Nucleotide Groupings

Nucleotide Groupings
Inside each phone of every living thing (plant or creature) are sets of directions called qualities. The
qualities give the guidelines on what is the plant or creature, what it would appear that, how it is to
survive, and how it will associate with its encompassing surroundings. The qualities are hung
together in long stands of material called deoxyribonucleic corrosive (DNA) and these long strands
are called chromosomes. Most living things have sets of chromosomes (one from every guardian),
however they might have an alternate number of chromosomes from another living thing. For
instance, people have 23 sets of chromosomes and the organic product fly has 4 sets.
Every quality is comprised of long blends of four distinctive nucleotide bases. It is the different
mixes of the nucleotide bases that decide everything around a living animal.
The four nucleotides are called:
adenine(A),
cytosine (C),
guanine (G), and
thymine (T).
The quality for green eyes may have this nucleotide arrangement.
AAACCGGTTTTT
The quality for blue eyes may have this nucleotide grouping.
AAACCGGTTTAA
See how the nucleotide groupings underneath are fundamentally the same. The main distinction
being the last two bases. They both portray an eye with the last two characters expressing the shade
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Prevailing characteristics are more regular than Recessive attributes because of this quality.Eye
shade is more complicated due to the fact there may be multiple locus that contributes to the
coloration of your eyes. on this posting i will describe the basic genetics of eye colour based on
exceptional loci. that is a fashionable rationalization of eye color but, as we're going to see

afterward, it doesn't explain the entire tale. let's just consider it as a handy manner to introduce the
concept of impartial segregation at loci. version in eye colour is most effective considerable in
people of ecu
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Earlobe Allele Frequency Lab Report
Earlobe Allele Frequency in General and Asian Populations
Laura Kathryn Browne
Georgia Perimeter College Introduction: The purpose of this experiment is to observe the frequency
of attached versus detached earlobes to better understand the presentation of traits in humans in
general and in certain populations to determine if individuals of particular ethnicity are more likely
to present with one phenotype of the other. It is understood that attached earlobes are the dominant
phenotype and detached earlobes are the recessive phenotype, however there is some controversy
regarding this distinction, as suggested by McDonald (2011), who points out that "Carrière and
Hilden were among the first to study the genetics of earlobes, and they reached opposite
conclusions". The purpose is this experiment is to revisit this topic and determine whether there is a
moderately clear dominant and recessive genotype in human earlobes.
Hypothesis: The hypothesis of this experiment is that attached earlobes are more common in
individuals of Asian descent than in the general population.
Methods:
The demonstration was conducted at a busy 24–hour Starbucks in downtown Ann Arbor, Michigan
in the evening from 7pm to 10pm. The number of individuals in each group, Detached vs. Attached,
was tallied in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Many of the individuals in these random samples were young college students, but trials should be
repeated in locations with different demographics. There is some margin for error when determining
if an individual belongs to the Attached or Detached phenotype; sometimes, an individual seems to
have unclearly attached or detached earlobes. It should also be considered that elderly people are
more likely to appear to have detached earlobes, even if they do not have a dominant allele. There is
a potential for gravity to pull an attached earlobe down over time due to gravity, thus skewing

Genetics: Past, Present and Future Essay example
Throughout the ages, patterns of inheritance have always been studied. People have always been
curious about what causes the appearance of certain traits in individuals. However, by the time the
21st century commenced, science found that the answers to these questions can be found in each cell
of the body. Genes. But what are genes truly? Who were the scientists who contributed towards their
discovery? What are the recent advancements in the field of genetics, and what does the future hold
for this field?
1. The Past
To understand the functioning of genes and even the structure of genes, it is essential to know the
history of genes, and past assumptions of hereditary.
Greek theories. Like in any other field of knowledge, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
In addition to the advancements that led to the discovery of genes, the research conducted during the
renaissance also yielded information on the evolution of genetic traits. Jean–Baptiste Lamarck, a
French naturalist, became the first man to suggest that the features of animals developed as a result
of subtle changes in the gene pool that occurred gradually. As a result of Lamarck's findings and the
influence of a book titled Principles of Geology, Charles Darwin proposed his theory of natural
selection. Darwin's inability to explain how traits evolved sparked further interest and investigation
into the mystery (Freedman 17–30).
The 1800s. With the arrival of the 1800s came the most important contributor to the discovery of
genes: Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics. Mendel is renowned for discovering that the pea
plants he bred yielded results that always followed the same pattern. For example, cross–breeding
one tall plant and one short plant gave rise to plants that were all tall. Interbreeding these plants
produced tall plants and short plants in a 3:1 ratio. The same held true for all other traits tested. His
most important contribution, however, remains to be his distinction between phenotype and
genotype––the physical features exhibited by an organism and the internal

Outline and Evaluate Two or More Biological Explanations...
There are two main biological theories which explain the assumed causes of schizophrenia: Genetic
and Dopamine Hypothesis.
Research by Mikaywa et al has found that there must be a genetic explanation of schizophrenia due
to the fact that concordance rates for environmental causes are not 100%. Also Mikaywa noticed
that schizophrenia runs in the family, meaning there must be something other than environmental
causes, causing the disorder. What Mikaywa studied was DNA from human families who were
affected by schizophrenia and found that those with the disorder are more likely to have the
defective gene: PPP3CC. The PPP3CC gene regulates the immune system, and therefore is an
important gene in terms of genetic vulnerabilities which may be ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In support of this Kendler et al found that first degree relatives of those with schizophrenia are at 18
times more risk than the general population. Research has also found that schizophrenia symptoms
may have a genetic component. This was suggested by Malaspina, who found that patients who have
schizophrenia in their family histories are more likely to develop negative symptoms than those
families who are schizophrenia free. In evaluation of family studies it may be concluded that they
are not very reliable as they are retrospective. The studies for family studies where taken place when
diagnosis was under a more liberal use of the term schizophrenia. Twin studies have also shown a
genetic pre–disposition. Gottesman found 48% risk of schizophrenia in MZ twins compared to only
17% in DZ twins. Similar to the Gottesman study two other studies showed higher concordance
rates for MZ twins and lower in DZ twins however each had slightly different results. McGuffin et
al argues this is because of the use of different diagnostic criteria, which may affect the validity of
the results. On the other hand the researchers used blind techniques to obtain the results eliminating
any researcher bias. Both family and twin studies face the problem of ignoring environmental
impacts. In family studies, genetically similar members of the same family tend to spend more time
together, therefore

Chronic Diseases And Its Effects On Human Health
Chronic diseases and inflammatory conditions, including heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer,
are some of the most common, expensive, and yet preventable of all health conditions in the United
States today (CDC 2013). In 2012, about 117 million people had at least one chronic health concern
(CDC 2013). In 2010, more than one–third of American adults had a Body Mass Index of over 30
kilograms per square meter and was considered obese whereas nearly twenty percent of children
were also obese (CDC 2013). The Center for Disease Control and Prevention recognizes that certain
behaviors contribute and cause chronic diseases and identifies four main culprits: the use of tobacco,
drinking alcohol in excess, lack of physical activity, and malnutrition. The focus of this review will
be on poor nutrition due to the changes in the world's food supply and how it is impacting human
health today. There is clearly an issue as 86 percent of all money spent on healthcare in the United
States in 2010 was for patients suffering from one or more chronic diseases (CDC 2013); that is
hundreds of billions of dollars dedicated to fixing a problem that should not exist in the capacity that
it does. The staggering increase in chronic conditions is obviously an extremely complicated
problem and there are multiple components that factor into poor nutrition, but one of the more
intriguing and controversial contributors is the recent change to agriculture and the nation's food
supply. The USDA

exam5essays
Homologous Chromosomes and Sister Chromatids (HC and SC): Clearly distinguish between HC
and SC pairs. Your answer should include the following: a clear distinction between 'chromatin' and
'chromosome', and how this difference affects gene expression; simple line diagrams to illustrate the
difference between non–replicated and replicated DNA inchromatin and chromosome forms; afull
description of both HC and SC with a labeled diagram that includes gene/allele sequences for a
heterozygote and 'm' or 'p' labels to indicate parental origin; a definition of diploid and haploid cells
in terms of HC content; an explanation of the stage of the organism's life cycle at which the HCfirst
come into existence(I am NOT asking for when they are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
4 haploid cells are produced by meiosis diploids contains two complete sets of chromosomes which
can be both maternal and paternal. haploids cells have half the number of chromosomes which can
only be either maternal or paternal.
Haploid cells are first present during anaphase I. during telophase I and II the parents cells have to
create cells that are half of each parent in order to maintain a steady amount of chromosomes as
opposed to increasing chromosomes. testis and ovaries, egg and sperm fertilization is necessary for
diploidy to be restored crossing over (prophase I), independent assortment of chromosomes
(metaphase I) and fertilization with random fusion of gametes. crossing over by itself would yield an
almost infinite variety of potential gametes. independent assortment of chromosome is the formation
of random combination chromosome. it would be > 8 million genetically distinct gametes.
fertilization is the random fusion of gametes which results in 5 x 10^27 possible genetically distinct
offspring.
Patterns of Inheritance: Mendel discovered the pattern of inheritance for a gene with a completely
dominant/recessive allele pair. Since his time, we have recognized that there are many variations on
the simple Mendelian pattern of inheritance.
Begin by giving a clear and complete definition of both genotype and phenotype
Explain complete dominance as defined by

The Development Of The Athletic Type
The last two types of body build are the most logical and understanding of them all. The athletic
type is described as, "[A] strong development of the skeleton...tall man, with particularly wide
projecting shoulders, superb chest, a firm stomach" (Kretschmer 1925). This is very similar to the
asthenic build in which they also shared the same distinction of being long and tall. Some are also
schizophrenic and responsible for violent crimes. The development of the athletic type occurs
throughout various ages, "It is apparent in the puberty period–from about 18 years old onwards;
with the maturing of the body beyond 25 years old it become more plastic and more significant"
(Kretschmer 1925). When I think of someone that has an athletic physique, I think of someone who
works out or plays competitive sports. With this idea in mind, it may be possible that those who do
workout or compete in sports have a higher aggression level which may lead to the types of
behavior Kretschmer states. His description of the athletic build is accurate and representative today.
One body type that Kretschmer views as a small group but I believe to be the majority of the
population is the dysplastic type. He recognized that not everyone can fit under one of the three
basic body types. This is a combination of pyknic, asthenic, and athletic, and their body type is both
pyknic and asthenic. Kretschmer believed this type of abnormal physique was found in, "[D]ementia
praecox and epileptic patients and

The Process Of Evolution And Evolution
Sachs 1
Ella Sachs
Mrs.Jarvis
AP Biology
April 6th, 2015
The Process of Evolution
Evolution is "the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have
developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth," "Google." Google.
Google, n.d. Web. 11 Apr. 2015. Evolution is the reason there is change in the genetic makeup of a
population, the reason organisms are linked by common ancestors, and evolution is still happening
today because of the constant change in environment. This paper focuses on these subjects within
evolution and will explore all areas of the process of evolution that creates diversity and unity in
life.
One key component of evolution is natural selection. Natural selection is a theory, first presented by
Charles Darwin, that is well known across the globe. It is the reason why there is change of genetic
makeup in evolution. Natural selection is caused by the variation between generations, as well as the
survival of different individuals with different combinations of traits. The theory poses that
organisms with characteristics that increase their probability of survival will be given the chance to
produce more offspring. This means that the organism is more "fit". These offsprings are then given
the benefiting characteristic. With time more variation throughout the species will develop. For an
example of why evolution is dependent on natural selection Berkeley College talks about a
population of beetles.

Biology : Evolution, Energy, Information, And Systems
Biology, the study of life and living organisms, is complex and encompasses a multitude of theories
and ideas. In AP Biology, the fourth unit covered was genetics. Chapters 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and
18 in the textbook, Campbell's Biology in Focus, not only discusses the four main ideas of biology:
evolution, energy, information, and systems, but it also gives examples of each in order to help
guide the reader's understanding of the concepts. The first big idea of AP Biology is: "the process of
evolution drives the diversity and unity of life." Chapter 11 in the textbook encompasses this main
idea through discussing alleles, phenotypic variations, and genetic variation. An individual receives
two alleles, different versions of a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another factor affecting populations is genetic diseases and disorders. X–linked recessive diseases
most often occur and males (which they inherited from their mothers), since men only have one X
chromosome and a single recessive gene, without a dominant one to cover it up, will be expressed.
For example, hemophilia, a condition in which the ability of blood to clot is severely reduced, was
spread to royal families across Europe, including the thrones of Britain, Germany, France, Russia,
and Spain, after Queen Victoria, a carrier of the disease, passed it to many of her descendants.
The AP Biology course's second key concept is: "biological systems utilize energy and molecular
building blocks to grow, reproduce, and to maintain homeostasis." One of the main points
encompassed in this idea is cell differentiation, the process by which cells specialize in structure and
function, highlighted in chapter 16. Cell specialization is an overarching concept that connects to the
idea that the coordination of specific events is necessary for the normal development of an
organism.
In an embryo, cytoplasmic determinants, material substances in an egg that influence the course of
development, receive signals from the environment and neighboring cells. The uneven distribution
of these molecules creates gradients that determine the orientation, such as the anterior and
posterior, of the organism.

Midterm Study Guide
Psychology 244 Instructor: L.J. Harris PSYCHOLOGY 244 FINAL EXAMINATION Spring, 2012
Study Guide Organization of Examination and Samples of Questions that could be made into
Multiple–Choice and True–False Questions All questions will come from the lectures and the
assigned chapters and parts of chapters in the text. The questions will be organized (as shown
below) into the same main headings and subheadings used in the Lecture Notes, although some
subheadings are different to reflect material covered in the text but not in lectures. Under each
heading will be a mix of true–false and multiple–choice questions to be answered on a scantron
sheet. For some of the true–false and multiple–choice questions, you also may be ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
11. What are "holophrases"? Can they represent a complete thought? 12. What is meant by the
pragmatics of speech and language? 13. Both Piaget and Vygotsky dealt with the topic of egocentric
speech, but they had very different interpretations of it. Piaget called it selfish speech; Vygotsky
called it private speech. What did each theorist mean, and what would each predict about the
development of this kind of speech and about the young child's ability to use speech and language
pragmatically? Whose interpretation does the bulk of the evidence support? Give some examples. #
Listening Skills 14. What is known about the development of listening skills? For example, what
sort of listening skills are shown by the average 4–year–old children? Would they recognize that a
message is ambiguous or problematic? Sample question Which of the following listening skills are
normal 4–year–old children ordinarily not capable of? a. recognizing when they do not understand a
message b. recognizing that a message is ambiguous c. recognizing that a request is impossible d.
recognizing that a request is problematic # Figurative Language 15. What is figurative language?
When do children first come to realize that figurative language is not to be understood literally?
When do they begin to use figurative language, such as similes and metaphors? D. Theories About
How Language is

The Pros And Cons Of Human Cloning
At least 95% of mammalian cloning experiment have resulted in failure in form of miscarriages,
stillbirths, and also life threatening anomalies ("Reproductive Cloning Arguments Pro and Con")
Reproductive cloning is inherently unsafe. Human cloning is a genetically identical copy of a living
organism . The whole reason for human cloning is used to process by which a person's DNA is used
to grow an embryonic clone.
There was a fertility doctor that so called claim she is the first in the world to implant a cloned
human inside a woman.She started to whole process and failed and the woman did not become
pregnant. She did some modifications to it, but still end up failing to clone an embryonic cell.
Congress had made their decision in reproductive cloning, the making of babies there is in essence
genetic replicas of adults is both immoral and unsafe and should be banned. Many scientists from
Duke University believe that in the future human cloning would involve over many failures. They
are a lot of controversy that human cloning should not be permitted at all, no scientists had
successfully completed human cloning, there is no possible way you can make a replica of a human
without having some complication with the woman's body.
Human cloning is unsafe, risky way of cloning a human inside a woman's body. Also how human
cloning is a threat to society scientist who are trying to created a cloned child. How scientist are
working on cloning children and its potentially dangerous

The Human Genome Project Essay
The Human Genome Project
"The Human Genome Project (HGP) was the largest biological investigation ever undertaken"[1]
which began in 1990 and spanned 13 years. It achieved its goal in 2003 by identifying the sequence
of over 3 billion base pairs which constitute the human genome (the complete genetic material of an
organism). The project was heralded by the research conducted in 1953 by the scientists Watson and
Crick who discovered that DNA existed as a double helical structure (enabling DNA replication),
from images of Rosalind Franklin's DNA X–ray diffraction. Despite the potential positive
applications of the project's results such as in molecular medicine, it has been scrutinized for being
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is estimated that 95% of the human genome is junk, and do not code for polypeptides – these are
called introns. Therefore the remaining 100,000 genes would be identified first using a technique
called base sequencing. Firstly, the DNA is sheared into short fragments. The fragment is then
ligated (the process of DNA insertion) into a loop of nonessential bacterial DNA called a plasmid.
The plasmids are then inserted into E. coli bacteria and multiplied. Now a "library" has been created.
The next step is known as template preparation, and here the DNA is purified and sequencing
chemistries are conducted on it whereby DNA fragments are dyed with fluorescent markers and
ordered in sequencing machines when overlapping base sequences appear. Finally the results are
verified, annotated and submitted to public databases ready for sharing.
The results of the HGP are like a massive manual of how the human body works. This means it is
set to have dramatic effects in the field of medical science. Genome based research will lead to
doctors having better diagnostic tools, highly effective medicines and the ability to "understand the
health needs of people based on their individual genetic make–ups"[4]. Doctors will be able to
produce individualised analysis on a person's genome meaning effective preventative medicines can
be produced. Also, a person's future

Notes On Phenotypic Plasticity And Local Adaptation
Phenotypic Plasticity
Phenotypic plasticity is when a genotype of an organism displays different phenotypes due to the
conditions of the environment. It is important to understand why different organisms respond
differently to changes in the environment and the ways they adapt to these changes. This paper
focuses on whether these adaptations are due to either phenotypic plasticity or local adaptation.
Since nothing is ever perfect, the paper also concentrates on the constraints of phenotypic plasticity
which are divided into two; costs and limits. Costs of phenotypic plasticity would be that which
would lead to reduced fitness. In contrast, the limit of plasticity is where the traits produced by
plasticity is not at an optimal level. The effects of plasticity in a population is also discussed. Since
phenotypic plasticity can be measured at different levels, this paper would focus mainly on the
individual phenotypic plasticity.
Introduction
Environmental adaptation, which occurs when there is a change in the environment leading to
modifications that allow the organisms in that environment adapt to those changes over time, can be
characterized into two levels; selection and phenotypic plasticity. Selection happens when an allele
is more favorable in an environment, its frequency increases over time but when it is unfavorable, its
frequency decreases. When a genotype of an organism displays different phenotypes due to the
conditions of

Determining The Transfer Of Foreign Genes Into The Cells...
Genetic engineering involves the transfer of foreign genes into the cells of animals or plants at an
early stage in their development so that they develop with desired characteristics.
Selective breeding is the process in which humans manipulate the gene pool by breeding certain
organisms with desired phenotypic qualities and characteristics (such as high milk yield and disease
resistant). The trait can be reliably passed on to the next generation and produce offsprings that meet
specific requirements. This increases the rate at which stock improvements are made. By crossing
two organisms with dominant alleles for a particular trait, it will be noticeable that some of their
offspring will express the desirable characteristics. This can be shown using a monohybrid cross like
such:
Dominance and Recessive F1 Generation
T=Tall, t=short
TtxTt
T t T
TT
Tt t Tt tt Phenotypic ratio: 3:1 (Tall=75% Short=25%)
Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1 (TT=25% Tt=50% tt=25%)
As shown in the monohybrid cross we can see that the offsprings resulted in 75% tall and 25% short
which is a desirable characteristic that the dominant allele expresses.
F2 Generation
TTxTt
T t T
TT
Tt
T
TT
Tt
Phenotypic ratio: 4:4 (Tall=100%)
Genotypic ratio: 2:2 (TT=50% Tt=50%)
Shown above we can see that by crossing the F1 generation, we now get a full 100% phenotype

ration expressed of the desirable trait. 50% TT and 50% Tt for the genotype that have been
expressed. This has demonstrated how scientists selectively

The Mind-Body Problem Of Spinoza And Hobbes
This is the first portion of the circle it is the same as listening to Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata and
recognizing the musical terms, the process and techniques he uses and most importantly the soul of
the music and how to define it. Each creating their own varying opinions about the music each with
a partial truth relating back to the soul of the music.
You see through the ages of philosophy there have been many debates and opinions. Yet it is those
opinions that are the most radical that demand the most attention. On that note, we will address two
radical philosophizers: Spinoza and Hobbes. Specifically there theory's pertaining to matter and the
mind–body problem posed by Descartes. As such we will first address Hobbes then move to Spinoza
and end with a combined statement on matter. Therefore we must begin by introducing Thomas
Hobbes.
Thomas Hobbes solution on the mind–body problem is one of a combination. Hobbes posits that
rather than mind and body being two separate things they actually are both the same thing, matter.
He confronts Descartes by saying that the thing that is thinking and the action of thinking are not the
same things. If this is true then according to his logic we must conclude that "a thinking thing is
something corporeal. This is because it seems that the subjects of all actions are comprehensible
only if they are conceived as corporeal or material." Essentially stating that the material body is the
only substance there is. To boot thoughts are

Stem Cell Essay
The logical history of foundational microorganism may be explored as it has unfolded in the course
of recent years; and after this, it will swing to a thought of the political history of undifferentiated
organism look into. There has been a relentless pattern of researchers progressively taking in the
privileged insights of stem cells and having the capacity to apply their new learning to either look
into potential medications or really convey powerful medicines to people. In 2001, Bush issued an
official request that put huge limitations on government financing for undeveloped cell look into;
and in 2009, Obama canceled this request with his very own request called "Removing Barriers to
Responsible Scientific Research involving Human ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they are able to grow (i.e. differentiate) into all
derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. In other words,
they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body as long as they are
specified to do so. Embryonic stem cells are distinguished by two distinctive properties: their
pluripotency, and their ability to replicate indefinitely. ES cells are pluripotent, that is, they are able
to differentiate into all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and
mesoderm (Science Daily). Amongst grown–up and embryonic undifferentiated cells, obviously
embryonic undeveloped cell look into has far more noteworthy potential to be morally tricky than
grown–up stem cells inquire about because of the distinction in convictions of individuals.
Nonetheless, embryonic stem cells inquire about is largely considered to have the best potential for
conveying restorative and logical achievements, since they are more manipulatable since they are
not completely created and undifferentiated than grown–up foundational microorganisms. The
embryonic undifferentiated organisms are helpful for therapeutic and research purposes since they
can create cells for practically every tissue in the body. This shows the the two separate ways
researchers create stem cells on the right. On the left we see a timescale of the

Bio & Anthro
1.) In a plant having two carried alleles for the color of a flower in a gene, with P for purple and p
for white, the three possible combinations which might exist in any one plant are PP making a
purple plant, pp to make a white plant, or Pp resulting in a 'hybrid' plant. 2.) Out of the genotypes
PP, Pp, pp, the resultant flower colors are (as described above in exercise 1) are purple (for PP,)
purple or purplish–white (for Pp– likely purple as it is dominant, or a mixture of the colors,) or
white (for the case of pp.) PP and pp, the purple and white flowers, are referred to as homozygous.
In the case of PP this is homozygous dominant, and in the case of pp this is homozygous recessive.
The case of Pp must be considered different, and is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Answering the second question, there is a 50 percent chance of a colorblind son; answering the third
question, there is a 25 percent change of colorblind daughter. (Fourth:) There is a change of normal
vision: a 25 percent of a carrier. (Fifth:) According to the square, there is no chance of a normal son.
7.) A: The genotypes are TTCC, TTCc, TtCC, and TtCc. B: The genotypes are ttCC and ttCC. C:
The genotypes are TTcc and Ttcc. D: This genotype would be ttcc. E: This genotype would be TtCc.
F: Such a person could produce TT, Tt, tt, CC, Cc, and cc gametes. Critical questions 1.) The
difference between incomplete dominance and codominance is the level of sharing. In codominance
the dominant trait is shared, while in incomplete dominance the dominant is not completely
expressed in the genotype. Though the result may be similar in the phenotype, the cause of this is
different, which is a reason that this concept is so important to understand. 2.) When a trait is sex
linked, this means that it is linked to the chromosome of the gender. This does not mean the trait is
passed through sex (however it is,) but rather refers to the X and Y chromosomes. Some traits are
only specific to Y chromosomes or a combination of X and Y (or not be expressed when only on

Psy 244 Essay
Psychology 244
Instructor: L.J. Harris
PSYCHOLOGY 244
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring, 2014
Study Guide
Organization of Examination and Questions From Which Test Questions Will be Drawn
All questions on the examination will come from the lectures (Topics I – X) and the assigned
chapters and parts of chapters in the textbook. To help frame the questions for you, they will be
organized under the same main headings and subheadings used in the Lecture Notes. The only
exceptions will be a few subheadings that pertain to material covered only in the text. Under each
heading will be a mix of true–false and multiple–choice questions, and possibly a few analogies,
with all answers to be recorded on a scantron sheet. Along with ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Sample Question
In his treatise, Gynecology, the Greek physician Soranus gave careful instructions for how infants
should be swaddled: in soft cloths and strips of fabric from the head "to the very tip of the toes."
Soranus's main reason was to guide the infant's growth, to protect it from growing crooked or lame.
a. true
b. false
B. Middle Ages
2. People in the Middle Ages were interested in and concerned for the health and well–being of
infants and children. Were they interested to the same degree in the psychology of infants and
children? For example, did they understand that children are psychologically different from adults?
If yes, how did they show this? If no, how did they show this? Explain your answer.
They showed kids in pictures dressed like adults; faces and bodies were like adults. E.g. Phillip
Aries "small children at play"

3. One of the most famous speeches in Shakespeare's play, As You Like It, is called The Seven Ages
of Man. What do you think Shakespeare was trying to say about psychological development? (Links
to videos of the speech can be found in the video version of the syllabus.)
these included three stages of childhood and four of adulthood.
C. Renaissance
4. Debates about the relative roles of "nature" and "nurture" in human development date from
ancient times, but they were especially prominent during the Renaissance. What do the

Coevolution With Particular Reference to Herbivory Essay
COEVOLUTION WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO HERBIVORY
Of all the extant organisms in the world, it is believed that terrestrial plants and their natural
'enemies' constitute more than forty percent. Moreover, plants exhibit a remarkable diversity of
supposedly defensive characteristics including trichomes, spines, silica, secondary chemical
compounds, temporal avoidance of enemies, and structures along with chemicals that attract
predators of their natural enemies. In addition, the exploitation of the plants and their defences is
facilitated by a vast number of behavioural, morphological and physiological adaptations by
herbivores
Accounting for this diversity has been a major area of research for nearly a century. The seminal
article, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What happened in the past might be a different picture to what we have envisaged so far.
Thompson (1999) has proposed that there are crucial components to coevolution. These need to be
recognised before we can fully understand coevolution. Firstly, phylogenetic studies are providing
five kinds of data important in interpreting the historical context of coevolving interactions. 1)
Shared traits. Phylogenetic studies are allowing us to evaluate which traits of interacting species
were already present in the hosts ancestors. This allows us to determine whether traits are coevolved
or merely a trait exhibited as a consequence of the organisms genotype. For example, Yucca plants
provide a source of food for host specific Yucca moths, with which they are believed to have
coevolved. Examining the phylogenetic trees of these moths elucidated this. Most moths in this
family (Prodoxidae) exhibited host specificity (Davis et al 1992). Before this technology, people
would have assumed the specificity of the Yucca moth to be a product of the coevolution.
This brings up a useful comment by Vermeij (1994). Almost all inferences about coevolution are
derived from the existence of trends in the expression of traits that function during interactions
between species. Evolutionary trends have often been found by analysing ancestor–dependant
relationships within monophyletic groups, or clades. Although many trends are best sought this way,
others cannot in principle be detected

The Process of Natural Selection Essay
Natural selection is the process in which heritable traits that make it more likely for organisms to
survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive
generations. Each of us individuals is specifically shaped and formed by our own genetic pattern.
We inherit this pattern half from are mother and half from are father. The cause of this is the
proximate cause that led it's phenotype to ultimate causes. Much of we know today about evolution
derives from the late great pioneer, Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin was an english naturalist that
even from an early age was very interested in outdoor pursuits. Early in his prep career his father
tried sending him to the University of Edinburg to pursue his medical ... Show more content on
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More so that the smaller lizards were more probable to die off despite the the lack of natural
selection, but because the larger stronger lizards in certain areas still had more access to food. the
particular lizards with longer legs had the advantage because they were able to climb trees to escape
storms that came and reach food better which in return wasn't available to the rest down below.
More great examples of this are humans, cheetahs, and peacocks. Evolution is in basic terms the
matter of survival and reproduction. It is the process that on a regular basis shapes and molds all of
life on our earth. Charles Darwin's concepts comes down to three principles which include: There
must be a difference in the individuals within the population, certain individuals must reproduce at a
faster and higher rate than the others, and lastly characteristics that helped them survive must be
passed on to there offspring. According to Darwin's theories people are sexually selected. meaning
all of sexual selection is all of natural selection. People preference of one sex affect the evolution of
the other sex. for example the better you can dance the better fertile you are and vise versa. Dancing
in many species means that the better you can dance the better you are off because the quality of
dance is the symbol of being more reproductive. Many of his colleagues at the time were feeling
dumb for not

Dismantling Binaries: Bisexuality
Dismantling binaries
Introduction
The process of social differentiation is the key to the survival and perseverance of social inequality.
Once constructed, these boxes automatically build a vested interest in keeping them. Without a
procedure of making difference among people or by developing a way to tell dissimilar types of
people, there would be no source for treating people differently. This disparity treatment is not
essentially unequal, social disparity but it boils down to treating people differently.
Lucal, in his article focuses on the building and preservation of boxes and limits with respect to sex,
gender and sexuality. In the society, these boxes and their limits rest on a multiplicity of
assumptions. The first supposition is that there are two sex's genders, and sexualities. Everyone is
male or a female, feminine or masculine, heterosexual or homosexual but no one can be both. This
supposition of sex believes the truth of substantial difference in how persons actually do gender but
yet people carry on to believe that there are just two equally elite gender groups into which every
person can easily be positioned. (Lucal, B.2008)
The second postulation is that sex and gender are congruent in that, human beings who belong to a
sex category are unspecified to belong to a gender class that relate to that sex. People not only
presuppose that sex and gender are matching, but they depend on that correspondence to choose
how to interrelate with people. They presume

Brain and Behavior of Men and Women Essay
If we were to examine a high school calculus classroom or the staff at an engineering program of a
college or university, chances are that the male to female ratio would be significantly skewed. Why
are women and men so different in their choices and behavior? The brunt of popular opinion focuses
on the environmental cues that lead to our distinct behaviors. But is there also an innate biological
basis to the choices and differing abilities between men and women? Cognitive functioning or brain
processing differences in the two genders has been a point of interest and contention for many years.
The purpose of this essay is to explore if neuroanatomical and genetic differences between males
and females play a role in the development of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Contrary to popular belief, gender and anatomical sex refer to two distinct and separate constructs as
each develops at different times and in different parts of the body. John Money coined the
phenomenon that codes for masculinity or femininity as "Gendermaps" (1). At a very early age and
through an interaction of both nature and nurture, this gendermap imprint is established. What
makes gender identification and sex so frequently parallel to each other is that gendermap
evolvement is notably also induced by hormones that emanate from the developing fetus (1).
Behavioral Differences:
Though there are many similarities in the cognitive abilities of men and women, there are also
discernible differences. For the most part, the behavioral differences between the intellectual
capacities of the sexes have to do more with patterns of ability than the actual intellectual capacity
(3). For one, attention and perception differ early on. Baby girls have been noted to gaze longer at
objects than baby boys. Later they rely on landmarks and memory for guidance. Boys on the other
hand, have a better visual–spatial ability such as aiming at stationary or moving targets and
detecting minor movements in their visual fields more easily. The fact that males perform better in
navigation seems to agree with the possible theory that evolutionarily, many of these abilities would
have been important for survival in the time of

Physiological And Behavioral Effects Of Early Life Stress...
TITLE
Meaghan Ferguson
Columbia University
The physiological and behavioral effects of early life stress (ELS) on the developing and adult brain
are a subject of great interest in the field of neuroscience today. The ability to delineate the
mechanisms and structures that are affected during postnatal exposure to chronic stress has the
potential to provide invaluable insight into the development of a multitude of neuropsychiatric
disorders. While we have come to understand a few of the mechanisms involved in many of these
illnesses – such as the significance of the serotonin (5–hydroxytryptamine, 5–HT) neurotransmitter
in many depression cases – the complex nature of these disorders and our ability to effectively treat
them remains elusive. Such an understanding of how the brain adapts and differentially develops as
a result of chronic stress, particularly in early life, may also be able to broaden our understanding of
the way in which the brain codes and responds to a variety of emotional triggers. Due to its bi–
directional connections to limbic structures, as well as the large number of glucocorticoid receptors
present within its pyramidal cells, the hippocampus (HC) is the main region of interest when
considering stress genotype and phenotype. An enormous variety of proteins expressed within this
highly significant structure have been the focus of modern research activities – including various
cytokines, cell adhesion molecules

Nordstrom vs. JCPenney
Introduction On paper, there might not seem much difference between a JC Penney and a
Nordstrom. Both are department stores, so they carry roughly the same merchandise categories.
They are large, and act as anchors in shopping malls all over America. The shopping experience is
actually not that much different between them. Yet, there are subtle differences for those who are
willing to search for them. The differences tend to relate to our concept of social class distinctions.
Massey (2007) notes that "all human societies have a social structure that divides people into
categories based on a combination of achieved and ascribed traits" (p.1). Obviously, we make use of
groupings like gender, race and religion, but less explored is the degree to which we use social
stratification. Ehrenreich (2001) recounts the story of her journey into the social underclass, starting
in the Florida Keys. Florida is a highly stratified society, with a concentration of high wealth
individuals who choose to live in the state for things like weather and proximity to the ocean, and
low wealth individuals whose role is primarily to serve the upper classes. Thus, money is one of the
more important sources of social stratification in American society. In today's political discourse,
this stratification is framed as the 99% and the 1%, but in reality that framing is overly simplistic.
Those within America's middle class occupy a different social stratification than those who occupy
the lower

Klinefelter Syndrome Advantages And Disadvantages
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
A) NUMERICAL CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES
1) Klinefelter Syndrome
This syndrome was first described by Harry Klinefelter in 1942 as a clinical condition with small
testes, azoospermia, gynecomastia and an elevated serum FSH. (56) Only in 1959 was the
chromosomal basis of the disorder described. Subsequently the diagnosis of Klinefelter syndrome
has required the demonstration of the 47,XXY karyotype or one of its rarer variants. (57)
The prevalence of Klinefelter syndrome appears to be approximately 1 in 660 males, and recent data
suggest a rising incidence over the last decades. (58) It is the most frequent form of primary
testicular dysfunction affecting spermatogenesis as well as hormone production and is found in ...
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(66) The rate of diploidy of sperm as well as disomy for gonosomes and autosomes seems to be
increased in patients with Klinefelter syndrome, however, the majority of sperm appear to be
normal. (67) Preliminary data suggest that in about 20 – 50 percent of patients with Klinefelter
syndrome it may be possible to retrieve sperm by TESE. (68) Several pregnancies have been
achieved with testicular sperm used for ICSI. The embryos show normal or aneuploid karyotypes
which can be identified by preimplantation or prenatal diagnosis. Interestingly, the birth of normal
children conceived by assisted reproductive techniques seems to be rule, suggesting that the few
sperm which can be found in about 50% of patients with Klinefelter syndrome possibly derive from
the clonal expansion of spermatogonia with unremarkable karyotype problems.

Chimpanzee Gene Flow Analysis
There are four forces of evolution that species can go through: natural selection, genetic drift,
mutations, and gene flow (Fuentes 98). Though species most often experience all four forces of
evolution at one point in their history, certain forces of evolution may be more significant to the
evolution of a particular species. This is the case for chimpanzees. Though it is evident that the
species was affected by all four forces throughout the history of their evolution, there is one force
that proved most significant in the process. The force of evolution most significant in the
development of chimpanzees as a species is gene flow. This analysis describes the dynamics of gene
flow within chimpanzee populations and explores the role of gene flow as the initiating factor and
central component in the evolutionary process and assessments regarding physical and behavioral
similarities among members of a species.
Background Information
There are two main ways gene flow occurs between chimpanzee populations. Migration is the first.
Migration occurs when individuals or groups of individuals move from one population to another.
This movement results in the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next
(Servedio 92). The transferring of genetic information causes genotypes to change within the ...
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The study found links between the behavior and the location of the populations (Kamilar and
Marshack 257). Once the behavioral traits were identified, researchers tested the DNA to see if there
were any similar genotypes. After analyzing their data, researchers concluded that populations
existing within close proximity to one another experienced significant degrees of gene flow that
resulted in similar behavioral traits (Kamilar and Marshack

Research Paper On Job Shop Scheduling
Job shop schedsuling using genetic algorithm
Abstract–The job–shop scheduling (JSS) can be difined as a planning of schedules with many
variations according to the requirements. In job–shop scheduling problem (JSSP) environment, there
are numbers jobs to be processed on numbers of machines with a certain objective function to be
minimized or maximized. In this paper, we have used the GT–GA to solve the job shop scheduling
to minimize the makespan along with the special type of crossover known as multi–step crossover
fusion (MSXF). To see wheather we get good results by modifyinng the classical approach using
GA, we have compared the result with the standard benchmark instances available. Using this
combinations of the techniques, we have got results showing deviations less than 3%.
Index Terms–Scheduling, Job Shop Scheduling, genetic algorithm.
Introduction:
The job shop scheduling problem is the combinatorial problem in which there can be many
objective functions. In this paper we have selected the makespan to be the objective function. The
main objective of any scheduling is to create a schedule which specifies when each task is to begin
and what resources it will use that satisfies all the constraints while taking as little overall time as
possible. The scheduling in which there is a specific order of a job to be processed by perticular
machines is called as job–shop scheduling problem. This kind of scheduling and sequecing of
operations deals with the allocations of resources optimally over time so as ... Show more content on
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Vakharia and Chang (1990) developed a scheduling system based on this method for manufacturing
cells. Jeffcoat and Bulfin (1993) applied the same to a resource–constrained scheduling problem.
Their results showed that this procedure provided the best results in comparison with other
neighborhood search procedures. This method is an iterative search

Essay on Introduction to Drosophila Genetics
INTRODUCTION TO DROSOPHILA GENETICS
DROSOPHILA CULTURE We will study basic principles of Mendelian inheritance with the use of
the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster [the name means "black–bodied fruit–lover"]. Drosophila was
one of the first organisms to be studied genetically: its small size, short life cycle (10 ~14 days at
25oC), high reproductive rate (an adult female can lay 400–500 eggs in 10 days), and ease of culture
and genetic manipulation have made it perhaps the best understood animal genetic system. Many
different species, and a large number and wide variety of naturally–occurring and artificially–
induced genetic variants are available. The partial genetic map in Appendix B describes the location
of all the mutations used in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, the genotype of a wild–type homozygote would be designated e +e + (or ++), a mutant
homozygote ee, and a heterozygote e +e or e+ [Use of the term "wild–type" derives from an early
assumption that most flies are homozygous for a 'standard', usually dominant, allele. As we will see,
this is not the case, but the terminology is still used]. It is important to remember that not all mutants
are recessive. A mutation that is dominant to the wild–type is symbolized by a capital letter. For
example, the typical eye shape is round. One mutant produces a narrow "bar eye": the allele is
dominant, symbolized by a capital letter B, and the wild–type (round) eye is B+.
2
GENETIC CROSSES An "X" is used to indicate that two individuals have been mated together.
The parents are designated as P (for parental) and the offspring as F (for filial). When several
generations are involved, subscripts are added to designate the generations. P1 give rise to F1 (first
filial) progeny. If the F1 are crossed together they become P2 and their progeny F2. A cross between
members of the F1 and members of the P1 is a backcross. A cross between members of the F1 and
the true breeding recessive P1 is a test cross. MONOHYBRID CROSS The simplest form of a cross
is a monohybrid cross, which analyses a single trait and its associated variations. The diagram below
shows the

Bio 101 Essay
Lab Manual Introductory Biology (Version 1.4)
© 2010 eScience Labs, LLC
All rights reserved www.esciencelabs.com 888.375.5487
2
Table of Contents:
Introduction:
Lab 1: The Scientific Method
Lab 2: Writing a Lab Report
Lab 3: Data Measurement
Lab 4: Introduction to the Microscope
Biological Processes:
Lab 5: The Chemistry of Life
Lab 6: Diffusion
Lab 7: Osmosis
Lab 8: Respiration
Lab 9: Enzymes
The Cell: Lab 10: Cell Structure & Function
Lab 11: Mitosis
Lab 12: Meiosis
Lab 13: DNA & RNA
Lab 14: Mendelian Genetics
Lab 15: Population Genetics
3
Common Labware found in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...

Lab 1: The Scientific Method Time: 1 hour Materials: None
Lab 2: Writing a Lab Report Time: 1 hour (plus 24 hours preparation time and 7‐10 days for
observation) Materials: Paper towels, water, masking tape
Lab 3: Data Measurement Time: 1 hour Materials: Water
Lab 4: Introduction to the Microscope Time: 1 hour Materials: Access to ESL's Student Portal
Biological Processes:
Lab 5: The Chemistry of Life Time: 1 hour (plus 24 hours preparation time) Materials: Variety of
household substances, plastic wrap, water, cutting utensil
Lab 6: Diffusion Time: 1.5 hours Materials: Water, watch or timer , viscous liquid from cupboard
Lab 7: Osmosis Time: 1 hour (plus 3 hours for observation) Materials: Water, watch or timer, several
types of potatoes, cutting utensil, paper towel
Lab 8: Respiration Time: 1 hour (plus 2 hours preparation time) Materials: Water, watch or timer,
paper towel
Lab 9: Enzymes Time: 1 hour (plus 2 hours preparation time) Materials: Water, watch or timer,
string, ice, hot water, paper towel, ginger root, at least 2 other food sources (potato, apple, etc.)
The Cell:
Lab 10: Cell Structure & Function Time: 1 hour (plus 24 hours for observation) Materials: Water,
square plastic

Ascertained Chi-Square Esteem
Norms are utilized all through tests as a part of the quantitative examination research facility. They
are utilized to contrast and obscure specimens. Since principles are typical and utilized regularly for
tests, it is basic that they are gotten precisely. The motivation behind this lab is to have understudies
figure out how to effectively make a precise standard. Most benchmarks that are not exact were
simply not made accurately. This is typically brought about by poor method than anything.
Understudies need to comprehend and discover that diverse hardware is cleaned in an unexpected
way, as well as have distinctive uses, regardless of the fact that it is to simply gauge. By taking in
the distinctive strides and procedures for getting a feasible ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Determine the degrees of flexibility (df) for your test. It is the quantity of classes short 1. Since there
are two conceivable genotypes, for this investigation (df) =1 (2 tests – 1). In the event that the test
had accumulated information for a dihybrid cross, there would be four conceivable phenotypes, and
accordingly 3 degrees of flexibility. 2. Find the p esteem. Under the 1 (df) segment, locate the basic
worth in the likelihood (p) = 0.05 line: it is 3.84. What does this mean? On the off chance that the
ascertained Chi–square esteem is more noteworthy than or equivalent to the basic worth from the
table, then the invalid speculation is rejected. Since for our case Χ2 = 5.14 and 5/143/84, we dismiss
our invalid theory that there is no measurably critical distinction between the watched and expected
information. At the end of the day, risk alone can't clarify the deviations we watched and there is in
this way motivation to question our unique speculation (or to scrutinize our information gathering
precision.). 3. These results are said to be noteworthy at a likelihood of p = 0.05. This implies just
5% of the time would you hope to see comparable information if the invalid theory were right;
subsequently you are 95% certain that information does not fit a 3:1

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