calculation are shown in
Supplementary Section 7), is significantly lower than water (0.60 W m−1
K−1
). The lower thermal
conductivity of the geopolymer, the better the heat will be localized. It is not necessary for the solar
absorber layer to have the lowest thermal conductivity. However, for thin absorber, it may need the
low thermal conductivity. If the absorber has a non-negligible thickness, it then requires a good heat
transfer ability to absorb more energy and provide more heating sites to generate water vapor.
With the rough and proper thick BMC as the absorber, the optimized geometrical shape (slender
stipe) of the geopolymer as the water transport channels, together with the polystyrene foam as the
thermal insulation layer, the majority of the generated heat will be localized mainly on the surface of
the BMC layer, but not be transferred to the bulk water, therefore an ideal thermal management
system thus can be realized. Thus, the local temperature will increase rapidly upon solar irradiation,
inducing water to evapourate faster to the atmosphere. The mechanism of the water up flow is very
similar to water transpiration effect in plants. The negative pressure at the top of the BMC due to
water evapouration can induce very large capillary force inside the GBMCC channels. The low
thermal conductivity, proper geometrical and macro pore size are reasonable of the geopolymer to
realize the heat management in respect of the water supply amount which equal the water vapor
generation. Proper thickness and thermal conductivity are also beneficial for the BMC to localize
enough energy to heat the water.
To systematically evaluate the performance of the GBMCC solar steam devices, the evapouration
rates and energy conversion efficiencies were experimentally measured under different solar
illumination conditions. The whole steam generator setup includes a precision balance and exposed
to a solar simulator with an illumination intensity from 1 kW m−2
(1 sun) up to 3 kW m−2
(3 suns).
The water evapouration rates are measured by recording the mass change as a function of time under
the solar intensities of 1, 2 and 3 suns. Each experiment lasts for more than 60 minutes.
13. 11
Figure 4a shows the typical solar thermal evapouration curves of time-dependent mass change
under various solar illumination conditions. The evapouration rates were calculated from the slope of
the curves. The evapouration rates for GBMCC is measured to be 1.58 kg m−2
h−1
at 1 sun solar
intensity, while it is 0.502 kg m−2
h−1
for blank water surface. As the solar illumination intensity
increases, the evapouration rates increase remarkable, it reached almost 1.5 times to be 2.24 kg m−2
h−1
at 2 suns, and further increased to 2.71 kg m−2
h−1
at 3 suns solar intensities. The incensement can
be well explained by the fact that at the molecular level, the evapouration happens until the hydrogen
bonds broke at the interface.[53]
The higher solar energy absorbed by the evapouration layer, the higher
evapouration rate will be.
Table 1. Solar steam generation performances of different materials. The solar absorption, the energy
conversion efficiency and the evapouration rates of various photothermal materials under 1 sun.
Sample Solar absorption
[%]
Energy
conversion [%]
Evapouration rate
[kg m−2
h−1
]
References
Vertically Aligned CNT Arrays 99 30 --- [2]
CNT-coated wood membrane 98 65 0.95 [3]
Plasmonic Ag particles --- 82.45 1.008 (16.8 g m−2
min−1
) [6]
Black TiOx particles 91.3 50.30 0.8012 [8]
Ti2O3 Nanoparticles 92.5 92.1±3.2 1.32 [12]
MXene Ti3C2 --- 84 1.33 (2 kg/90 min) [13]
Functionalized-rGO --- 48 0.47 [14]
rGO/MCE --- 60 0.838 [15]
Porous N-doped graphene --- 80 1.5 [16]
CNT nanofluid --- --- 1.1 [21]
Carbon beads --- --- 1.28 [24]
Graphene oxide-based aerogels 92 86.5 1.622 [25]
Flamed-treated wood --- 72 1.05 [39]
CNT-macroporous silica --- 82 1.31 [42]
Carbonized Mushroom --- 78 1.475 [45]
Hierarchical graphene foam 85-95 91.4 1.4 [54]
CNT modified filter paper --- 75 1.15 [55]
Hierarchically nanostructured gel >95 94 3.2 [56]
Nitrogen enriched carbon sponge >95 85 1.31 [57]
GBMCC without wind 90-95 84.95 1.58 This work
GBMCC with 1, 2 and 3 m s-1
wind 90-95 --- 2.85, 5.90 and 7.55 This work
14. 12
The GBMCC device with robust structure can easily get excellent and outstanding performances
compare to devices with other new materials in evapouration and energy conversion (Table 1). The
energy efficiency (84.95%) is comparable to the record value reported in the field. In addition, our
materials, structures and fabrication processes are robust, inexpensive and environmentally friendly
compared to the counterparts. On top of these characteristics, the enhanced evapouration rate can be
easily reached by coupling with wind, which will be discussed below.
To investigate solar thermal evapouration behaviour in GBMCC device under 1 sun and 3 suns
intensity, an infrared camera was used to mapping the temperature field. The average temperature
(Tav) on the top of BMC layer are plotted in Figure 4b as a function of illumination time. When the
light was turned on, a rapid temperature increase in Tav was observed. The temperature of GBMCC
reached the equilibrium state within a short time, indicating a strong solar absorption by the material.
According to the temperature-time curves, t≈400 s and t≈810 s are needed under 1 sun and 3 suns to
obtain quasi-steady states. As expected, after 1 h illumination, Tav of the surface in GBMCC under 1
sun and 3 suns reached 42.2 ℃ and 82.1 ℃, respectively. According to the Planck's law of black-
body radiation, the radiation can be calculated by [58]
,
3
2 /
8 1
u ( )
1
planck hv kT
hv
v
c e
π
=
−
(1)
where u ( )planck v is the spectral radiance (the power per unit solid angle and per unit of area normal
to the propagation) density of frequency, h is the Planck constant, c is the speed of light in a vacuum,
k is the Boltzmann constant, ν is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation, and T is the absolute
temperature of the body.
As the temperature of the black body is low, the radiation energy losses of the device can be
ignored. But the radiation recorded by an infrared (IR) camera, could be very useful to map the
temperature distribution on the surfaces. Typical IR imagines of the surfaces were collected and
illustrated in Figure 4c and 4d, which can further conform the detailed discussions above. From the
15. 13
IR imagines, it is very clear that only the BMC layer possess high temperature, indicating the absorbed
solar energy was localized on the BMC layer, little energy was transferred to the bulk water.
The energy conversion efficiency ( thη ) is used as a measure to evaluate the overall solar-to-vapour
efficiency. It is defined in the same way as those in recent studies,[20]
= LV
th
opt i
mh
C q
η
(2)
where m is the mass loss rate per unit area calculated from the slop of mass loss curves at the steady
state, LVh is the total enthalpy of sensible heat (315 J g−1
, from ca. 25 °C to100 °C with specific heat
of water 4.2 J g−1
K−1
) and liquid-vapor phase change (2256 J g−1
), optC is the optical concentration,
and iq is the nominal direct solar irradiation of 1 kW m−2
, this irradiance corresponds to Standard
Testing Conditions (STC) and is called “peak sun” or “1 sun”. When calculating the evapouration
rate, the background data 0.224 kg m−2
h−1
in dark environment will be subtracted from all the
measured (Supplementary Figure S5).
In our devices and structures, the efficiencies were calculated to be 84.95%, 82.43% and 67.6% for
GBMCC at the power density of 1, 2 and 3 kW m−2
, as being plotted in Figure 4e and summarised in
Table 1. The pore size of the BMC fits to the evaporation under 1 sun, however, when the solar
illumination increased, the speed of water vapor escaped from the device cannot match with the
increased solar energy absorbed. During the water vapor generating process, the vapor pressure on
the device is increased, which can hinder the water vapor getting away from the BMC. Besides, the
hydrophilia and the pore size can hold the water molecule to some extent. Because of these two
reasons, the efficiencies decreased when the solar power density increase. The efficiency of the
GBMCC device (84.95%), has been very closed to the best samples under 1 sun reported [12, 25, 54, 56,
57]
. Besides, our devices are made in a cheap, sustainable materials that are easy to manufacture and
scale up. The effect of the geopolymer on water evaporation rate was also considered and tested,
although this part is much lower than the GBMCC device on the water vapor generation
16. 14
(Supplementary Section 9 and Table S2). Our compact devices have achieved high power per area in
the range of 1 kW m−2
to 2 kW m−2
.
The cycle stability performance of the GBMCC was also conducted under 1 sun and 3 suns, as
shown in Figure 4f. It is found that the performance is maintained almost unchanged for more than
10 cycles, with each cycle being over 0.5 h, demonstrating excellent stability. We attribute the
stability to the inert materials used, as well as the excellent mechanical properties of GBMCC. In
addition to the mechanical strength, the GBMCC materials are high stiffness-to-weight ratio, they are
easy to shape, inexpensive and easy to recycle. These superior characteristics are very important for
the designs and engineering towards different practical applications aiming for a variety of
environmental conditions.
Photothermal devices and systems are generally installed in the fields, deserts, offshores or seas
with windy conditions, to harvest solar steam. Also, the wind can accelerate the water vapor
generation due to the reduced pressure. In this paper, we focused on the way of using wind to reduce
the water vapor pressure. The negative pressure induced by wind can easily and greatly increase the
evapouration rate. It is found that our samples show much better evapouration rates and higher
efficiencies upon wind flows. A diagram between the mass change observed at different wind speed
is presented in the Figure 5a. The evapouration rates at steady-state were calculated to be 2.85 kg
m−2
h−1
, 5.90 kg m−2
h−1
and 7.55 kg m−2
h−1
under 1 sun solar intensity at the wind speed of 1, 2 and
3 ms−1
, respectively. These results are 1.8 to 5 folders higher than the evapouration rate without wind
(1.58 kgm−2
h−1
). Our evapouration rate results are about 2-5 folders of the best results reported under
the same conditions, 5.7 to 15 folders that of natural water evapouration rate (0.502 kg m−2
h−1
).
The corresponding results with wind under 3 suns solar intensity showed further enhancement, as
being shown in Figure 5b. At the speed of wind of 1 m s−1
, the evapouration rate reached as high as
5.8 kg m−2
h−1
, 2.04 times that of at 1 sun solar intensity with the same wind speed. Under this
condition, when the speed of wind increases, the evapouration rate improved slightly, to 6.41 kg m−2
17. 15
h−1
and 7.53 kg m−2
h−1
respectively with the wind speeds of 2 m s−1
and 3 m s−1
. The influence of
sunlight intensity and wind speed on evapouration rates can be clearly seen in Figure 5c. It is found
that even the low speed of wind also has a great influence on the water vapor generation, while the
strong solar illumination does not have as significant effect as the high speed wind does. This
indicates that the appropriate increase in wind, can significantly improve the evapouration rate. The
evapouration rate changes linearly with the surface area, and convective can greatly improve the
evapouration in the nano channels. The evapouration rates at high wind speed and high solar intensity
both reach a maximum value at saturation, due to the finite water transport capability limited by the
pore size of the BMC (3 nm), but less affected by the geopolymer as it has much large pore sizes (10-
20 μm).
In order to understand the greatly improved steam generation rates with wind, we studied the
dynamics of the process. From the infrared photos (Figure 5d), the surface temperature with 1 m s−1
wind is nearly 7 ℃ lower than without wind, which is due to the extra evapouration caused by the
wind flow. It took about 1100 s under sun illumination to achieve the steady-state evapouration, this
is coincided well with the time for the surfaces of two samples to achieve a steady temperature (Figure
5e). This evapouration process, also strongly took energy away from the bulk water.
The cycle solar steam generation performance of the GBMCC was conducted with an intensity of
1 sun and 3 suns. The performance demonstrated excellent stability with 6 cycles. As is shown in the
Figure 5f, the evapouration rate under 1 sun, with the wind speed 1 m s−1
is the lowest, while which
under 1 sun with wind speed 2 ms−1
has the similar effect with under 3 suns with wind speed 1 ms−1
.
What’s more, it shows clearly that the highest evapouration rate was achieved with wind speed of 3
m s−1
, both under 1 sun and 3 suns.
To summarize, we developed a new concept of low cost, environmentally friendly, geopolymer-
biomass mesoporous carbon photothermal composite materials for high performance solar steam
generation. The materials are synthesized at low cost completely with raw materials only containing
18. 16
rock-forming chemical elements that exist in geological minerals. The proper combinations of
materials with optimized chemical and porous structures, perfect light absorption abilities, excellent
mechanical characteristics, tailored structure and geometry, together with perfect thermal
management, promise a new approach towards industrial scale, low cost and high efficient solar
thermal generation technologies. Enhanced solar stream generation by wind has been discovered in
these new materials for the first time. The energy conversion efficiency is as high as 84.95%, more
than three time of the efficiency of silicon solar cells. A remarkable, record high water vapor
generation rate of 7.55 kg m−2
h−1
have been achieved under 1 sun solar intensity at a wind speed of
3 m s−1
. This result is 15 folders of the nature evapouration rate of water (0.502 kg m−2
h−1
). It stands
as one of the best among the state of the art solar thermal systems, and is a big step forward to clean
water production from sea water or common wastewater with free solar energy.
Experimental Section
Materials and chemicals: All chemicals and solvents in the experiments were of analytical grades
and used without any further purification. Hydrogen peroxide (30 wt%), sodium chloride (NaCl) and
anhydrous ethanol were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Deionized water was generated from a TTL-
30C Ultrapure Water Generator, with electrical resistivity of 18.2 MΩ·cm. Biomass mesoporous
carbon (BMC) samples were prepared from corn straw. The geopolymer powders were provided by
Qufu Tembton Technology Co. Ltd., Shandong, China.
Fabrication of GBMCC Material: Typically, the geopolymer powder (150 g) was mixed with DI
water (55 mL) in a breaker, then the mixture was stirred at the speed of 2000 rpm for 2 min. After
that, hydrogen peroxide (2 mL, 30 wt%) was added in the dispersion, the mixture was stirred at the
same speed for another 20 s. The prepared geopolymer slurry was transfered into a mold in a proper
shape. Then the slurry (5 g) was dried in an oven at 60 °C for 24 h to form the geopolymer sample.
The slurry was also used to coat on the bottom surface of the BMC to bond it firmly with the
19. 17
geopolymer block to get the composite GBMCC. Finally, the GBMCC and geopolymer samples were
processed and polished to precise dimensions.
Characterizations: The microstructures of BMCs and geopolymer composites were characterized
by a field-emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM, FEI Sirion 200, 5 kV). The X-ray
Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) analyses were carried out on Kratos AXIS Ultra DLD X-ray
Photoelectron Spectrometer with a Delay Line Detector using an aluminum (Al) monochromatic X-
ray source. The FTIR spectra were obtained on a Nicolet 6700 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectrometer. The surface areas of samples were measured by a TriStar 3000 surface area analyzer
(Micromeritics) by running N2 adsorption Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) tests. The optical spectrum
of prepared samples were measured from 250 nm to 2500 nm by a UV-Vis NIR Spectrometer
(PerkinElmer, Lambda 750S, USA) equipped with an integrating sphere. The absorption was then
calculated by A=1-R-T, where R and T are the reflection and transmission, respectively. The infrared
photographs and videos were captured by using an IR camera (MAG32, Magnity Electronics, China).
The thermal diffusivity was measured by a Netzsch LFA 447 Nanoflash Thermal Diffusivity, and the
specific heat capacity was measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC 204 F1, Phoenix).
Solar Evapouration Tests: A sodium chloride (3.5 wt%, NaCl) solution was prepared in a 200 mL
glass beaker. A GBMCC device with a polystyrene foam was placed into the water and it floated
above the water surface. The edges were carefully sealed to avoid the natural evapouration through
the residual uncovered water surface between the sample and the beaker. The sunlight with a
collimated beam diameter of 3 cm were provided by a Newport Oriel 94043 AAA Class Solar
Simulator. The solar radiation was fixed vertically 14 cm above the GBMCC surface. A piece of
Fresnel lens (26 cm×18 cm, focal length: 300 mm, OpticLens) was used to concentrate the solar light.
The 1 sun intensity and 2 suns, 3 suns concentrated solar light were calibrated using an optical power
meter (S310C, Thorlabs Inc). The beaker of water was placed on a computer driven analytical balance,
which monitored the water mass loss in real time.
20. 18
Supporting Information
Supporting Information is available from the Wiley Online Library or from the author.
Acknowledgements
B. Y. Z., W. P. W. and R. B. planned, supervised the project and designed the experiments. F. H. L.,
H. Y. Y., Y. S. N. and Y. J. L. carried out experiments, including sample fabrications, measurement
and data collection. F. H. L., B. Y. Z., W. P. W. and R. B. analysed the data, drafted the manuscript.
All the authors participated in the data analysis, discussion and commented on the manuscript. We
thank the help provided by Professor Huiyun Liu and Tao Xu from the University College London
(UCL), UK. This work is supported by the Innovate UK (Grant 104013) and the Science and
Technology Department of Shanghai Municipality (STCSM) (Grant 17230732700).
Received: ((will be filled in by the editorial staff))
Revised: ((will be filled in by the editorial staff))
Published online: ((will be filled in by the editorial staff))
21. 19
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25. 23
Figure 1. The structure and preparation of Geopolymer-Biomass Mesoporous Carbon Composite
(GBMCC). a) A photo of a typical GBMCC device composing with geopolymer (brown) and biomass
mesoporous carbon (BMC, black). b) Schematic of the mass and heat transportation showing water
was transferred from the bottom through the macroporous geopolymer and then to the BMC layer
heated by the solar energy. The effect can be enhanced by the negative pressure caused by wind. The
water vapor finally released to the atmosphere and collected as the clean water. c) Schematic
illustrations of materials synthesis and fabrication processes of the GBMCC solar steam generation
devices.
26. 24
Figure 2. Typical morphology of the materials used for the GBMCC devices. a) The interface
between the BMC and the geopolymer. The top layer is BMC, the bottom layer is geopolymer, the
interfaces are internally very well connected as ideal barrierless water paths. b) Geopolymer with
macro porous structures acting as channels for water transportation. c, d) High surface area BMCs
with mesoporous intercommunicating mesh-like structures. e, f) TEM images of BMCs showing the
materials consist of interconnected pores with diameters around 3 nm to 5 nm.
27. 25
Figure 3. a) Solar spectral irradiance (AM 1.5 G) (gray, right hand side axis) and absorption (black,
left hand side axis) of GBMCC(wet), GBMCC(dry), geopolymer (wet) samples. b) X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of geopolymer and BMC, inset shows the N 1S peak. c) FTIR
spectra of geopolymer and BMC. d) Infrared photos of the wetting process of GBMCC device. The
photos from top left to bottom right are corresponding to t =0, 15, 20, and 30 s after the device is in
touch with the water. Scale bar: 30 mm.
28. 26
Figure 4. The steam generation performances of GBMCC devices under different solar illuminations.
a) The water mass change over time under 1, 2 and 3 suns illumination. b) The average temperatures
of surfaces for GBMCC as a function of time. The black and red lines both show the turning points
to the quasi-steady state of GBMCC under 1 sun and 3 suns. c, d) Infrared imagines of the GBMCC
surfaces under 1 sun and 3 suns, respectively. The imagines from top left to bottom right are
corresponding to 0, 30, 120, 300, 900, and 3600 s after illumination. Scale bar: 30 mm. e) The
efficiency and evapouration rate of the device under different illuminations. f) The cycle performance
under 1 sun and 3 suns, respectively.
29. 27
Figure 5. The solar steam generation performances of GBMCC devices upon wind flows. a, b) Water
mass change at different wind speeds over time under 1 and 3 suns illumination, respectively. c) The
influence of sunlight intensity and wind speed on evapouration rate. d) The infrared photos of the
GBMCC surface at stable stage, and the top and bottom pictures are the photos of the surface
temperature without and with wind (1 m s−1
) under 3 suns, respectively. Scale bar: 30 mm. e)
Maximum temperatures of surfaces for GBMCC with wind (1 m s−1
) and without wind as a function
of time under 3 suns. f) Cycle solar steam generation performance of the GBMCC under 1 and 3 suns.
30. 1
Supporting Information
Low Cost, Robust, Environmentally Friendly Geopolymer-Mesoporous Carbon
Composites for Efficient Solar Powered Steam Generation
Fenghua Liu, Binyuan Zhao*, Weiping Wu*, Haiyan Yang, Yuesheng Ning, Yijian Lai and
Robert Bradley
Dr F. Liu, Prof. B. Zhao, Dr. H. Yang, Y. Ning, Y. Lai
State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites,
School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, 200240, China
Email: byzhao@sjtu.edu.cn
Dr. W. Wu
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
School of Mathematics, Computer Science and Engineering,
City, University of London
Northampton Square, London, EC1V 0HB, United Kingdom
Email: Weiping.Wu@city.ac.uk
Prof. R. Bradley
Department of Materials, University of Oxford,
16 Parks Road, Oxford,
OX1 3PH, United Kingdom
MatSurf Technology Ltd.
The Old Stables Marion Lodge, Little Salkeld, Penrith,
Cumbria, CA10 1NW, United Kingdom
Content:
1. The preparation of the BMC
2. The mechanical properties of the BMC
3. The cost and environmental safety of the GBMCC devices
4. The pore structure and size distribution of the geopolymer
5. The nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size distribution of the BMC
6. The solar reflectance of devices
7. The thermal conductivity calculation
8. The evaporation rate of water in dark environment and under 1 sun
9. The effect of geopolymer on water evaporation rate
31. 2
1. The preparation of the BMC
Biomass mesoporous carbon (BMC) samples were prepared from corn straw. The
compositional and structural information of BMCs are similar to those described in our previous
work[1-3]
. In brief, corn straw powder (20 g) was placed in a 100 mL beaker, then the mixture
of phosphoric acid aqueous solution (10 mL, 30 wt%) and saturated aqueous oxalic acid
solution (10 mL) was slowly added to the straw powder and stirred at 800 rpm for 15 min. KOH
aqueous solution (8 mL, 5 wt%) was added in the above mixture and stirred for another 15 min.
After being dried at 60 °C for 24 h, the powders was loaded into a mold for pressing (40 MPa)
to get a bulk material. The bulk material was sintered at 800 °C in vacuum for 30 min, then the
samples were cooled down to room temperature.
2. The mechinecal properties of the BMC
We carried out the compressive strength test and the bending strength test to evaluate the
mechanical properties of BMC. The compressive strength test was performed with a universal
testing machine (SANS CMT5105). The sample size was 47×47×18 mm and the constant load
rate was 0.5 mm/min. The compressive strength of the BMC is about 35 MPa.
The bending strength was carried out with a Zwick Z020 universal testing machine. The test
strip used for the test was 2×5×40 mm. It was measured by a three-point bending method with
a span of 30 mm and a loading rate of 1 mm/min. The bending strength of the BMC is about 14
MPa.
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Stress(MPa)
Strain
a
0.00 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
b
Bendingstress(MPa)
Displacement
Figure S1. a) Compressive stress-strain curve of a BMC sample, b) Bending stress-
displacement curve of a BMC sample.
32. 3
3. The cost and environmental safety of the GBMCC devices
Cost estimation of the GBMCC devices
The GBMCC device comprises a geopolymer body (3.62 g) and a thin BMC absorber (1.8
g). The geopolymer slurry was made from low cost geopolymer powder (150 g, $0.22/kg), DI
water (55 mL) and hydrogen peroxide (2 g, 30 wt%). 5 g slurry (about 5/207 of the prepared
slurry) can be made into the geopolymer body of a GBMCC device. The cost of the geopolymer
is about $0.22 per kg, which is close to the price data in Abdollahnejad and McLellan’s previous
work (<$180 per ton).[4, 5]
The cost of the raw materials showed in the Table S1. The cost of the device is very low, as
our carbon materials cost only about $0.0147 per gram, much cheaper than the GO ($26.5 per
gram), Ti2O3 ($4.65 per gram) or other nano materials (Supplementary Section 3). The cost of
one GBMCC device (3.62 g Geopolymer, 1.8 g BMC) is only $0.0273. The estimated large
area GBMCC devices cost $39 per square meter only ($39/m2
).
Table S1. Cost of the materials for GBMCC device
H2O2 Water Geopolymer
BMC
(raw materials,
energy, labor)
Total
Unit cost
($/kg)
0.98 0.001 0.22 14.7
Weight
(g)
0.048 1.32 3.62 1.8
Cost 0.00004704 0.00000132 0.0007964 0.02646 0.0273
Environmental safety of the GBMCC devices
Geopolymer is considered as the third-generation cement after lime and ordinary Portland
cement.[6]
A variety of aluminosilicate materials such as kaolinite, feldspar and industrial solid
residues such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, mine tailings etc. have been used as solid raw
materials[7-9]
in the geopolymerization technology. The formation of geopolymer can occur
under mild conditions with much lower CO2 emission, lower energy consumption and thereby
33. 4
is considered as a clean process[10]
. It also has good durability which includes the resistance to
chloride, acid, thermal, freeze-thaw and efflorescence. It also have the characters such as fire
resistant (up to 1000 ℃) and no emission of toxic fumes when heated,[11]
antibacterial,[12]
high
level of resistance to a range of different acids and salt solutions, controlled delivery,[13]
not
subject to deleterious alkali-aggregate reactions.[14]
Elemental carbon has been used as an important and very successful biomaterial. The
material is non-toxic, it has been used as filters for clean water and high quality air production,
and additives for cosmetics and toothpastes. Also, researches prove that these carbon materials
are safe to wear, no adverse events such as allergies or skin irritation occurred.[15]
There are
already many FDA approved products with carbon fillers on the market.
BMC is a biomass porous carbon which is made from plant straw, which can be pressed to a
bulk carbon (size: 50×50×18mm). The material is non-toxic unlike many nano metal particles,
reduced graphene oxide(rGO) powders or carbon nanotube. It is in the bulk form, dust free, it
also has high specific surface area and developed porous structures. Due to the mechanical
strength of GBMCC devices, they can be recycled easily. Therefore, they are environmentally
friendly materials and devices.
4. The pore structure and size distribution of the geopolymer
1 10 100 1000 10000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
b
Pore diameter (nm)
Volume(mm3
g-1
)
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
dV/dlogD(mm3
g-1
,D)
Figure S2. a) Volume of nitrogen adsorbed versus pressure curve of geopolymer, b) Pore size
distribution curve of geopolymer.
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Volume(mm3
g-1
)
Pressure (MPa)
a
34. 5
5. The nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size of the BMC
Figure S3. a) Nitrogen sorption isotherms, b) pore size distribution curve of BMC.
6. The solar reflectance of devices
Figure S4. Solar reflectance of geopolymer (wet) shown as the red curve, GBMCC (dry) shown
as the blue curve, GBMCC (wet) shown as the black curve. The reflectance of wet GBMCC is
less about 8% over an ultra-broadband spectrum from 250 nm to 2500 nm.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Quantityadsorbed(cm3
g-1
)
Relative pressure (P/P0
)
a
2 4 6 40 60 80
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
Porevolume(cm3
g-1
•nm)
Pore Radius(nm)
b
500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
20
40
60
80
Reflectance(%)
Wavelength(nm)
Geopolymer(wet)
GBMCC(dry)
GBMCC(wet)
35. 6
7. The thermal conductivity calculation
The thermal conductivity of the geopolymer was caculated by experimental results. The
Flash Method technique was used for the determination of thermal diffusivity on a Netzsch
LFA 447 Nanoflash. The specific heat capacity was measured by differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC 204 F1, Phoenix). The thermal conductivity of the geopolymer can be
calculated with the formula (S1), which is showed below.
=
c
λ
α
ρ
(S1)
where α is thermal diffusion coefficient (0.369 mm2
s−1
), λ is heat conductivity, ρ is density
of the material (2.36 g cm−3
) and c is specific heat (0.3 J g−1
℃−1
).
8. The evaporation rate of water in dark environment and under 1 sun
Figure S5. The evaporation rate in dark environment and under 1 sun.
9. The effect of geopolymer on water evaporation rate
According to the mass change plot of the the geopolymer without BMC layer under solar
illumination (Figure S6a), we obtained that the value of 0.72 kg m−2
h−1
(Copt=1), 1.05 kg m−2
h−1
(Copt=2) and 1.26 kg m−2
h−1
(Copt=3), respectively. In this experiment, only the top area
which includes BMC and several hole instead by geopolymer is used to absorber the solar and
wind energy, and the other parts are packaged by polyethylene foam. Based on the data
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
water only / dark
water only / 1 sun
Masschange(kgm-2
)
Time (s)
36. 7
collected of geopolymer, we recalculated the water vapor data carefully which is excluded the
influence of the geopolymer. The data details can be found in the Table S2.
𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑−𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑆𝑆 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
(2)
𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑆𝑆𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (3)
where 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, 𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 are the mass loss rate per unit time calculated from the
slop of mass loss curves at the steady state of BMC, device and geopolymer, respectively. 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
and 𝑆𝑆𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 are the area in the device (𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵=7.701×10−4
m2
, 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔=8.478×10−5
m2
).
𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the evaporation rate at the steady state. The mass change of the BMC without
the effect of the geopolymer showed in Figure S6b.
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
Evaporation(kgm-2
)
Time (s)
Copt
=1
Copt
=2
Copt
=3
Geopolymer
a
Figure S6. The mass change of the a) geopolymer and b) the device without the geopolymer
influence.
Table S2. Mass change of the device without the effect of the geopolymer under different
solar illumination.
Time /s Mass change (kg m-2
)
Blank water Copt=1 Copt=2 Copt=3
0 0 0 0 0
600 -0.085 -0.234 -0.256 -0.474
1200 -0.169 -0.519 -0.709 -1.011
1800 -0.254 -0.790 -1.129 -1.465
2400 -0.340 -1.066 -1.562 -1.950
3000 -0.425 -1.387 -1.958 -2.430
3600 -0.512 -1.673 -2.364 -2.860
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0 Blankwater
b
Masschange(kgm-2
)
Time (s)
Copt
=1
Copt
=2
Copt
=3
37. 8
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