This document provides an overview of morphology, or the internal structure of words. It discusses how words are built from roots and affixes through compounding, derivation, and inflection. While morphology operates through rules, it also contains irregularities from word roots. The document examines how children acquire morphological rules and exceptions. It proposes that children initially overapply rules before a "blocking principle" prevents rule application for words with irregular forms already learned. This explains how children recover from overgeneralizing rules without negative evidence.
The document discusses English syntax and describes the four main groups of syntactic structures. It explains that words can be combined into larger structures to convey various meanings. The structures are formed by combining two or fewer words and can be divided into constituents. Some examples of structures provided are noun phrases and verb phrases. The rest of the document elaborates on different types of syntactic structures such as modification structures, appositives, verbs as modifiers, adverbs as noun modifiers, and prepositional phrases as modifiers. It also provides examples and diagrams to illustrate syntactic heads and dependents.
The document discusses key concepts in English language structure including semantics, morphology, syntax, and phonetics. It defines semantics as the study of word meanings, and morphology as the study of word formation. Syntax is defined as the rules governing how words combine into phrases and sentences. Phonetics is concerned with speech sound properties and production/perception. The document also discusses parts of speech including nouns, verbs, and sentence structure types such as simple, compound, and complex sentences.
The document discusses the concept of heads and modifiers in linguistics. It defines a head as the key word that determines the syntactic type of a phrase. The head identifies the category of the phrase, such as a noun phrase having a noun as the head. Modifiers are optional elements that modify or change the meaning of the head. Modifiers can be premodifiers or postmodifiers, and the main types are adjectives and adverbs. Phrases can be endocentric, having an obligatory head, or exocentric, lacking a head.
Derivation is the formation of new words through the addition of affixes. English uses derivational affixes to change the grammatical category of words, such as from verb to noun. There are two types of derivational affixes: class 1 affixes typically change the phonology of the base word, while class 2 affixes are phonologically neutral. Complex derivation can change the grammatical category through multiple affixations. However, derivation is constrained and not all affixes can be added to all bases.
This document discusses the interaction between morphology and syntax. It begins by defining morphology as concerning word formation, and syntax as concerning rules for combining words into phrases and sentences. While morphology and syntax generally deal with different levels, they interact in several ways. Inflectional morphology carries grammatical meaning and is relevant to syntax. Argument structure, passive and anti-passive constructions, causatives, applicatives, and noun incorporation involve interactions between a verb's arguments and morphology. Clitics, phrasal verbs, and phrasal compounds exist at the morphology-syntax interface.
This document discusses syntax, which is the study of grammatical relations between words and other units within sentences. It covers topics such as word order, sentence formation, syntactic categories, phrase structure rules, and sentence structure. Syntax examines the rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful sentences in different languages and how these rules can vary between languages, dialects, time periods, and social groups.
The document discusses the concept of the morpheme, which is the smallest meaningful unit that forms words. It defines morphemes and their characteristics, including allomorphs, free and bound morphemes, overt and covert morphemes. It also discusses the different types of morphemes including root morphemes, affixal morphemes, prefixes, suffixes, and inflections. Finally, it covers the different ways that words can be derived, including synthetically using affixes, analytically using auxiliary words, and suppletively using different stems.
The document discusses English syntax and describes the four main groups of syntactic structures. It explains that words can be combined into larger structures to convey various meanings. The structures are formed by combining two or fewer words and can be divided into constituents. Some examples of structures provided are noun phrases and verb phrases. The rest of the document elaborates on different types of syntactic structures such as modification structures, appositives, verbs as modifiers, adverbs as noun modifiers, and prepositional phrases as modifiers. It also provides examples and diagrams to illustrate syntactic heads and dependents.
The document discusses key concepts in English language structure including semantics, morphology, syntax, and phonetics. It defines semantics as the study of word meanings, and morphology as the study of word formation. Syntax is defined as the rules governing how words combine into phrases and sentences. Phonetics is concerned with speech sound properties and production/perception. The document also discusses parts of speech including nouns, verbs, and sentence structure types such as simple, compound, and complex sentences.
The document discusses the concept of heads and modifiers in linguistics. It defines a head as the key word that determines the syntactic type of a phrase. The head identifies the category of the phrase, such as a noun phrase having a noun as the head. Modifiers are optional elements that modify or change the meaning of the head. Modifiers can be premodifiers or postmodifiers, and the main types are adjectives and adverbs. Phrases can be endocentric, having an obligatory head, or exocentric, lacking a head.
Derivation is the formation of new words through the addition of affixes. English uses derivational affixes to change the grammatical category of words, such as from verb to noun. There are two types of derivational affixes: class 1 affixes typically change the phonology of the base word, while class 2 affixes are phonologically neutral. Complex derivation can change the grammatical category through multiple affixations. However, derivation is constrained and not all affixes can be added to all bases.
This document discusses the interaction between morphology and syntax. It begins by defining morphology as concerning word formation, and syntax as concerning rules for combining words into phrases and sentences. While morphology and syntax generally deal with different levels, they interact in several ways. Inflectional morphology carries grammatical meaning and is relevant to syntax. Argument structure, passive and anti-passive constructions, causatives, applicatives, and noun incorporation involve interactions between a verb's arguments and morphology. Clitics, phrasal verbs, and phrasal compounds exist at the morphology-syntax interface.
This document discusses syntax, which is the study of grammatical relations between words and other units within sentences. It covers topics such as word order, sentence formation, syntactic categories, phrase structure rules, and sentence structure. Syntax examines the rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful sentences in different languages and how these rules can vary between languages, dialects, time periods, and social groups.
The document discusses the concept of the morpheme, which is the smallest meaningful unit that forms words. It defines morphemes and their characteristics, including allomorphs, free and bound morphemes, overt and covert morphemes. It also discusses the different types of morphemes including root morphemes, affixal morphemes, prefixes, suffixes, and inflections. Finally, it covers the different ways that words can be derived, including synthetically using affixes, analytically using auxiliary words, and suppletively using different stems.
This document discusses syntax and syntactic categories. It defines syntax as the study of sentence patterns and rules that determine word order and structure in a language. There are various syntactic categories including parts of speech, phrases, and sentences. Phrases are groups of words that function as a unit, and there are five main types: noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and preposition phrases. Phrase structure trees are used to represent syntactic categories and the hierarchical structure of phrases in a sentence. Basic phrase structure rules are provided.
Syntax refers to the grammatical structure of sentences, specifically the arrangement of words and phrases. It can be varied by rearranging words while maintaining grammatical correctness. Syntax focuses on structure, while diction focuses on word choice. Examples are given of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences to illustrate different syntactic structures in English. Parallel structure is also important for lists in sentences to be grammatically correct.
- Derivation is the process of forming a new word from an existing word through the addition of affixes like -ness or un-. This contrasts with inflection which produces grammatical variants of a word without changing its meaning.
- Derivational affixes change the part of speech of the word and often its meaning, while inflectional affixes do not change the part of speech or meaning. Examples of English derivational suffixes and the changes they produce are provided.
- Derivation typically results in a greater change in meaning compared to inflection and often changes the grammatical category of the root word. It produces new lexemes while inflection only produces new word forms.
This document discusses word morphology and how words can be made longer by adding affixes. It provides the word "pseudoantidisestablishmentarianism" as an example of a word with many morphemes. The document then explains the structure of words, noting that words can have no more than one prefix, one inflectional suffix, and multiple derivational suffixes. It also discusses the differences between derivation, where new words are formed by adding affixes to bases or roots, and inflection, where affixes are added to change a word's form based on grammar rules. Finally, it introduces the concept of analyzing words into their immediate constituents.
Morphology # Productivity in Word-FormationAni Istiana
This document discusses word formation processes and productivity in morphology. It defines productivity as the generality of a word formation process, considering both its degree of application to potential word bases and how it may change over time. Productivity exists on a spectrum from fully productive to semi-productive to unproductive. Semi-productive processes like suffixation with -ist or -ant are constrained by factors like the origin of the base word. Creativity in word formation can be rule-governed, following regular morphological patterns, or rule-bending, where new words are formed idiomatically without conscious rules.
The document summarizes key concepts from a lecture on sentence structure and constituents. It defines what a sentence and constituent are, and explains that sentences can be broken down into constituents like phrases. Constituents are groupings of words centered around a head word. Phrases are named after their head words, and can be further divided into intermediate and ultimate constituents in a hierarchical structure. The document also discusses tests for identifying constituents and provides examples of applying these concepts.
This document discusses various linguistic terms related to morphology. It defines terms like lexicon, lexis, lexical items, lexeme, compound words, and generative lexicon. It explains that a lexicon is the vocabulary of a language, including information about a word's pronunciation, meaning, and grammatical patterns. A lexeme is the smallest unit of meaning, which can occur in different inflected forms. Compound words are made of two or more words functioning as a single unit. The generative lexicon theory proposes that the lexicon plays an active role in generating new word meanings based on context.
Units and Complex Units by Tayyiba Hanif and Colleagues. A very important topic in Advanced Grammar under the super vision of Dr.Hafiz M. Qasim. This material help a lot in understanding the topic. Thanks!
The document discusses the key concepts of syntax including:
- Syntax examines how words are combined to form sentences.
- Speakers have linguistic competence which includes understanding grammaticality, word order, constituents, functions, ambiguity, and paraphrase.
- Generative grammar uses phrase structure rules to represent the hierarchical structure of sentences and generate all possible grammatical sentences.
- Tests like substitution and movement are used to determine if a string of words forms a constituent.
This document discusses different types of morphemes and how they are classified. It defines potentially free morphemes as those that can stand alone but do not necessarily, and bound morphemes as those that must be attached to another morpheme and cannot stand alone. It distinguishes between inflectional and derivational morphemes. Inflectional morphemes change grammatical features like number or tense without changing the word class, while derivational morphemes create new lexemes and can change the word class. It provides examples of inflectional and derivational affixes in English and discusses their properties.
This document summarizes the morphological structure of words in Common Germanic (CG). It discusses how words could be divided into three types - simple, derived, and compound - based on the number and character of their components. The stem of a word consisted of a root morpheme plus affixes. Over time, the morphological structure simplified as affixes fused with roots or were lost. Ablaut, or vowel alternation, was a prominent feature used to indicate grammatical forms. Parts of speech like nouns and verbs had categories like case, number, gender, tense, mood, and person that were indicated synthetically through changes to the word stem rather than using separate words.
This document provides an overview of structural analysis of English syntax, including definitions of key terms and descriptions of paradigms and other aspects of syntax. It discusses inflectional and derivational paradigms for various parts of speech like nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. It also covers intonation patterns, word order, and function words as structural devices used to establish word classes in English.
Morphology - Adjective derived from member of other word classesNurul Khotimah
The document discusses adjective derivation. It begins by defining derivation as the formation of new words from existing words, typically through the addition of affixes. It then examines different types of adjective derivation: (1) from adjectives through prefixes, (2) from nouns using suffixes like "-ful" and "-less", and (3) from verbs using suffixes like "-able", "-ive", "-ant", and "-ent". Overall, the key to identifying derived adjectives is looking for changes in word class through the addition of affixes.
The document discusses different types of word formation including clipping, blending, borrowing, coining, acronyms, and conversion. It provides examples for each type, such as "brunch" which is a blend of "breakfast" and "lunch". Various characteristics of words like indivisibility and positional mobility are also examined. The document aims to define words and analyze their structure, classification, and characteristics in the English language.
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and how they are formed. A key concept in morphology is the morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning. Words are made up of combinations of morphemes. There are two main types of morphemes - roots, which belong to a lexical category like noun or verb, and affixes, which cannot stand alone and are used to derive new words or indicate grammatical functions like plurality. Languages organize words into lexical categories based on their meaning and function. Morphological analysis involves identifying the morphemes within words, including any affixes and their positions, to understand a word's structure and relationship to other words.
This document discusses morphology, which is the study of word structure and formation. It covers several key topics:
- Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a word, and can be free or bound. Common affixes like prefixes and suffixes are bound morphemes.
- There are several ways words can be formed, including derivation using affixes, compounding of multiple words, and inflection of verbs and nouns.
- The meaning of complex words can often be predicted based on the meanings of their constituent morphemes. Understanding morphology helps analyze unfamiliar words.
This document discusses morphological concepts including roots, bases, stems, affixes, compounds, and conversions. It defines roots as the central morpheme of a word that carries the key meaning. Bases can be roots or roots plus affixes, and stems are bases that can take grammatical affixes. Affixes are bound morphemes added to bases or stems to derive new words or add grammatical meaning. Compounds consist of two or more bases joined together, with one element acting as the head determining the word's part of speech. Exercises are provided asking students to identify morphemes and morphological structures in example words.
The document discusses syntax, which are the rules that govern sentence structure in languages. It defines syntax as the mental representation of a speaker's linguistic knowledge about sentence formation. The key components of syntax include parts of speech, phrase structure trees, grammaticality, ambiguity, and the infinite potential for sentence formation through recursive rules.
The document provides an overview of fundamental syntactic concepts. It discusses the basic steps of syntactic analysis: 1) determining the relevant parts of a sentence, and 2) assigning grammatical labels to the parts. It then examines different syntactic units like phrases, clauses, and sentences. Key points include: phrases are composed of a head and optional modifiers/complements, clauses contain a subject-predicate relationship, and sentences are the largest unit. The document also outlines different tests for identifying constituents, or meaningful parts, of sentences.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang sistem koloid dan sifat-sifatnya serta penerapannya dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Materi ini mencakup pengertian sistem koloid, perbandingan sifat larutan, koloid dan suspensi, jenis-jenis koloid, efek Tyndall, gerak Brown, muatan koloid, koloid pelindung, koagulasi dan contoh-contoh penerapannya.
This document discusses syntax and syntactic categories. It defines syntax as the study of sentence patterns and rules that determine word order and structure in a language. There are various syntactic categories including parts of speech, phrases, and sentences. Phrases are groups of words that function as a unit, and there are five main types: noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and preposition phrases. Phrase structure trees are used to represent syntactic categories and the hierarchical structure of phrases in a sentence. Basic phrase structure rules are provided.
Syntax refers to the grammatical structure of sentences, specifically the arrangement of words and phrases. It can be varied by rearranging words while maintaining grammatical correctness. Syntax focuses on structure, while diction focuses on word choice. Examples are given of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences to illustrate different syntactic structures in English. Parallel structure is also important for lists in sentences to be grammatically correct.
- Derivation is the process of forming a new word from an existing word through the addition of affixes like -ness or un-. This contrasts with inflection which produces grammatical variants of a word without changing its meaning.
- Derivational affixes change the part of speech of the word and often its meaning, while inflectional affixes do not change the part of speech or meaning. Examples of English derivational suffixes and the changes they produce are provided.
- Derivation typically results in a greater change in meaning compared to inflection and often changes the grammatical category of the root word. It produces new lexemes while inflection only produces new word forms.
This document discusses word morphology and how words can be made longer by adding affixes. It provides the word "pseudoantidisestablishmentarianism" as an example of a word with many morphemes. The document then explains the structure of words, noting that words can have no more than one prefix, one inflectional suffix, and multiple derivational suffixes. It also discusses the differences between derivation, where new words are formed by adding affixes to bases or roots, and inflection, where affixes are added to change a word's form based on grammar rules. Finally, it introduces the concept of analyzing words into their immediate constituents.
Morphology # Productivity in Word-FormationAni Istiana
This document discusses word formation processes and productivity in morphology. It defines productivity as the generality of a word formation process, considering both its degree of application to potential word bases and how it may change over time. Productivity exists on a spectrum from fully productive to semi-productive to unproductive. Semi-productive processes like suffixation with -ist or -ant are constrained by factors like the origin of the base word. Creativity in word formation can be rule-governed, following regular morphological patterns, or rule-bending, where new words are formed idiomatically without conscious rules.
The document summarizes key concepts from a lecture on sentence structure and constituents. It defines what a sentence and constituent are, and explains that sentences can be broken down into constituents like phrases. Constituents are groupings of words centered around a head word. Phrases are named after their head words, and can be further divided into intermediate and ultimate constituents in a hierarchical structure. The document also discusses tests for identifying constituents and provides examples of applying these concepts.
This document discusses various linguistic terms related to morphology. It defines terms like lexicon, lexis, lexical items, lexeme, compound words, and generative lexicon. It explains that a lexicon is the vocabulary of a language, including information about a word's pronunciation, meaning, and grammatical patterns. A lexeme is the smallest unit of meaning, which can occur in different inflected forms. Compound words are made of two or more words functioning as a single unit. The generative lexicon theory proposes that the lexicon plays an active role in generating new word meanings based on context.
Units and Complex Units by Tayyiba Hanif and Colleagues. A very important topic in Advanced Grammar under the super vision of Dr.Hafiz M. Qasim. This material help a lot in understanding the topic. Thanks!
The document discusses the key concepts of syntax including:
- Syntax examines how words are combined to form sentences.
- Speakers have linguistic competence which includes understanding grammaticality, word order, constituents, functions, ambiguity, and paraphrase.
- Generative grammar uses phrase structure rules to represent the hierarchical structure of sentences and generate all possible grammatical sentences.
- Tests like substitution and movement are used to determine if a string of words forms a constituent.
This document discusses different types of morphemes and how they are classified. It defines potentially free morphemes as those that can stand alone but do not necessarily, and bound morphemes as those that must be attached to another morpheme and cannot stand alone. It distinguishes between inflectional and derivational morphemes. Inflectional morphemes change grammatical features like number or tense without changing the word class, while derivational morphemes create new lexemes and can change the word class. It provides examples of inflectional and derivational affixes in English and discusses their properties.
This document summarizes the morphological structure of words in Common Germanic (CG). It discusses how words could be divided into three types - simple, derived, and compound - based on the number and character of their components. The stem of a word consisted of a root morpheme plus affixes. Over time, the morphological structure simplified as affixes fused with roots or were lost. Ablaut, or vowel alternation, was a prominent feature used to indicate grammatical forms. Parts of speech like nouns and verbs had categories like case, number, gender, tense, mood, and person that were indicated synthetically through changes to the word stem rather than using separate words.
This document provides an overview of structural analysis of English syntax, including definitions of key terms and descriptions of paradigms and other aspects of syntax. It discusses inflectional and derivational paradigms for various parts of speech like nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. It also covers intonation patterns, word order, and function words as structural devices used to establish word classes in English.
Morphology - Adjective derived from member of other word classesNurul Khotimah
The document discusses adjective derivation. It begins by defining derivation as the formation of new words from existing words, typically through the addition of affixes. It then examines different types of adjective derivation: (1) from adjectives through prefixes, (2) from nouns using suffixes like "-ful" and "-less", and (3) from verbs using suffixes like "-able", "-ive", "-ant", and "-ent". Overall, the key to identifying derived adjectives is looking for changes in word class through the addition of affixes.
The document discusses different types of word formation including clipping, blending, borrowing, coining, acronyms, and conversion. It provides examples for each type, such as "brunch" which is a blend of "breakfast" and "lunch". Various characteristics of words like indivisibility and positional mobility are also examined. The document aims to define words and analyze their structure, classification, and characteristics in the English language.
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and how they are formed. A key concept in morphology is the morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning. Words are made up of combinations of morphemes. There are two main types of morphemes - roots, which belong to a lexical category like noun or verb, and affixes, which cannot stand alone and are used to derive new words or indicate grammatical functions like plurality. Languages organize words into lexical categories based on their meaning and function. Morphological analysis involves identifying the morphemes within words, including any affixes and their positions, to understand a word's structure and relationship to other words.
This document discusses morphology, which is the study of word structure and formation. It covers several key topics:
- Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a word, and can be free or bound. Common affixes like prefixes and suffixes are bound morphemes.
- There are several ways words can be formed, including derivation using affixes, compounding of multiple words, and inflection of verbs and nouns.
- The meaning of complex words can often be predicted based on the meanings of their constituent morphemes. Understanding morphology helps analyze unfamiliar words.
This document discusses morphological concepts including roots, bases, stems, affixes, compounds, and conversions. It defines roots as the central morpheme of a word that carries the key meaning. Bases can be roots or roots plus affixes, and stems are bases that can take grammatical affixes. Affixes are bound morphemes added to bases or stems to derive new words or add grammatical meaning. Compounds consist of two or more bases joined together, with one element acting as the head determining the word's part of speech. Exercises are provided asking students to identify morphemes and morphological structures in example words.
The document discusses syntax, which are the rules that govern sentence structure in languages. It defines syntax as the mental representation of a speaker's linguistic knowledge about sentence formation. The key components of syntax include parts of speech, phrase structure trees, grammaticality, ambiguity, and the infinite potential for sentence formation through recursive rules.
The document provides an overview of fundamental syntactic concepts. It discusses the basic steps of syntactic analysis: 1) determining the relevant parts of a sentence, and 2) assigning grammatical labels to the parts. It then examines different syntactic units like phrases, clauses, and sentences. Key points include: phrases are composed of a head and optional modifiers/complements, clauses contain a subject-predicate relationship, and sentences are the largest unit. The document also outlines different tests for identifying constituents, or meaningful parts, of sentences.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang sistem koloid dan sifat-sifatnya serta penerapannya dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Materi ini mencakup pengertian sistem koloid, perbandingan sifat larutan, koloid dan suspensi, jenis-jenis koloid, efek Tyndall, gerak Brown, muatan koloid, koloid pelindung, koagulasi dan contoh-contoh penerapannya.
This document discusses an organization focused on helping orphaned, poor, and exploited children across the country. It aims to provide assistance to vulnerable youth who lack support and resources. In short, the goal is to support and improve the lives of at-risk children nationwide.
Zimasset revisited from the diaspora perspectiveJosh Chigwangwa
1) The document discusses Zimbabwe's economic development plan called ZimAsset and argues it should better incorporate the role of the Zimbabwean diaspora.
2) It notes that diaspora remittances are a major source of foreign currency for Zimbabwe and that most remittances are through informal channels.
3) It recommends establishing an institutional framework to better understand and utilize diaspora remittances to support economic growth, including collecting data and channeling funds through the financial system.
In general, a bond is basically a debt security instrument with an original maturity date of more than 1 year and is also tradeable in the financial markets. A Diaspora bond (Db) is a bond issued by a country to its expatriate citizens' resident in the Diaspora to tap into their accumulated savings. It is an alternative to borrowing from the global financial institutions, capital markets or bilaterally from other governments. The idea of tapping into migrant wealth is not new. The practise of issuing Diaspora bonds dates back to the early 1930s with the first issuers being Japan and China followed in the 1950s by Israel and later by India in the 1990s. The Israeli bonds have been a success story and are estimated to have mobilised an estimated $25 billion in the past 30 years. According to statistics, Israel’s Diaspora bonds accounted for 20-35% of its outstanding external debt between 1983 and 2003.
Hey Guys those who want to get SElf Motivated and have to achieve goals in der life please watch dis presentation will help in ur future goal setting purpose...
This document provides an overview of linguistic concepts and theories of language that are relevant to language teaching. It discusses the key areas of linguistics including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. It also outlines several theories of language such as structuralism, transformationalism, functionalism, and interactionism that have influenced approaches to language teaching. Theories of second language acquisition discussed include behaviorist learning theory. The document aims to inform language teachers about the underlying linguistic knowledge and theoretical frameworks that can inform how they teach different elements of the target language.
The document discusses various types and processes of word formation in English, including affixation, conversion, compounding, clipping, blending, acronyms, sound changes, onomatopoeia, back-formation, and stress shift. It specifically focuses on suffixation, describing the types of bases suffixes can be added to (verbal, nominal, adjectival), the parts of speech suffixes can form (nouns, adjectives, verbs), their meanings (monosemantic vs polysemantic), and general denotational meanings (agent, appurtenance).
The document discusses different ways to define the meaning of words and concepts. It describes definitions as being either real or nominal. Real definitions aim to describe the inherent nature or essence of something, while nominal definitions describe the meaning of a word. Common methods of defining include definition by ostension (pointing), synonymy (using synonyms), context/exemplars, and genus and differentia (specifying a broader class and distinguishing features). The relationship between words, meanings, and definitions is complex, as meaning can vary based on context and combination with other words.
This document provides an introduction to phrase structure in English grammar. It discusses some key properties of English grammar, including linearity, hierarchy, and categorization. It then outlines some basic phrase structure rules, including the internal structure of noun phrases and determiners. The document also covers adverbial clauses, prepositional phrases, and the ordering of sentence-final adverbials. Overall, the document introduces some fundamental concepts in English phrase structure and grammar.
This document discusses and compares the structure of noun phrases in Standard Arabic and Standard English. It notes that Arabic noun phrases can be in either the free state or construct state, and modifiers follow the noun in Arabic but precede it in English. The document outlines principles governing nominal expressions in both languages, including noun movement and adjective ordering. It concludes that while Arabic and English noun phrases differ structurally, both languages share underlying syntactic principles.
The document discusses morphological typology, which is the classification of languages based on how words are formed from morphemes. It defines key concepts like morphology, typology, and morphological processes. Morphological typology categorizes languages into types based on their word formation processes, such as isolating/analytic languages which form words from single morphemes, and polysynthetic languages which express whole ideas within a single word using many bound morphemes. The document also examines morphological processes including concatenative processes like affixation and compounding, and non-concatenative processes like internal modification and conversion.
1. Grammatical structure describes the systematic formal devices used in a language to convey meanings and relationships, rather than absolute rules of correctness or mere usage.
2. Elements of grammatical structure include word order, inflection, correlation of forms, function words, intonation, stress, and pauses. These signals convey meaning.
3. Comparing grammatical structures between two languages involves analyzing whether structures have the same formal device, meaning, and distribution, or differ, which causes more difficulty for learners. Transfer from the native language affects production and recognition differently.
1. The document defines various linguistic terms related to syntax, semantics, morphology, and other areas of linguistics. It provides definitions and examples for terms like generative grammar, language acquisition, morphology, phonology, and others.
2. The document also defines terms specifically related to syntax and morphology, such as adjunct, adverb, affix, aspect, auxiliary verb, bound morpheme, clause, coordination, derivation, and others. Examples are provided for each term.
3. Finally, the document defines terms related to semantics and pragmatics, like antonymy, assertion, cancel an implicature, compositionality, connotation, contradiction, coreference, and others. Each term
This document provides an overview of syllabic and accentual structure in English words. It discusses theories of syllable formation and division, defining syllables as consisting of an onset, nucleus, and coda. English syllable structure is introduced, with many syllables having an onset and/or coda in addition to the nucleus. The functions of syllables in English are described as constitutive, distinctive, and identificatory. Word stress in English is then examined, distinguishing types of stress (dynamic, musical, quantitative, qualitative) and degrees of stress. English is characterized as having a free stress system with variable stress placement within words.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. A strong syllable has a full vowel as its nucleus, while a weak syllable typically contains the reduced vowel schwa. The most common vowel in weak syllables is schwa, represented as /ÉTM/. Other vowels found in weak syllables include a close front vowel similar to /i/ and a close back vowel similar to /u/. These vowels are difficult to distinguish from their strong counterparts /i:/ and /u:/. Spellings can provide clues as to which vowel would be present if the syllable was strong. Weak syllables tend to have shorter, less intense vowels compared to strong syllables.
This document discusses the key concepts of generative grammar including:
- Generative grammar defines syntactic structures and generates all grammatical sentences of a language using a finite set of rules.
- Syntax is the study of how words are combined into phrases and sentences. Phrases are groupings of words headed by a lexical category.
- Sentences contain lexical categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives as well as functional categories like determiners and auxiliaries.
- Verbs select complements like objects, predicates, and clauses that are required, while adjuncts provide optional details like time and manner.
- Recursion allows categories to embed within each other, generating infinitely long phrases.
Morphology: THE FORMATION OF WORDS. A TYPE OF LINGUISTIC.TIYASHAROY
This document provides an overview of morphology, which is the study of the internal structure of words. It defines key terms like morphology, morphemes, free and bound morphemes. It explains that words can consist of a single morpheme or multiple morphemes. Prefixes and suffixes are examples of bound morphemes that can be added to word roots. The document also discusses morphology trees to represent simple and complex words. Finally, it briefly introduces generative grammar and transformational grammar.
This document is a student paper on phonological rules in English. It defines phonology and phonological rules, explaining that rules describe how underlying phonemes are realized as surface allophones based on neighboring sounds. The paper then describes five common types of phonological rules: assimilation, dissimilation, deletion, insertion, and metathesis. It provides examples for each type and concludes that studying these rules helps understand how mental language is translated to spoken language.
This document discusses the essential morphosyntactic elements of the English language, including morphemes, word classes, syntax, and sentence structures. It also outlines approaches for progressively developing students' oral and written communication skills in English, starting with basic vocabulary and controlled practice activities before moving to more free production.
The document discusses the sentence and utterance as linguistic units. It defines the sentence as an abstract theoretical unit that expresses predication, while the utterance is the actual use of a sentence in speech. It also describes the main categories of the utterance based on its informative structure, including the theme (given information) and rheme (new information). Finally, it discusses textual deixis and how deictic markers help locate elements in a text relative to the speaker, addressee, time, and place.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a syllable and describes their structure, including onset, nucleus, coda, and rime. It states that strong syllables contain full vowels while weak syllables often contain reduced vowels like schwa. Examples are provided to demonstrate how vowels are shortened, lower in intensity, and changed in quality in weak syllables compared to strong ones. The document also notes that some weak syllables contain only consonants. It examines spelling patterns that can indicate the vowel sound in a strong pronunciation of a weak syllable. Finally, it discusses the close front and back vowels that may occur in weak syllables and problems transcribing them phonemically.
The document discusses different perspectives on grammar including:
1. Traditional grammar which labels grammatical categories like nouns, verbs, and tenses.
2. Descriptive grammar which collects language samples and describes structures as they are used rather than how they should be used. This includes structural analysis and labeled bracketed sentences.
3. Generative grammar which has rules to generate all grammatical sentences of a language and aims to capture properties like recursion. It distinguishes between deep and surface structures.
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Linguistics handnote ucla
1. P. Schlenker - Ling 1 - Introduction to the Study of Language - UCLA
Introduction to Language - Lecture Notes 8
Form I: Morphology
☞ Goal: So far we have treated words as if they were unanalyzable units. Indeed they may appear to be so from
the standpoint of the Syntax. For instance we systematically -and correctly- assumed that a single word is always
a constituent, because no syntactic rule could target one part of the word only. However the fact that words are
unanalyzable from the standpoint of the Syntax does not mean that they have no structure at all and are simply
memorized as wholes. This is very far from the truth. As it turns out, words are created by rules; for this reason
there is no 'longest word' in the English language - a new word can always be produced by applying one of these
rules to an 'old' word. Furthermore, a word has a tree-like structure, and typically (though not always) has a head,
i.e. a component from which it inherits its semantic and syntactic properties (for instance, overeat is a verb just
like its head eat; and overeating is a kind of eating). Although morphology is driven by rules, it is also the
repository of irregularities, as seen for instance in the English past tense (the past tense of walk is walked, but that
of go is went, not *goed). The most basic component of a word, its root, is truly unanalyzable. It is an arbitrary
pairing between a sound and a meaning, and it often triggers exceptions to the rules. These exceptions are studied
from various angles in the second part of these Lecture Notes, devoted to a case study of the English past tense.
Note: The present notes build on Chapter 5 of Pinker's Language Instinct, which is required reading for the
course.
1 How to Build Words: Morphological Rules
1.1 There is no longest word in English
What is the longest word of the English language? Some have mentioned the following:
(1) a. antidisestablishmentarianism (28 letters)
b. floccinaucinihilipilification (29 letters)
c. pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis (45 letters)
As it turns out, there is no longest word in English. To see this, consider simply the following two series, each of
which can be continued without limit to create a potentially infinite number of new words:
(2) a. great-grandmother
b. great-great-grandmother
c. great-great-great-grandmother
...
(3) a. sensation
b. sensational
c. sensationalize
d. sensationalization
e. sensationalizational
f. sensationalizationalize
...
2. P. Schlenker - Ling 1 - Introduction to the Study of Language - UCLA 2
1.2 Words have Structure
When we studied Syntax we took speakers' ability to generate a potentially infinite number of sentences as a sure
sign that they know syntactic rules (the argument was that they could not possibly have memorized an infinite
number of sentences, and thus that they must be using rules to create new sentences out of old elements). The
same conclusion applies in the case of morphology: speakers of English know a potentially infinite number of
words because they have mastered morphological rules. In Syntax rules created tree-like structures. The same
applies in morphology. In Syntax constituents typically contained a head, i.e. a word which gave them their
defining properties (a Noun Phrase contains a Noun in a designated syntactic position; similarly a Verb Phrase is
so-called because it must include a verb in a specific place, etc.). The same holds of most words as well (although
some words are headless).
In the following we use the term root to refer to the most basic component of a word or family of related words,
consisting of an irreducible, arbitrary sound-meaning pairing, as electr- in: electr-ic, electric-ity, electric-al,
electr-ify, electr-on.
♦ Compounding
The simplest way to form new words out of old elements is by compounding, a mechanism illustrated below:
(4)
V N N
N V N N A N
baby sit church yard black board
Compounding in English normally has the following properties:
(i) Compounds have a head, which gives them their main semantic and syntactic properties. Example:
-syntactically, the expression blackboard is a noun, as is its head board
-semantically, the expression blackboard refers to things that are kinds of boards, as the noun board.
(ii) The head comes last
(iii) The stress comes first
(iv) The meaning of the whole is not entirely predictable on the basis of the meaning of the parts.
In the following examples, the syllable with the main stress is indicated in bold. In each pair, a. is not a
compound because (a) it has its main stress on the final element, and (b) the meaning of the whole is entirely
predictable from the meaning of the parts (e.g. a black board is simply a board that is black). By contrast, b. is a
compound: the main stress is on the first element, and the meaning of the whole is not entirely predictable from
the meaning of the parts (a blackboard may not be black, but for instance green, as is the case in many
classrooms).
3. P. Schlenker - Ling 1 - Introduction to the Study of Language - UCLA 3
(5) a. a black board: a board that is black
b. a blackboard: a board for writing on with chalk in front of a class. It may or may not be black.
(6) a. a dark room: a room that is dark
b. a darkroom: a room from which daylight is excluded so that photographs can be processed.
As was the case in Syntax, there are sometimes instances of structural ambiguity in morphology. Thus a
California history teacher may be someone that teaches California history, or it may be a history teacher from
California. The first meaning is obtained by making California history a morphological constituent, as on the left-
most tree below. The second meaning is obtained by the morphological tree found on the right.
(7) a. California history teacher
b. N N
N N N N
N N N N
California history teacher California history teacher
♦ Derivational Morphology
A second way to create new words out of old elements is by adding suffixes or prefixes to existing words to
modify their meaning and often their syntactic category. This process is called 'derivational morphology', and it
also typically yields headed constituents (i.e. constituents with a head, which gives them their main syntactic and
semantic properties). In the following example the suffix -ness is specified as taking as its sister an adjective, and
produces a noun. Thus happiness is the property of being happy, unhappiness is the property of being unhappy,
etc.:
N
N
A -ness
A -ness
A
un-
happy
happy
4. P. Schlenker - Ling 1 - Introduction to the Study of Language - UCLA 4
♦ Inflectional Morphology
We note for completeness that inflectional morphology is the process by which suffixes or prefixes are added to a
word to fit its role in the sentence. The new word has the same syntactic category and the same meaning as the
old one.
Examples: walk, walk-s, walk-ing, walk-ed, etc; dog, dog-s; cat, cat-s.
Often irregularities may be triggered by a given root. Thus although the regular way of forming the past tense of
a verb is by adding -ed to it, as in walk-walked, certain roots do not conform to this pattern:
(8) a. eat - ate
b. go - went
c. sing - sang
d. come - came
Similarly the plural is normally formed by adding -s to a noun, as in dog - dogs. But the following are exceptions
to this rule:
(9) a. fish - fish
b. man - men
c. ox - oxen
As was observed earlier, a word which is headed inherits its main semantic and syntactic properties from its head.
Overeat has eat as its head, and as a result: (i) the expression overeat is a verb, just like the expression eat; (ii)
overeating is a kind of eating; and (iii) the past tense of overeat is overate, not overeated. Similarly workman is
headed and has as its head man. As a result: (i) workman is a noun, just like man; (ii) a workman is a kind of man;
and (iii) the plural of workman is workmen, not workmans).
1.3 Headless Nouns
Interestingly, certain complex nouns do not have any head. This is the case of walkman, since a walkman is
certainly not a kind of man, and certainly not a kind of walk either (rather, it is small electronic device that plays
CDs). Similarly a lowlife is not a kind of life, which suggests that life is not its head. Since low is an adjective, not
a noun, and since lowlife is a noun, it also can't be the case that low is the head of the construction. Thus it is
reasonable to assume that walkman and lowlife have no head at all.
This makes a surprising prediction. Remember that (i) irregularities are triggered by roots, and that (ii) a complex
word inherits its main properties from its head. This explains why the past tense of overeat is overate: the head is
eat, it transmits to the entire word the information that its past tense is irregular, and should thus be overate, not
overeated. But now consider walkman and lowlife. True, man takes an irregular plural, i.e. men rather than *mans.
And by the same token life takes as its plural lives, not *lifes. But since man is not the head of walkman, this
information cannot be transmitted to the entire word, and thus the plural of walkman has no choice but to be
regular, i.e. walkmans. This is the correct result. Similarly the plural of lowlife should according to this theory be
lowlifes, not *lowlives. Again this is the right result. Notice, by contrast, that since man is the head of workman,
we predict -correctly again- that the plural of workman should be workmen.
5. P. Schlenker - Ling 1 - Introduction to the Study of Language - UCLA 5
2 Rules and Exceptions
2.1 Productivity of Rules
Even without an argument based on speakers' potential knowledge of an infinity of new words (as in (2) and
(3)above), it is easy to show that adults apply morphological rules productively, i.e. to words that they have never
heard before. If I introduce to you a new object that I call a wug and then go on to show you two objects of the
same sort, you will have no difficulty in telling me that these are two wugs. You will thus have applied the rule of
plural formation to a word you had never heard before.
At a certain stage of their development children do this too. This can be shown experimentally (they then pass the
wug test, i.e. they apply a morphological rule to words they have never heard before). But production data (i.e.
data obtained simply from listening to what children say) make the same point. The following are from Pinker,
'Why the Child Holded the Baby Rabbits' (An Invitation to Cognitive Science, 2nd edition, Volume 1, MIT Press,
p. 109)
(10) a. My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we patted them.
b. I finded Renée
c. I love cut-upped egg.
d. Once upon a time a alligator was eating a dinosaur and the dinosaur was eating the alligator and the
dinosaur was eaten by the alligator and the alligator goed kerplunk.
It is very unlikely that the children who uttered these sentences had ever heard anyone say 'holded', 'finded' or
'goed'. The fact that they nonetheless created these words indicates that they learned -and overapplied- a rule. The
phenomenon in (10) is called overgeneralization. It has a paradoxical consequence: when children have not yet
learned the morphological rule, their performance on the forms they utter tends to be better than the one they
attain immediately after they have learned the rule. This is because before they learn the rule they memorize
plurals as unananalyzable units, and are thus in no danger of overapplying a rule... which they have not mastered
yet. By contrast, when they learn the rule they tend to apply it incorrectly to cases that require an exceptional
treatment, such as 'hold', 'find' or 'go'. Only later do they learn that holded, finded and goed are ungrammatical.
This entire sequence is called by psychologists 'U-shaped development", because the child's performance starts
out very high, and then dips down before rising again.
2.2 Exceptions and the Blocking Principle
But how do children ever learn that there are exceptions to the rules? The problem has in fact two sides:
(i) How do children learn that held, went or found are possible past tense forms? This by itself is not particularly
challenging, since these are words they hear uttered around them.
(ii) More challenging, however, is the second part of the question: how do children ever learn that holed, goed or
finded are not possible forms? Or to put it differently, how do they ever recover from the mistakes they make in
sentences such as (10)?
Concerning (ii), one hypothesis would be that children need to have access to negative evidence, i.e. to be
corrected by their parents. As far as is currently known this is not the case - children recover from
overgeneralizations even in the absence of any corrections. An alternative hypothesis is that Universal Grammar
has a principle, called the Blocking Principle, which forbids a rule from applying to a word if the word already
has a corresponding irregular form.
6. P. Schlenker - Ling 1 - Introduction to the Study of Language - UCLA 6
Blocking Principle: A rule may not apply to a word if the word already has a corresponding irregular form.
If the Blocking Principle is indeed part of Universal Grammar, the children may recover from their
overgeneralizations without having access to any negative evidence. For as soon as a child has learned that went
is a possible past tense for go, the Blocking Principle will immediately entail that the normal rule of past tense
formation could not apply to go to form go-ed (since the Blocking Principle specifies that a rule -here past tense
formation- may not apply to a word if the word in question already has a corresponding irregular form - in this
case went).
The details of the acquisition of past tense morphology are somewhat more subtle, however. The present theory
predicts that at any point in time children should either use only goed, or only went, but not both (since went will
block goed as soon as went is learned). But in fact there is a period in which children use both forms. A possible
hypothesis is that the Blocking Principle applies only to the extent that the irregular form can be successfully
retrieved from the speaker's memory. This additional assumption is stated by Pinker as follows ('Why the Child
Holded the Baby Rabbits', An Invitation to Cognitive Science, 2nd edition, Volume 1, MIT Press, pp. 113-114):
"The extra needed assumption comes from an uncontroversial principle of the psychology of memory, known for
over a hundred years. People do not remember an arbitrary pairing (like a name with a face, or a treaty with a
date) perfectly on a single exposure. It often takes repeated encounters, with the probability of successful retrieval
increasing with each encounter (presumably reflecting an increase in the 'strength' or clarity of the trace of the
pairing as it is stored in memory). Now children, by definition, have not lived as long as adults. So children have
experienced everything in life fewer times than an adult has, including hearing the past tense forms of irregular
verbs. If children have heard held less often, their memory trace for it will be weaker, and retrieval less reliable.
Some of the time, when they are trying to express the concept of holding in the past, held will not pop into mind
(or at least, not quickly enough to get it out in that sentence). If they are at an age at which they have already
acquired the regular past tense rule, they will apply it to hold, creating holded, so as to satisfy the constraint that
tense must be maked in all sentences. Prior to that age, when they failed to retrieve held, they had no choice but to
say hold."
The course of acquisition of past tense by children can be summarized as follows (Pinker, 'Why the Child Holded
the Baby Rabbits'):
I. (i) "When learning a language, children have to generalize from a finite sample of parental speech to the
infinite set of sentences that define the language as a whole. Since there are an infinite number of ways to do this
but only one is correct, children must be innately guided to the correct solution by having some kinds of
principles governing the design of human language built in.
(ii) We can catch children in the act of generalizing when they use one of the general rules of English to
create a form that they could not have heard from their parents. Children must be generalizing such a rule when
they apply it to irregular verbs, as in holded (...)
II. (i) Children command not just rules but memorized words, like held; they use the memorized irregular
forms both prior to, and simultaneously with, the overgeneralized, rule-created forms.
(ii) Children's simultaneous use of correct and incorrect forms poses the puzzle of how they unlearn the
incorrect forms, given that the incorrect forms are expressive and useful, and are not reliably corrected by parents.
(iii) The puzzle can be solved if children command one of the basic design features of language: the
"Blocking" principle, whereby a rule is prevented from applying if there is a grammatically equivalent irregular
7. P. Schlenker - Ling 1 - Introduction to the Study of Language - UCLA 7
form in the memorized mental dictionary. As long as they can remember an irregular, they can stop producing the
overregularized version.
III. The course of language development in this area can be explained straightforwardly, as an interaction
between the innate organization of language (rules, words, and the Blocking principle that relates them) and the
child's experience with parental speech. Early on, children just memorize words (held), though not perfectly.
Later they formulate the regular past tense rule "add -ed" from memorized regular pairs like walk-walked. Now
equipped with the rule, whenever they fail to retrieve an irregular past form from memory, they can apply the
rule, resulting in an overregularization error. As they hear the irregular more and more often, they remember it
better and better, block the rule more and more reliably, and make the errors less and less often"
2.3 Cases of Dissociations
It is plausible that irregular forms are stored as units in memory. By contrast, regular complex forms are built 'on
the fly' by speakers. If this hypothesis is correct one could expect regular and irregular forms to be computed in
very different ways by the brain. Several cases of dissociations have been investigated - for instance Selective
Language Impairment (SLI) patients have difficulty applying rules, and as a result SLI children have a very poor
performance with the wug test. The opposite situation is found in Williams patients. These, it will be recalled,
have almost entirely normal linguistic abilities. There are some subtleties, however. Their use of the vocabulary is
often slightly off-target - they may for instance say evacuate the glass for empty the glass. Interestingly, Williams
patients tend to overapply rules, saying catched and sleeped for caught and slept. Where SLI patients have
trouble learning the rules, Williams patients appear to have difficulties with the exceptions. [Experiments
discussed in class are not reported here].
8. P. Schlenker - Ling 1 - Introduction to the Study of Language - UCLA 8
Appendix. Contents of Chapter 5 of Pinker's Language Instinct
Chapter 5. Words, Words, Words (=Morphology)
I. The Creativity of Morphology (120)
-Inflections (120)
-Derivations (122)
-Compounding (122)
II. How Morphology Works: Rules (124)
Morphological Trees (124)
1. Putting together stems and inflections (124)
2 Forming new stems
-Compounding (126)
-Derivations (127)
-Heads in morphology(128)
3. Roots and root affixes (128)
III. How Morphology Works: Irregularity (129)
Why headless nouns are regular
Why you can say mice-infested but not rats-infested
IV. The Lexicon (141)
What is a word? (word as syntactic atom vs. word as rote-memorized chunk) (141)
Acquisition of the lexicon (143)
-Arbitrariness of the sign
-Induction