This document summarizes Michael C. Corballis' essay on handedness and brain asymmetry. Some key points:
- Handedness and brain asymmetry are widespread in animals and likely evolved gradually, not uniquely in humans. About two-thirds of humans and other primates show a left hemisphere dominance for functions like language.
- Brain imaging of early human fetuses and infants shows asymmetries are present from a very early age, indicating they are inborn traits under partial genetic control. However, the specific genes involved are not well established.
- While the left hemisphere dominates language functions, both hemispheres contribute to complex cognitive tasks. Myths persist about the hemispheres having strictly complementary functions, but evidence does
1. The evolutionary relationships between malaria parasite species have been controversial due to past studies relying on visible traits rather than molecular data and issues like taxon bias.
2. Different genes are suitable for phylogenetic analysis, with some like rRNA being problematic due to paralogs. Studies using multiple genes from different genomic compartments provide better resolution.
3. The origin of P. falciparum, which causes the most virulent human malaria, has been debated, with evidence it may have recently switched hosts from gorillas rather than co-diverging with humans. Further sampling of ape malarias is needed to resolve this.
The document discusses several arguments against human cloning. It notes that cloning could diminish individuality and human freedom. Cloning experiments have high failure rates in mammals, resulting in miscarriages and health issues, putting clones and women at risk. Cloning may also reduce genetic diversity and give scientists too much power over life. Identical clones could be easily manipulated and decrease new talent from emerging.
1. The evolutionary relationships between malaria parasite species have been controversial due to past studies relying on visible traits rather than molecular data and issues like taxon bias.
2. Different genes are suitable for phylogenetic analysis, with some like rRNA being problematic due to paralogs. Studies using multiple genes from different genomic compartments provide better resolution.
3. The origin of P. falciparum, which causes the most virulent human malaria, has been debated, with evidence it may have recently switched hosts from gorillas rather than co-diverging with humans. Further sampling of ape malarias is needed to resolve this.
The document discusses several arguments against human cloning. It notes that cloning could diminish individuality and human freedom. Cloning experiments have high failure rates in mammals, resulting in miscarriages and health issues, putting clones and women at risk. Cloning may also reduce genetic diversity and give scientists too much power over life. Identical clones could be easily manipulated and decrease new talent from emerging.
Cerebral Asymmetry: A Quantitative, Multifactorial and Plastic Brain PhenotypeMiguel E. Rentería, PhD
Cerebral asymmetry is a complex, multifactorial phenotype influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. The document reviews evidence of normal and atypical cerebral asymmetry at the macrostructural level from neuroimaging studies. It describes prominent asymmetries such as the Yakovlevian torque and petalia that separate the hemispheres. Asymmetries in regions like the perisylvian area have been linked to lateralization of language and the central sulcus to handedness. Additional asymmetries in areas like Heschl's gyrus correlate with auditory abilities. Factors like age, gender, brain region and disease state can influence the degree of asymmetry observed.
Stammering affects around 70 million people worldwide, cutting across all boundaries. Every language has a word for it: begaiement (French), tartamudez (Spanish), hakalaanaa (Hindi), hau hick (Cantonese), domori (Japanese), nsu (Nigerian Ibo).Many illstrious people from King George VI to Winston Churchil have been its sufferer. Stuttering has been an excuse for mockery, prejudice and misguided 'cures'. At last lot of research are on to find its exact reason and treatment.
S & CB (2010), 22, 133–149 0954–4194Science & Christian Be.docxagnesdcarey33086
S & CB (2010), 22, 133–149 0954–4194
Science & Christian Belief, Vol 22, No. 2 • 133
PETER G. H. CLARKE
Determinism, Brain Function and Free
Will
The philosophical debate about determinism and free will is far from being
resolved. Most philosophers (including Christians) are either compatibilists,
asserting that determinism is compatible with free will, or libertarians,
arguing that free will requires a fundamental indeterminism in nature, and in
particular in brain function. Most libertarians invoke Heisenbergian
uncertainty as the required indeterminism. The present paper, by a
neurobiologist, examines these issues in relationship to biblical teaching on
the brain-soul relationship. It distinguishes different levels of determinism,
including genetic and environmental determinism, and argues that these
are incomplete, whereas the physical (or ‘Laplacian’) determinism of brain
function is almost total. In particular, it is argued that the attempt to support
the libertarian concept of free will on the foundation of Heisenbergian
uncertainty applied to the brain is problematic for both conceptual and
quantitative reasons.
Key words: free will, brain, neuroscience, quantum theory, soul, monism,
dualism
The fact that the laws of nature are deterministic, apart from tiny effects at the
quantum level, raises many questions. Was the entire future of the universe
determined at the moment of the big bang? Are miracles possible? Can inter-
cessory prayer make any sense in a deterministic universe? Is God on compul-
sory sabbatical leave as a result of his own impersonal laws? And can free will
be real when our brains obey the laws of physics? These are all important ques-
tions, but this essay will focus on the last one, that of free will and determin-
ism.
Determinism at different levels
Determinism can be considered at various levels including: physical determin-
ism, resulting from the fact that the laws of physics are (almost) deterministic;
social determinism, the thesis that people are trapped in a web of social con-
straints; psychological determinism; environmental determinism; genetic deter-
minism; and so on. All these levels are important, for both theoretical and prac-
tical reasons, but I here focus on physical determinism, because I consider that
this is the level where the problem of determinism is most acute. As is argued
below, genetic determinism, or even the combined determinism of genes and
external environment is only partial, whereas physical determinism may be
(almost) total.
PETER G. H. CLARKE
134 • Science & Christian Belief, Vol 22, No. 2
Genetic determinism of our brains and personalities is only partial
Genetic determinism says that the genotype determines the phenotype. Nobody
doubts that many of our physical characteristics, such as height and eye colour,
are largely determined genetically. But what about brain development? What
about personality?
The complexity of the human brain is far too great for every de.
Обзор литературы, посвящённый генетическим факторам в ортодонтии
Verma VK. Genetics and orthodontics: digging secrets of the past.J Dent Res Updates 2014 Dec;1(1):29-35
This document discusses handedness and explores its genetic and environmental influences. It summarizes previous studies that have attempted to determine the causality of handedness but have found inconclusive or varying results. Genetic models have proposed both single-gene and two-gene explanations for determining hand dominance, but environmental factors are also likely involved. Left-handedness has faced social stigma throughout history due to negative cultural associations. While left-handers may face some disadvantages, some studies have also found they can have enhanced abilities in areas like math and art. Overall, the causes and characteristics of handedness remain complex and not fully understood.
Here are some key points to focus on for the psychology midterm:
- Memory: Define different types of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term, episodic, semantic, procedural). Understand memory models (Atkinson-Shiffrin, working memory). Know factors that influence memory accuracy and storage.
- Learning: Define classical and operant conditioning. Understand principles of reinforcement, punishment, extinction. Know examples of different conditioning paradigms.
- Cognition: Understand how attention, perception, problem-solving work. Know biases and heuristics. Define language and thinking.
- Development: Know major theories of development (psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral). Understand development
G e N e t i c S , t e c H N o l o G Y , A N D S o c i e t .docxShiraPrater50
G e N e t i c S , t e c H N o l o G Y , A N D S o c i e t Y 289
G e n e t i c s , t e c h n o l o G y , a n d s o c i e t y
telomeres: the Key to immortality?
Humans, like all multicellular organisms, grow old and die. As we age, our immune
systems become less efficient, wound
healing is impaired, and tissues lose re-
silience. It has always been a mystery why
we go through these age-related declines
and why each species has a characteris-
tic finite life span. Why do we grow old?
Can we reverse this march to mortality?
Some recent discoveries suggest that the
answers to these questions may lie at the
ends of our chromosomes.
The study of human aging begins with
a study of human cells growing in culture
dishes. Like the organisms from which the
cells are taken, cells in culture have a fi-
nite life span. This replicative senescence
was first noted by Leonard Hayflick in
the 1960s. He reported that normal hu-
man fibroblasts lose their ability to grow
and divide after about 50 cell divisions.
These senescent cells remain metaboli-
cally active but can no longer prolifer-
ate. Eventually, they die. Although we
don’t know whether cellular senescence
directly causes organismal aging, the evi-
dence is suggestive. For example, cells de-
rived from young people undergo more
divisions than those from older people;
cells from short-lived species stop grow-
ing after fewer divisions than those from
longer-lived species; and cells from pa-
tients with premature aging syndromes
undergo fewer divisions than those from
normal patients.
Another characteristic of aging cells
involves their telomeres. In most mam-
malian somatic cells, telomeres become
shorter with each DNA replication be-
cause DNA polymerase cannot synthe-
size new DNA at the ends of each parent
strand. However, as discussed in detail in
this chapter, cells that undergo extensive
proliferation, like embryonic cells, germ
cells, and adult stem cells, maintain their
telomere length by using telomerase—a re-
markable RNA-containing enzyme that
adds telomeric DNA sequences onto the
ends of linear chromosomes. However,
most somatic cells in adult organisms do
not proliferate and do not contain active
telomerase.
Could we gain perpetual youth and vi-
tality by increasing our telomere lengths?
Studies suggest that it may be possible to
reverse senescence by artificially increas-
ing the amount of telomerase in our cells.
When investigators introduced cloned
telomerase genes into normal human
cells in culture, telomeres lengthened,
and the cells continued to grow past their
typical senescence point. These studies
suggest that some of the atrophy of tis-
sues that accompanies old age could be
reversed by activating telomerase genes.
However, before we use telomerase to
achieve immortality, we need to consider
a potential serious side effect: cancer.
Although normal cells shorten their
telomeres and undergo senescence after
a specific num ...
1. The document summarizes the 3rd Oxford-Kobe Symposium which brought together over 30 world experts to discuss the latest research on dyslexia.
2. Key findings included evidence that dyslexia is caused by both genetic and environmental factors and deficits in both the auditory and visual pathways. Research also showed differences in how dyslexia manifests depending on the writing system, like differences found between English, Chinese, and Japanese scripts.
3. Speakers also discussed promising avenues for intervention including computer-based training programs and games to improve skills like phonological awareness, rapid naming, and visual attention which could help remediate dyslexia.
Prometheus, who has been deigned by poets to have first formed Man, formed a model from water and earth and then stole fire from the sun to animate the model.
An animal model is thus an animated object of imitation in the image of Humans (or other species), used to investigate biological or pathobiological phenomena.
The biological perspective views behavior as arising from physiological and genetic factors that interact with the environment. Key aspects of this perspective include Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, research on the brain and nervous system using methods like experiments and case studies, and theories about how genes and biological processes influence behavior. Studies have linked specific behaviors to brain regions and shown that splitting the brain's hemispheres can produce two separate streams of awareness, supporting the biological view that the brain determines behavior. Gender differences are also studied from this perspective in terms of both nature and nurture influences.
Chapter 3BiopsychologyFigure 3.1 Different brain imagi.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
Biopsychology
Figure 3.1 Different brain imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into different aspects of how the human
brain functions. Left to right, PET scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI
(functional magnetic resonance imaging) are three types of scans. (credit “left”: modification of work by Health and
Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health; credit “center": modification of work by
"Aceofhearts1968"/Wikimedia Commons; credit “right”: modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)
Chapter Outline
3.1 Human Genetics
3.2 Cells of the Nervous System
3.3 Parts of the Nervous System
3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord
3.5 The Endocrine System
Introduction
Have you ever taken a device apart to find out how it works? Many of us have done so, whether to attempt
a repair or simply to satisfy our curiosity. A device’s internal workings are often distinct from its user
interface on the outside. For example, we don’t think about microchips and circuits when we turn up
the volume on a mobile phone; instead, we think about getting the volume just right. Similarly, the inner
workings of the human body are often distinct from the external expression of those workings. It is the
job of psychologists to find the connection between these—for example, to figure out how the firings of
millions of neurons become a thought.
This chapter strives to explain the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior. These physiological and
anatomical foundations are the basis for many areas of psychology. In this chapter, you will learn how
genetics influence both physiological and psychological traits. You will become familiar with the structure
and function of the nervous system. And, finally, you will learn how the nervous system interacts with the
endocrine system.
Chapter 3 | Biopsychology 73
3.1 Human Genetics
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain the basic principles of the theory of evolution by natural selection
• Describe the differences between genotype and phenotype
• Discuss how gene-environment interactions are critical for expression of physical and
psychological characteristics
Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the biological basis that contributes
to certain behaviors. While all humans share certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique. And
while our bodies have many of the same parts—brains and hormones and cells with genetic codes—these
are expressed in a wide variety of behaviors, thoughts, and reactions.
Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes: one surviving and one
succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic
components to psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? To what extent might there
be a psychological basis to health conditions such as childhood obesity?
To e.
Chapter 3BiopsychologyFigure 3.1 Different brain imagi.docxketurahhazelhurst
Chapter 3
Biopsychology
Figure 3.1 Different brain imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into different aspects of how the human
brain functions. Left to right, PET scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI
(functional magnetic resonance imaging) are three types of scans. (credit “left”: modification of work by Health and
Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health; credit “center": modification of work by
"Aceofhearts1968"/Wikimedia Commons; credit “right”: modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)
Chapter Outline
3.1 Human Genetics
3.2 Cells of the Nervous System
3.3 Parts of the Nervous System
3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord
3.5 The Endocrine System
Introduction
Have you ever taken a device apart to find out how it works? Many of us have done so, whether to attempt
a repair or simply to satisfy our curiosity. A device’s internal workings are often distinct from its user
interface on the outside. For example, we don’t think about microchips and circuits when we turn up
the volume on a mobile phone; instead, we think about getting the volume just right. Similarly, the inner
workings of the human body are often distinct from the external expression of those workings. It is the
job of psychologists to find the connection between these—for example, to figure out how the firings of
millions of neurons become a thought.
This chapter strives to explain the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior. These physiological and
anatomical foundations are the basis for many areas of psychology. In this chapter, you will learn how
genetics influence both physiological and psychological traits. You will become familiar with the structure
and function of the nervous system. And, finally, you will learn how the nervous system interacts with the
endocrine system.
Chapter 3 | Biopsychology 73
3.1 Human Genetics
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain the basic principles of the theory of evolution by natural selection
• Describe the differences between genotype and phenotype
• Discuss how gene-environment interactions are critical for expression of physical and
psychological characteristics
Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the biological basis that contributes
to certain behaviors. While all humans share certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique. And
while our bodies have many of the same parts—brains and hormones and cells with genetic codes—these
are expressed in a wide variety of behaviors, thoughts, and reactions.
Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes: one surviving and one
succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic
components to psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? To what extent might there
be a psychological basis to health conditions such as childhood obesity?
To e ...
Semantic Pragmatic Disorder : A Cognitive Science PrespectiveSweta Vajjhala
Albert Einstein, Vincent Van Gogh, and Temple Grandin all showed signs of autism as children, though their conditions were not fully recognized at the time. Semantic-pragmatic disorder is a type of autism characterized by difficulties processing information and extracting meaning, preferring routine, and an inability to understand others' perspectives. It affects social skills and language comprehension rather than speech. Diagnosis is difficult due to a lack of tools and similarities with other disorders like Asperger's, leading to controversy around labeling. The disorder may be related to abnormalities in the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain or weak synaptic connections involved in learning.
This document discusses several topics related to brain function and neuroscience. It begins by describing arousal and attention, noting that arousal requires the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) within the brainstem and projections to the thalamus. It then discusses emotion, noting that basic drives are centered in the limbic system while distinctly human emotions are represented in the cortex. Finally, it provides information on frontal lobe function, language, memory, and the limbic system.
MINI REVIEW ARTICLEpublished 04 March 2015doi 10.3389.docxannandleola
MINI REVIEW ARTICLE
published: 04 March 2015
doi: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00064
Lessons from the analysis of nonhuman primates for
understanding human aging and neurodegenerative
diseases
Jean-Michel Verdier 1,2,3*, Isabelle Acquatella 1,2,3, Corinne Lautier 1,2,3, Gina Devau 1,2,3,
Stéphanie Trouche 1,2,3, Christelle Lasbleiz 1,2,3 and Nadine Mestre-Francés 1,2,3
1 Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
2 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1198, Montpellier, France
3 Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France
Edited by:
Patrick Lewis, University of Reading,
UK
Reviewed by:
Ricardo Insausti, University of
Castilla -la Mancha, Spain
Varun Kesherwani, University of
Nebraska Medical Center, USA
*Correspondence:
Jean-Michel Verdier, University of
Montpellier, Place Eugène Bataillon,
CC105, 34095 Montpellier, France
e-mail: [email protected]
univ-montp2.fr
Animal models are necessary tools for solving the most serious challenges facing medical
research. In aging and neurodegenerative disease studies, rodents occupy a place of
choice. However, the most challenging questions about longevity, the complexity and
functioning of brain networks or social intelligence can almost only be investigated in
nonhuman primates. Beside the fact that their brain structure is much closer to that of
humans, they develop highly complex cognitive strategies and they are visually-oriented
like humans. For these reasons, they deserve consideration, although their management
and care are more complicated and the related costs much higher. Despite these caveats,
considerable scientific advances have been possible using nonhuman primates. This
review concisely summarizes their role in the study of aging and of the mechanisms
involved in neurodegenerative disorders associated mainly with cognitive dysfunctions
(Alzheimer’s and prion diseases) or motor deficits (Parkinson’s and related diseases).
Keywords: neuroscience, brain, aging, neurodegenerative diseases, nonhuman primate
WHY DO WE NEED ANIMAL MODELS?
The simplest answer to this question is to increase our general
knowledge, to experimentally test theories. Animal model use-
fulness is manifold, from the study of physiological processes to
the identification of disease-causing mechanisms. Indeed, phys-
iopathological studies are of the utmost importance for develop-
ing diagnostic and therapeutic approaches based on the discovery
of new, more sensitive and specific biomarkers, the identifica-
tion of the mechanism of action of drugs, the establishment of
pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic parameters, the toxic-
ity analysis of new compounds or the assessment of clinical drug
regimens.
Many different animal models, ranging from unicellular
organisms (bacteria, yeast) to invertebrates (the roundworm
Caenorhabditis elegans or the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster)
and vertebrates (fish and mammals), are currently used for
research on aging and neurodegenerative disorders. T ...
This powerpoint is from my psychology class. It has borrowed material and some duplicate slides due to some rearranging I was doing in the presentation.
Bishop, D. V. M. (2009). Genes, cognition and communication: insights from neurodevelopmental disorders. The Year in Cognitive Neuroscience: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 1-18.
Embryonic stem cells – Promises and IssuesTania Jabin
Introduction, Embryonic Stem Cells, Promises of Embryonic Stem cell research, Figure: The Promise of Stem Cell Research, Issues in Embryonic Stem cells - New embryonic stem cell lines from frozen embryos Informed consent for donation of materials for stem cell research Waiver of consent Consent from gamete donors Confidentiality of donor information Ethical concerns about oocyte donation for research (1. Medical risks of oocyte retrieval, 2. Protecting the reproductive interests of women in infertility treatment, 3. Payment to oocyte donors, 4. Informed consent for oocyte donation).
E D I T O R I A LWhat Neuroscience Can andCannot Answer.docxbrownliecarmella
E D I T O R I A L
What Neuroscience Can and
Cannot Answer
Octavio S. Choi, MD, PhD
J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 45:278 – 85, 2017
We truly live in the golden age of neuroscience. Ad-
vances in technology over the past 20 years have
given modern neuro-researchers tools of unprece-
dented power to probe the workings of the most
complex machine in the universe (as far as we know).
Neuroscience as a field is driven by our natural fasci-
nation with understanding how a physical organ,
weighing three pounds and running on 20 watts of
power, can give rise to the mind, and with it, our
thoughts, feelings, soul, and identity. Brain activity is
presumably the source of all these things, but how,
exactly? Culturally, neuroscience is a currency that
enjoys very high capital, and public fascination with
neuroscience is evident in the news and popular cul-
ture.1 Neuroscience is cool: prestigious, high-tech,
complex, philosophically rich, and beautiful.
It is of increasing interest in the courtroom as well,
and each year the number of cases using neuroscience-
based evidence rises.2 The reasons for this are clear
enough. Many legal decisions depend on accurate
assessment of mental states and mental capacities
(such as capacity for rationality or control over one’s
behaviors), and the hope is that neuroscience can
shed light on these matters.
I have participated in several of these cases in my
early career and have seen enough to report that there
is trouble afoot. I have witnessed neuroscience re-
peatedly misrepresented and misused. Certain pat-
terns have emerged: speculations clothed as facts, er-
rors of logical reasoning, and hasty conclusions
unsupported by evidence and unrestrained by cau-
tion. I have found too much weight placed on iso-
lated neurofindings and too little weight on good
clinical observation and other kinds of behavioral
evidence.
Forensic psychiatrists will be increasingly asked to
opine on neuroevidence, and thus we must be able to
distinguish neuroscience from neuro-nonsense. To do
this, we should understand what kinds of questions
neuroscience currently can and cannot answer. Fur-
thermore, we must understand the kinds of questions
neuroscience will never be able to answer. Finally, in
the interests of justice, when we recognize that neu-
roscience is being misused or misrepresented, we
must be forthright in communicating this informa-
tion to finders of fact.
Presciently, in 2006 Morse identified signs of a
cognitive pathology he labeled brain overclaim syn-
drome (BOS). This devastating illness “afflicts those
inflamed by the fascinating new discoveries in the
neurosciences,” leading to a “rationality-unhinging
effect . . . the final pathway, in all cases . . . is that
more legal implications are claimed for the brain sci-
ence than can be justified” (Ref. 3, p 403).
Part of the problem is that neuroscience evidence
is genuinely mind boggling. A bar chart can be gen-
erated by a grade schooler on her smartphone, but a
fu.
This study examined differences in cortical connections of the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) between prairie vole offspring that received high levels of tactile contact from parents (HC offspring) versus low levels of tactile contact (LC offspring). The study found that HC offspring had greater intrinsic connections within S1 compared to LC offspring. Additionally, HC offspring had more restricted ipsilateral connections to other areas, while LC offspring had more widespread connections to parietal and frontal cortex. Finally, LC offspring had broader callosal connections between hemispheres and more labeled callosal neurons than HC offspring. This suggests that natural variations in parental rearing styles involving tactile contact are associated with differences in cortical organization and connectivity.
Styles of Scientific Reasoning, Scientific Practices and Argument in Science ...Elsa von Licy
The document discusses various topics related to scientific reasoning, practices, and argumentation including different styles of scientific thinking, features of scientific knowledge, and teaching and learning science. It provides examples of "crazy ideas" in science that are now accepted, examines the role of argument in science, and outlines the scientific practices and central questions of science. It also discusses developing models, planning investigations, analyzing data, and constructing explanations as key scientific practices.
Cerebral Asymmetry: A Quantitative, Multifactorial and Plastic Brain PhenotypeMiguel E. Rentería, PhD
Cerebral asymmetry is a complex, multifactorial phenotype influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. The document reviews evidence of normal and atypical cerebral asymmetry at the macrostructural level from neuroimaging studies. It describes prominent asymmetries such as the Yakovlevian torque and petalia that separate the hemispheres. Asymmetries in regions like the perisylvian area have been linked to lateralization of language and the central sulcus to handedness. Additional asymmetries in areas like Heschl's gyrus correlate with auditory abilities. Factors like age, gender, brain region and disease state can influence the degree of asymmetry observed.
Stammering affects around 70 million people worldwide, cutting across all boundaries. Every language has a word for it: begaiement (French), tartamudez (Spanish), hakalaanaa (Hindi), hau hick (Cantonese), domori (Japanese), nsu (Nigerian Ibo).Many illstrious people from King George VI to Winston Churchil have been its sufferer. Stuttering has been an excuse for mockery, prejudice and misguided 'cures'. At last lot of research are on to find its exact reason and treatment.
S & CB (2010), 22, 133–149 0954–4194Science & Christian Be.docxagnesdcarey33086
S & CB (2010), 22, 133–149 0954–4194
Science & Christian Belief, Vol 22, No. 2 • 133
PETER G. H. CLARKE
Determinism, Brain Function and Free
Will
The philosophical debate about determinism and free will is far from being
resolved. Most philosophers (including Christians) are either compatibilists,
asserting that determinism is compatible with free will, or libertarians,
arguing that free will requires a fundamental indeterminism in nature, and in
particular in brain function. Most libertarians invoke Heisenbergian
uncertainty as the required indeterminism. The present paper, by a
neurobiologist, examines these issues in relationship to biblical teaching on
the brain-soul relationship. It distinguishes different levels of determinism,
including genetic and environmental determinism, and argues that these
are incomplete, whereas the physical (or ‘Laplacian’) determinism of brain
function is almost total. In particular, it is argued that the attempt to support
the libertarian concept of free will on the foundation of Heisenbergian
uncertainty applied to the brain is problematic for both conceptual and
quantitative reasons.
Key words: free will, brain, neuroscience, quantum theory, soul, monism,
dualism
The fact that the laws of nature are deterministic, apart from tiny effects at the
quantum level, raises many questions. Was the entire future of the universe
determined at the moment of the big bang? Are miracles possible? Can inter-
cessory prayer make any sense in a deterministic universe? Is God on compul-
sory sabbatical leave as a result of his own impersonal laws? And can free will
be real when our brains obey the laws of physics? These are all important ques-
tions, but this essay will focus on the last one, that of free will and determin-
ism.
Determinism at different levels
Determinism can be considered at various levels including: physical determin-
ism, resulting from the fact that the laws of physics are (almost) deterministic;
social determinism, the thesis that people are trapped in a web of social con-
straints; psychological determinism; environmental determinism; genetic deter-
minism; and so on. All these levels are important, for both theoretical and prac-
tical reasons, but I here focus on physical determinism, because I consider that
this is the level where the problem of determinism is most acute. As is argued
below, genetic determinism, or even the combined determinism of genes and
external environment is only partial, whereas physical determinism may be
(almost) total.
PETER G. H. CLARKE
134 • Science & Christian Belief, Vol 22, No. 2
Genetic determinism of our brains and personalities is only partial
Genetic determinism says that the genotype determines the phenotype. Nobody
doubts that many of our physical characteristics, such as height and eye colour,
are largely determined genetically. But what about brain development? What
about personality?
The complexity of the human brain is far too great for every de.
Обзор литературы, посвящённый генетическим факторам в ортодонтии
Verma VK. Genetics and orthodontics: digging secrets of the past.J Dent Res Updates 2014 Dec;1(1):29-35
This document discusses handedness and explores its genetic and environmental influences. It summarizes previous studies that have attempted to determine the causality of handedness but have found inconclusive or varying results. Genetic models have proposed both single-gene and two-gene explanations for determining hand dominance, but environmental factors are also likely involved. Left-handedness has faced social stigma throughout history due to negative cultural associations. While left-handers may face some disadvantages, some studies have also found they can have enhanced abilities in areas like math and art. Overall, the causes and characteristics of handedness remain complex and not fully understood.
Here are some key points to focus on for the psychology midterm:
- Memory: Define different types of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term, episodic, semantic, procedural). Understand memory models (Atkinson-Shiffrin, working memory). Know factors that influence memory accuracy and storage.
- Learning: Define classical and operant conditioning. Understand principles of reinforcement, punishment, extinction. Know examples of different conditioning paradigms.
- Cognition: Understand how attention, perception, problem-solving work. Know biases and heuristics. Define language and thinking.
- Development: Know major theories of development (psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral). Understand development
G e N e t i c S , t e c H N o l o G Y , A N D S o c i e t .docxShiraPrater50
G e N e t i c S , t e c H N o l o G Y , A N D S o c i e t Y 289
G e n e t i c s , t e c h n o l o G y , a n d s o c i e t y
telomeres: the Key to immortality?
Humans, like all multicellular organisms, grow old and die. As we age, our immune
systems become less efficient, wound
healing is impaired, and tissues lose re-
silience. It has always been a mystery why
we go through these age-related declines
and why each species has a characteris-
tic finite life span. Why do we grow old?
Can we reverse this march to mortality?
Some recent discoveries suggest that the
answers to these questions may lie at the
ends of our chromosomes.
The study of human aging begins with
a study of human cells growing in culture
dishes. Like the organisms from which the
cells are taken, cells in culture have a fi-
nite life span. This replicative senescence
was first noted by Leonard Hayflick in
the 1960s. He reported that normal hu-
man fibroblasts lose their ability to grow
and divide after about 50 cell divisions.
These senescent cells remain metaboli-
cally active but can no longer prolifer-
ate. Eventually, they die. Although we
don’t know whether cellular senescence
directly causes organismal aging, the evi-
dence is suggestive. For example, cells de-
rived from young people undergo more
divisions than those from older people;
cells from short-lived species stop grow-
ing after fewer divisions than those from
longer-lived species; and cells from pa-
tients with premature aging syndromes
undergo fewer divisions than those from
normal patients.
Another characteristic of aging cells
involves their telomeres. In most mam-
malian somatic cells, telomeres become
shorter with each DNA replication be-
cause DNA polymerase cannot synthe-
size new DNA at the ends of each parent
strand. However, as discussed in detail in
this chapter, cells that undergo extensive
proliferation, like embryonic cells, germ
cells, and adult stem cells, maintain their
telomere length by using telomerase—a re-
markable RNA-containing enzyme that
adds telomeric DNA sequences onto the
ends of linear chromosomes. However,
most somatic cells in adult organisms do
not proliferate and do not contain active
telomerase.
Could we gain perpetual youth and vi-
tality by increasing our telomere lengths?
Studies suggest that it may be possible to
reverse senescence by artificially increas-
ing the amount of telomerase in our cells.
When investigators introduced cloned
telomerase genes into normal human
cells in culture, telomeres lengthened,
and the cells continued to grow past their
typical senescence point. These studies
suggest that some of the atrophy of tis-
sues that accompanies old age could be
reversed by activating telomerase genes.
However, before we use telomerase to
achieve immortality, we need to consider
a potential serious side effect: cancer.
Although normal cells shorten their
telomeres and undergo senescence after
a specific num ...
1. The document summarizes the 3rd Oxford-Kobe Symposium which brought together over 30 world experts to discuss the latest research on dyslexia.
2. Key findings included evidence that dyslexia is caused by both genetic and environmental factors and deficits in both the auditory and visual pathways. Research also showed differences in how dyslexia manifests depending on the writing system, like differences found between English, Chinese, and Japanese scripts.
3. Speakers also discussed promising avenues for intervention including computer-based training programs and games to improve skills like phonological awareness, rapid naming, and visual attention which could help remediate dyslexia.
Prometheus, who has been deigned by poets to have first formed Man, formed a model from water and earth and then stole fire from the sun to animate the model.
An animal model is thus an animated object of imitation in the image of Humans (or other species), used to investigate biological or pathobiological phenomena.
The biological perspective views behavior as arising from physiological and genetic factors that interact with the environment. Key aspects of this perspective include Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, research on the brain and nervous system using methods like experiments and case studies, and theories about how genes and biological processes influence behavior. Studies have linked specific behaviors to brain regions and shown that splitting the brain's hemispheres can produce two separate streams of awareness, supporting the biological view that the brain determines behavior. Gender differences are also studied from this perspective in terms of both nature and nurture influences.
Chapter 3BiopsychologyFigure 3.1 Different brain imagi.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
Biopsychology
Figure 3.1 Different brain imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into different aspects of how the human
brain functions. Left to right, PET scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI
(functional magnetic resonance imaging) are three types of scans. (credit “left”: modification of work by Health and
Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health; credit “center": modification of work by
"Aceofhearts1968"/Wikimedia Commons; credit “right”: modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)
Chapter Outline
3.1 Human Genetics
3.2 Cells of the Nervous System
3.3 Parts of the Nervous System
3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord
3.5 The Endocrine System
Introduction
Have you ever taken a device apart to find out how it works? Many of us have done so, whether to attempt
a repair or simply to satisfy our curiosity. A device’s internal workings are often distinct from its user
interface on the outside. For example, we don’t think about microchips and circuits when we turn up
the volume on a mobile phone; instead, we think about getting the volume just right. Similarly, the inner
workings of the human body are often distinct from the external expression of those workings. It is the
job of psychologists to find the connection between these—for example, to figure out how the firings of
millions of neurons become a thought.
This chapter strives to explain the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior. These physiological and
anatomical foundations are the basis for many areas of psychology. In this chapter, you will learn how
genetics influence both physiological and psychological traits. You will become familiar with the structure
and function of the nervous system. And, finally, you will learn how the nervous system interacts with the
endocrine system.
Chapter 3 | Biopsychology 73
3.1 Human Genetics
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain the basic principles of the theory of evolution by natural selection
• Describe the differences between genotype and phenotype
• Discuss how gene-environment interactions are critical for expression of physical and
psychological characteristics
Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the biological basis that contributes
to certain behaviors. While all humans share certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique. And
while our bodies have many of the same parts—brains and hormones and cells with genetic codes—these
are expressed in a wide variety of behaviors, thoughts, and reactions.
Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes: one surviving and one
succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic
components to psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? To what extent might there
be a psychological basis to health conditions such as childhood obesity?
To e.
Chapter 3BiopsychologyFigure 3.1 Different brain imagi.docxketurahhazelhurst
Chapter 3
Biopsychology
Figure 3.1 Different brain imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into different aspects of how the human
brain functions. Left to right, PET scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI
(functional magnetic resonance imaging) are three types of scans. (credit “left”: modification of work by Health and
Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health; credit “center": modification of work by
"Aceofhearts1968"/Wikimedia Commons; credit “right”: modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)
Chapter Outline
3.1 Human Genetics
3.2 Cells of the Nervous System
3.3 Parts of the Nervous System
3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord
3.5 The Endocrine System
Introduction
Have you ever taken a device apart to find out how it works? Many of us have done so, whether to attempt
a repair or simply to satisfy our curiosity. A device’s internal workings are often distinct from its user
interface on the outside. For example, we don’t think about microchips and circuits when we turn up
the volume on a mobile phone; instead, we think about getting the volume just right. Similarly, the inner
workings of the human body are often distinct from the external expression of those workings. It is the
job of psychologists to find the connection between these—for example, to figure out how the firings of
millions of neurons become a thought.
This chapter strives to explain the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior. These physiological and
anatomical foundations are the basis for many areas of psychology. In this chapter, you will learn how
genetics influence both physiological and psychological traits. You will become familiar with the structure
and function of the nervous system. And, finally, you will learn how the nervous system interacts with the
endocrine system.
Chapter 3 | Biopsychology 73
3.1 Human Genetics
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain the basic principles of the theory of evolution by natural selection
• Describe the differences between genotype and phenotype
• Discuss how gene-environment interactions are critical for expression of physical and
psychological characteristics
Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the biological basis that contributes
to certain behaviors. While all humans share certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique. And
while our bodies have many of the same parts—brains and hormones and cells with genetic codes—these
are expressed in a wide variety of behaviors, thoughts, and reactions.
Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes: one surviving and one
succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic
components to psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? To what extent might there
be a psychological basis to health conditions such as childhood obesity?
To e ...
Semantic Pragmatic Disorder : A Cognitive Science PrespectiveSweta Vajjhala
Albert Einstein, Vincent Van Gogh, and Temple Grandin all showed signs of autism as children, though their conditions were not fully recognized at the time. Semantic-pragmatic disorder is a type of autism characterized by difficulties processing information and extracting meaning, preferring routine, and an inability to understand others' perspectives. It affects social skills and language comprehension rather than speech. Diagnosis is difficult due to a lack of tools and similarities with other disorders like Asperger's, leading to controversy around labeling. The disorder may be related to abnormalities in the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain or weak synaptic connections involved in learning.
This document discusses several topics related to brain function and neuroscience. It begins by describing arousal and attention, noting that arousal requires the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) within the brainstem and projections to the thalamus. It then discusses emotion, noting that basic drives are centered in the limbic system while distinctly human emotions are represented in the cortex. Finally, it provides information on frontal lobe function, language, memory, and the limbic system.
MINI REVIEW ARTICLEpublished 04 March 2015doi 10.3389.docxannandleola
MINI REVIEW ARTICLE
published: 04 March 2015
doi: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00064
Lessons from the analysis of nonhuman primates for
understanding human aging and neurodegenerative
diseases
Jean-Michel Verdier 1,2,3*, Isabelle Acquatella 1,2,3, Corinne Lautier 1,2,3, Gina Devau 1,2,3,
Stéphanie Trouche 1,2,3, Christelle Lasbleiz 1,2,3 and Nadine Mestre-Francés 1,2,3
1 Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
2 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1198, Montpellier, France
3 Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France
Edited by:
Patrick Lewis, University of Reading,
UK
Reviewed by:
Ricardo Insausti, University of
Castilla -la Mancha, Spain
Varun Kesherwani, University of
Nebraska Medical Center, USA
*Correspondence:
Jean-Michel Verdier, University of
Montpellier, Place Eugène Bataillon,
CC105, 34095 Montpellier, France
e-mail: [email protected]
univ-montp2.fr
Animal models are necessary tools for solving the most serious challenges facing medical
research. In aging and neurodegenerative disease studies, rodents occupy a place of
choice. However, the most challenging questions about longevity, the complexity and
functioning of brain networks or social intelligence can almost only be investigated in
nonhuman primates. Beside the fact that their brain structure is much closer to that of
humans, they develop highly complex cognitive strategies and they are visually-oriented
like humans. For these reasons, they deserve consideration, although their management
and care are more complicated and the related costs much higher. Despite these caveats,
considerable scientific advances have been possible using nonhuman primates. This
review concisely summarizes their role in the study of aging and of the mechanisms
involved in neurodegenerative disorders associated mainly with cognitive dysfunctions
(Alzheimer’s and prion diseases) or motor deficits (Parkinson’s and related diseases).
Keywords: neuroscience, brain, aging, neurodegenerative diseases, nonhuman primate
WHY DO WE NEED ANIMAL MODELS?
The simplest answer to this question is to increase our general
knowledge, to experimentally test theories. Animal model use-
fulness is manifold, from the study of physiological processes to
the identification of disease-causing mechanisms. Indeed, phys-
iopathological studies are of the utmost importance for develop-
ing diagnostic and therapeutic approaches based on the discovery
of new, more sensitive and specific biomarkers, the identifica-
tion of the mechanism of action of drugs, the establishment of
pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic parameters, the toxic-
ity analysis of new compounds or the assessment of clinical drug
regimens.
Many different animal models, ranging from unicellular
organisms (bacteria, yeast) to invertebrates (the roundworm
Caenorhabditis elegans or the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster)
and vertebrates (fish and mammals), are currently used for
research on aging and neurodegenerative disorders. T ...
This powerpoint is from my psychology class. It has borrowed material and some duplicate slides due to some rearranging I was doing in the presentation.
Bishop, D. V. M. (2009). Genes, cognition and communication: insights from neurodevelopmental disorders. The Year in Cognitive Neuroscience: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 1-18.
Embryonic stem cells – Promises and IssuesTania Jabin
Introduction, Embryonic Stem Cells, Promises of Embryonic Stem cell research, Figure: The Promise of Stem Cell Research, Issues in Embryonic Stem cells - New embryonic stem cell lines from frozen embryos Informed consent for donation of materials for stem cell research Waiver of consent Consent from gamete donors Confidentiality of donor information Ethical concerns about oocyte donation for research (1. Medical risks of oocyte retrieval, 2. Protecting the reproductive interests of women in infertility treatment, 3. Payment to oocyte donors, 4. Informed consent for oocyte donation).
E D I T O R I A LWhat Neuroscience Can andCannot Answer.docxbrownliecarmella
E D I T O R I A L
What Neuroscience Can and
Cannot Answer
Octavio S. Choi, MD, PhD
J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 45:278 – 85, 2017
We truly live in the golden age of neuroscience. Ad-
vances in technology over the past 20 years have
given modern neuro-researchers tools of unprece-
dented power to probe the workings of the most
complex machine in the universe (as far as we know).
Neuroscience as a field is driven by our natural fasci-
nation with understanding how a physical organ,
weighing three pounds and running on 20 watts of
power, can give rise to the mind, and with it, our
thoughts, feelings, soul, and identity. Brain activity is
presumably the source of all these things, but how,
exactly? Culturally, neuroscience is a currency that
enjoys very high capital, and public fascination with
neuroscience is evident in the news and popular cul-
ture.1 Neuroscience is cool: prestigious, high-tech,
complex, philosophically rich, and beautiful.
It is of increasing interest in the courtroom as well,
and each year the number of cases using neuroscience-
based evidence rises.2 The reasons for this are clear
enough. Many legal decisions depend on accurate
assessment of mental states and mental capacities
(such as capacity for rationality or control over one’s
behaviors), and the hope is that neuroscience can
shed light on these matters.
I have participated in several of these cases in my
early career and have seen enough to report that there
is trouble afoot. I have witnessed neuroscience re-
peatedly misrepresented and misused. Certain pat-
terns have emerged: speculations clothed as facts, er-
rors of logical reasoning, and hasty conclusions
unsupported by evidence and unrestrained by cau-
tion. I have found too much weight placed on iso-
lated neurofindings and too little weight on good
clinical observation and other kinds of behavioral
evidence.
Forensic psychiatrists will be increasingly asked to
opine on neuroevidence, and thus we must be able to
distinguish neuroscience from neuro-nonsense. To do
this, we should understand what kinds of questions
neuroscience currently can and cannot answer. Fur-
thermore, we must understand the kinds of questions
neuroscience will never be able to answer. Finally, in
the interests of justice, when we recognize that neu-
roscience is being misused or misrepresented, we
must be forthright in communicating this informa-
tion to finders of fact.
Presciently, in 2006 Morse identified signs of a
cognitive pathology he labeled brain overclaim syn-
drome (BOS). This devastating illness “afflicts those
inflamed by the fascinating new discoveries in the
neurosciences,” leading to a “rationality-unhinging
effect . . . the final pathway, in all cases . . . is that
more legal implications are claimed for the brain sci-
ence than can be justified” (Ref. 3, p 403).
Part of the problem is that neuroscience evidence
is genuinely mind boggling. A bar chart can be gen-
erated by a grade schooler on her smartphone, but a
fu.
This study examined differences in cortical connections of the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) between prairie vole offspring that received high levels of tactile contact from parents (HC offspring) versus low levels of tactile contact (LC offspring). The study found that HC offspring had greater intrinsic connections within S1 compared to LC offspring. Additionally, HC offspring had more restricted ipsilateral connections to other areas, while LC offspring had more widespread connections to parietal and frontal cortex. Finally, LC offspring had broader callosal connections between hemispheres and more labeled callosal neurons than HC offspring. This suggests that natural variations in parental rearing styles involving tactile contact are associated with differences in cortical organization and connectivity.
Similar to Left brain right brain facts and fantasiesjournal.pbio.1001767 (20)
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Left brain right brain facts and fantasiesjournal.pbio.1001767
1. Essay
Left Brain, Right Brain: Facts and Fantasies
Michael C. Corballis*
School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
Summary: Handedness and brain
asymmetry are widely regarded as
unique to humans, and associated
with complementary functions
such as a left-brain specialization
for language and logic and a rightbrain specialization for creativity
and intuition. In fact, asymmetries
are widespread among animals,
and support the gradual evolution
of asymmetrical functions such as
language and tool use. Handedness
and brain asymmetry are inborn
and under partial genetic control,
although the gene or genes responsible are not well established.
Cognitive and emotional difficulties
are sometimes associated with
departures from the ‘‘norm’’ of
right-handedness and left-brain
language dominance, more often
with the absence of these asymmetries than their reversal.
‘‘That raven on yon left-hand oak
(Curse his ill-betiding croak)
Bodes me no good!’’
—from Fables, by John Gay (1688–
1732)
Introduction
The most obvious sign that our brains
function asymmetrically is the near-universal preference for the right hand, which
goes back at least as far as the historical
record takes us, and has long been a
powerful source of symbolism, with the
dexterous right associated with positive
values and the sinister left with negative
ones [1]. This has often led to stigmatization
of left-handed individuals, sometimes forcing them to switch hand use, occasionally
with grievous consequences. Superstitions
about left and right were compounded by
the discovery, in the 1860s, that speech was
based predominantly in the left hemisphere
Essays articulate a specific perspective on a topic of
broad interest to scientists.
of the brain [2]. Since language itself is
uniquely human, this reinforced the idea
that brain asymmetry more generally is a
distinctive mark of being human [3].
Because the left hemisphere also controls
the dominant right hand, it came to be
widely regarded as the dominant or major
hemisphere, and the right as nondominant
or minor. Nevertheless, further evidence
that the right hemisphere was the more
specialized for perception and emotion also
led to speculation, some of it far-fetched,
about the complementary roles of the two
sides of the brain in maintaining psychological equilibrium [4].
Interest flagged for a while, but was
revived a century later, in the 1960s, with
the study of patients who had undergone
split-brain surgery, in which the main
commissures connecting the two hemispheres were cut as a means of controlling
intractable epilepsy. Testing of each disconnected hemisphere again revealed the
left to be specialized for language and the
right for emotional and nonverbal functions [5,6]. This work won Roger W.
Sperry the Nobel Prize for Physiology and
Medicine in 1981, but again led to
speculation, most of it exaggerated or illfounded, about the complementary functions of the two sides of the brain.
One popular example is Betty Edwards’
Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, first
published in 1979 but now in its fourth
edition [7], which epitomizes the popular
view that the right hemisphere is responsible for creativity. Brain imaging shows,
though, that creative thought activates a
widespread network, favoring neither
hemisphere [8]. A more recent example
is Iain McGilchrist’s 2009 book The Master
and His Emissary, which draws on cerebral
asymmetry in a sweeping account of the
forces that shaped Western culture, and
provocatively declares the right hemisphere to be the dominant one (‘‘the
master’’) [9]. Although widely acclaimed,
this book goes far beyond the neurological
facts. Polarities of left and right brain are
broadly invoked in art, business, education, literary theory, and culture, but owe
more to the power of myth than to the
scientific evidence [10].
Evolution of Brain
Asymmetries, with Implications
for Language
One myth that persists even in some
scientific circles is that asymmetry is
uniquely human [3]. Left–right asymmetries of brain and behavior are now known
to be widespread among both vertebrates
and invertebrates [11], and can arise
through a number of genetic, epigenetic,
or neural mechanisms [12]. Many of
these asymmetries parallel those in humans,
or can be seen as evolutionary precursors.
A strong left-hemispheric bias for action
dynamics in marine mammals and in
some primates and the left-hemisphere
action biases in humans, perhaps including
gesture, speech, and tool use, may derive
from a common precursor [13]. A righthemisphere dominance for emotion seems
to be present in all primates so far
investigated, suggesting an evolutionary
continuity going back at least 30 to 40
million years [14]. A left-hemisphere dominance for vocalization has been shown
in mice [15] and frogs [16], and may well
relate to the leftward dominance for
speech—although language itself is unique
to humans and is not necessarily vocal,
Citation: Corballis MC (2014) Left Brain, Right Brain: Facts and Fantasies. PLoS Biol 12(1): e1001767.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001767
Published January 21, 2014
Copyright: ß 2014 Michael C. Corballis. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: Some of the research summarised in this article was funded by Contract UOA from the Marsden
Fund of the Royal Society of New Zealand. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis,
decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing Interests: The author has declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: m.corballis@auckland.ac.nz
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1
January 2014 | Volume 12 | Issue 1 | e1001767
2. Box 1. The Genetics of Handedness and Cerebral Asymmetry
Linkage analyses have often revealed candidate laterality genes, but all too often these fail in follow-up analysis—a common
problem in the search for genes related to human behavior. Part of the problem is the sheer immensity of the genome, which
means that candidates are likely to surface by chance, and the problem is compounded by the likelihood of a strong chance
element in the determination of handedness itself. With appropriate statistical control, several large-scale genome-wide studies
have failed to reveal any single locus to be significantly associated with handedness [68,69], including one study [70] based on a
large sample of twins, which also failed specifically to support the single-gene model developed by McManus [60], or weaker
versions of that model. The authors of one study estimate that as many as 40 different loci may be involved [71], but note that it
would be difficult to distinguish multilocus models from a single-gene model, such as that of McManus, in terms of handedness
pedigrees.
The study of one candidate gene, PCSK6, has led to some insight as to polygenic control of handedness. Across three
independent samples of individuals with dyslexia, a genome-wide assay revealed the minor allele at the rs11855415 locus
within this gene to be significantly associated with increased right-handedness [72]. This allele was not significantly associated
with handedness in a large sample from the general population. Another targeted search within the PCSK6 gene failed to
confirm a role for rs11855415 in a large sample from the general population, but revealed that a tandem repeat polymorphism
at another locus, rs10523972, was associated with the degree, but not the direction, of handedness [73]. PCSK6 is involved in
regulating NODAL, which plays a role in the development of the left–right axis in vertebrates, and knock-out of PCSK6 in mice
results in defects in the placement of normally asymmetrical internal organs. Several other genes in the pathway that leads to
anomalies of left–right development in mice proved to be associated as a group with human handedness in the general
population, leading to the suggestion that handedness is indeed a polygenic trait partly controlled by the genes that establish
body asymmetry early in development [74].
Another gene of interest is LRRTM1, which has been associated with handedness and schizophrenia when inherited through the
father [75], where a particular haplotype consisting of minor alleles at three locations within the gene significantly shifted
handedness to the left—a finding partially confirmed elsewhere [76]. Again, though, LRRTM1 does not stand out in genomewide assays in samples from the general population. Nevertheless, schizophrenia has long been associated with increased lefthandedness or ambidexterity [77,78], as have schizotypy and tendencies to magical thinking [79–81]. Just as the association of
PCSK6 with dyslexia led to suggestion of a polygenic pathway, so the association of LRRTM1 with schizophrenia may lead to
other pathways influencing handedness and brain asymmetry.
Another suggestion is that cerebral asymmetry, and even a disposition to schizophrenia, was critical to human speciation,
involving a rearrangement within the X and Y chromosomes, and that it was this event that constituted the supposed ‘‘big
bang’’ that created language de novo in our species [82]. The idea that language emerged in this saltatory fashion, still
championed by Chomsky [21], is now widely questioned [83,84]. Linkage analysis gives little support to the involvement of the
X and Y chromosomes, although one study has shown that repeats of a CAG sequence in the androgen receptor locus on the X
chromosome are linked to handedness. In females the incidence of left-handedness increased with the number of repeats,
while in males it was reduced with the number of repeats. This finding supports a role for testosterone in the determination of
handedness [85]. In recent formulations of the X–Y theory, it has been proposed that handedness and cerebral asymmetry are
facultative traits, universally encoded in the human genome, and that the variations giving rise to schizophrenia or anomalies of
handedness and cerebral asymmetry are epigenetic, and therefore not coded in the nucleotide sequence [86]. It appears that
epigenetic change through DNA methylation can be transmitted between generations [87], which might explain pedigree
effects that are not detected in linkage analyses.
Another gene that has been linked to language evolution is the FOXP2 gene, following the discovery that about half the
members of an extended family possessed a mutation of this gene that caused a severe deficit in articulating speech [88].
Unlike the unaffected family members, they all failed to show activation of Broca’s area when asked to silently generate words,
and indeed showed no consistent asymmetry at all [89]. A more recent study also shows widespread anatomical differences
between the affected and unaffected family members, including bilateral reduction of the caudate nucleus in the affected
members, along with a reduction of grey matter in Broca’s area on the left [90]. All of the affected individuals are right-handed,
though, so the effect of the mutation appears to involve the brain circuits involved in speech, and possibly more generally in
language and other motor skills, but not in handedness itself. Although highly conserved in mammalian evolution, the human
FOXP2 gene differs in two locations from that in the chimpanzee, leading to the suggestion that it may have played a role in the
evolution of language [91]. Evidence that the most recent mutation was also present in Neanderthal DNA [92] again argues
against the ‘‘big bang’’ theory that language evolved uniquely in humans.
as sign languages remind us. Around twothirds of chimpanzees are right-handed,
especially in gesturing [17] and throwing
[18], and also show left-sided enlargement
in two cortical areas homologous to the
main language areas in humans—namely,
Broca’s area [19] and Wernicke’s area [20]
(see Figure 1). These observations have
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been taken as evidence that language did
not appear de novo in humans, as argued
by Chomsky [21] and others, but evolved
gradually through our primate lineage [22].
They have also been interpreted as evidence that language evolved not from
primate calls, but from manual gestures
[23–25].
2
Some accounts of language evolution
(e.g., [25]) have focused on mirror neurons, first identified in the monkey brain
in area F5 [26], a region homologous
to Broca’s area in humans, but now
considered part of an extensive network
more widely homologous to the language
network [27]. Mirror neurons are so called
January 2014 | Volume 12 | Issue 1 | e1001767
3. learning rather than direct imitation. A
monkey repeatedly observes its hand
movements to learn to reach accurately,
and the babbling infant calibrates the
production of sounds to match what she
hears. Babies raised in households where
sign language is used ‘‘babble’’ by making
repetitive movements of the hands [36].
Moreover, it is this productive aspect of
language, rather than the mechanisms of
understanding, that shows the more pronounced bias to the left hemisphere [37].
Inborn Asymmetries
Figure 1. Human brain showing Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas (upper diagram) and
areas of chimpanzee brain showing leftward enlargement (lower diagram). Image
credit: Todd Preuss, Yerkes Primate Research Center (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Human_and_chimp_brain.png).
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001767.g001
because they respond when the monkey
performs an action, and also when they see
another individual performing the same
action. This ‘‘mirroring’’ of what the
monkey sees onto what it does seems to
provide a natural platform for the evolution of language, which likewise can be
seen to involve a mapping of perception
onto production. The motor theory of
speech perception, for example, holds that
we perceive speech sounds according to
how we produce them, rather than
through acoustic analysis [28]. Mirror
neurons in monkeys also respond to the
sounds of such physical actions as ripping
paper or dropping a stick onto the floor,
but they remain silent to animal calls [29].
This suggests an evolutionary trajectory in
which mirror neurons emerged as a system
for producing and understanding manual
actions, but in the course of evolution
became increasingly lateralized to the left
brain, incorporating vocalization and
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gaining grammar-like complexity [30].
The left hemisphere is dominant for sign
language as for spoken language [31].
Mirror neurons themselves have been
victims of hyperbole and myth [32], with
the neuroscientist Vilayanur Ramachandran once predicting that ‘‘mirror neurons
will do for psychology what DNA did for
biology’’ [33]. As the very name suggests,
mirror neurons are often taken to be the
basis of imitation, yet nonhuman primates
are poor imitators. Further, the motor
theory of speech perception does not
account for the fact that speech can be
understood by those deprived of the ability
to speak, such as those with damage to
Broca’s area. Even chimpanzees [34] and
dogs [35] can learn to respond to simple
spoken instructions, but cannot produce
anything resembling human speech. An
alternative is that mirror neurons are part
of a system for calibrating movements to
conform to perception, as a process of
3
Handedness and cerebral asymmetries
are detectable in the fetus. Ultrasound
recording has shown that by the tenth
week of gestation, the majority of fetuses
move the right arm more than the left
[38], and from the 15th week most suck
the right thumb rather than the left [39]—
an asymmetry strongly predictive of later
handedness [40] (see Figure 2). In the first
trimester, a majority of fetuses show a
leftward enlargement of the choroid plexus
[41], a structure within the ventricles
known to synthesize peptides, growth
factors, and cytokines that play a role in
neurocortical development [42]. This
asymmetry may be related to the leftward
enlargement of the temporal planum (part
of Wernicke’s area), evident at 31 weeks
[43].
In these prenatal brain asymmetries,
around two-thirds of cases show the
leftward bias. The same ratio applies to
the asymmetry of the temporal planum in
both infants and adults [44]. The incidence of right-handedness in the chimpanzee is also around 65–70 percent, as is
a clockwise torque, in which the right
hemisphere protrudes forwards and the
left hemisphere rearwards, in both humans and great apes [45]. These and other
asymmetries have led to the suggestion
that a ‘‘default’’ asymmetry of around 65–
70 percent, in great apes as well as
humans, is inborn, with the asymmetry
of human handedness and cerebral asymmetry for language increased to around 90
percent by ‘‘cultural literacy’’ [46].
Variations in Asymmetry
Whatever their ‘‘true’’ incidence, variations in handedness and cerebral asymmetry raise doubts as to the significance
of the ‘‘standard’’ condition of righthandedness and left-cerebral specialization for language, along with other
qualities associated with the left and right
brains that so often feature in popular
discourse. Handedness and cerebral asymmetry are not only variable, they are also
January 2014 | Volume 12 | Issue 1 | e1001767
4. Figure 2. Ultrasound image of a fetus sucking the right thumb. Image credit: jenny cu
(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg).
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001767.g002
imperfectly related. Some 95–99 percent
of right-handed individuals are leftbrained for language, but so are about
70 percent of left-handed individuals.
Brain asymmetry for language may actually correlate more highly with brain
asymmetry for skilled manual action, such
as using tools [47,48], which again supports the idea that language itself grew out
of manual skill—perhaps initially through
pantomime.
Even when the brain is at rest, brain
imaging shows that there are asymmetries
of activity in a number of regions. A factor
analysis of these asymmetries revealed four
different dimensions, each mutually uncorrelated. Only one of these dimensions
corresponded to the language regions of
the brain; the other three had to do with
vision, internal thought, and attention
[49]—vision and attention were biased
toward the right hemisphere, language
and internal thought to the left. This
multidimensional aspect throws further
doubt on the idea that cerebral asymmetry
has some unitary and universal import.
Handedness, at least, is partly influenced by parental handedness, suggesting
a genetic component [50], but genes can’t
tell the whole story. For instance some 23
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percent of monozygotic twins, who share
the same genes, are of opposite handedness [51]. These so-called ‘‘mirror twins’’
have themselves fallen prey to a Through the
Looking Glass myth; according to Martin
Gardner [52], Lewis Carroll intended the
twins Tweedledum and Tweedledee in
that book to be enantiomers, or perfect
three-dimensional mirror images in bodily
form as well as in hand and brain function.
Although some have argued that mirroring arises in the process of twinning itself
[53,54], large-scale studies suggest that
handedness [55,56] and cerebral asymmetry [57] in mirror twins are not subject to
special mirroring effects. In the majority of
twins of opposite handedness the left
hemisphere is dominant for language in
both twins, consistent with the finding that
the majority of single-born left-handed
individuals are also left-hemisphere dominant for language. In twins, as in the
singly born, it is estimated that only about
a quarter of the variation in handedness is
due to genetic influences [56].
The manner in which handedness is
inherited has been most successfully modeled by supposing that a gene or genes
influence not whether the individual is
right- or left-handed, but whether a bias to
4
right-handedness will be expressed or not.
In those lacking the ‘‘right shift’’ bias, the
direction of handedness is a matter of
chance; that is, left-handedness arises from
the lack of a bias toward the right hand,
and not from a ‘‘left-hand gene.’’ Such
models can account reasonably well for
the parental influence [58–60], and even
for the relation between handedness and
cerebral asymmetry if it is supposed that
the same gene or genes bias the brain
toward a left-sided dominance for speech
[60,61]. It now seems likely that a number
of such genes are involved, but the basic
insight that genes influence whether or not
a given directional bias is expressed, rather
than whether or not it can be reversed,
remains plausible (see Box 1).
Genetic considerations aside, departures
from right-handedness or left-cerebral
dominance have sometimes been linked
to disabilities. In the 1920s and 1930s, the
American physician Samuel Torrey Orton
attributed both reading disability and
stuttering to a failure to establish cerebral
dominance [62]. Orton’s views declined in
influence, perhaps in part because he held
eccentric ideas about interhemispheric
reversals giving rise to left–right confusions
[63], and in part because learning-theory
explanations came to be preferred to
neurological ones. In a recent article,
Dorothy Bishop reverses Orton’s argument, suggesting that weak cerebral lateralization may itself result from impaired
language learning [64]. Either way, the
idea of an association between disability
and failure of cerebral dominance may be
due for revival, as recent studies have
suggested that ambidexterity, or a lack of
clear handedness or cerebral asymmetry,
is indeed associated with stuttering [65]
and deficits in academic skills [66], as well
as mental health difficulties [67] and
schizophrenia (see Box 1).
Although it may be the absence of
asymmetry rather than its reversal that can
be linked to problems of social or educational adjustment, left-handed individuals
have often been regarded as deficient or
contrarian, but this may be based more on
prejudice than on the facts. Left-handers
have excelled in all walks of life. They
include five of the past seven US presidents, sports stars such as Rafael Nadal in
tennis and Babe Ruth in baseball, and
Renaissance man Leonardo da Vinci,
perhaps the greatest genius of all time.
Author Contributions
The author(s) have made the following declarations about their contributions: Conceived and
written by: MC.
January 2014 | Volume 12 | Issue 1 | e1001767
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