E D I T O R I A L
What Neuroscience Can and
Cannot Answer
Octavio S. Choi, MD, PhD
J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 45:278 – 85, 2017
We truly live in the golden age of neuroscience. Ad-
vances in technology over the past 20 years have
given modern neuro-researchers tools of unprece-
dented power to probe the workings of the most
complex machine in the universe (as far as we know).
Neuroscience as a field is driven by our natural fasci-
nation with understanding how a physical organ,
weighing three pounds and running on 20 watts of
power, can give rise to the mind, and with it, our
thoughts, feelings, soul, and identity. Brain activity is
presumably the source of all these things, but how,
exactly? Culturally, neuroscience is a currency that
enjoys very high capital, and public fascination with
neuroscience is evident in the news and popular cul-
ture.1 Neuroscience is cool: prestigious, high-tech,
complex, philosophically rich, and beautiful.
It is of increasing interest in the courtroom as well,
and each year the number of cases using neuroscience-
based evidence rises.2 The reasons for this are clear
enough. Many legal decisions depend on accurate
assessment of mental states and mental capacities
(such as capacity for rationality or control over one’s
behaviors), and the hope is that neuroscience can
shed light on these matters.
I have participated in several of these cases in my
early career and have seen enough to report that there
is trouble afoot. I have witnessed neuroscience re-
peatedly misrepresented and misused. Certain pat-
terns have emerged: speculations clothed as facts, er-
rors of logical reasoning, and hasty conclusions
unsupported by evidence and unrestrained by cau-
tion. I have found too much weight placed on iso-
lated neurofindings and too little weight on good
clinical observation and other kinds of behavioral
evidence.
Forensic psychiatrists will be increasingly asked to
opine on neuroevidence, and thus we must be able to
distinguish neuroscience from neuro-nonsense. To do
this, we should understand what kinds of questions
neuroscience currently can and cannot answer. Fur-
thermore, we must understand the kinds of questions
neuroscience will never be able to answer. Finally, in
the interests of justice, when we recognize that neu-
roscience is being misused or misrepresented, we
must be forthright in communicating this informa-
tion to finders of fact.
Presciently, in 2006 Morse identified signs of a
cognitive pathology he labeled brain overclaim syn-
drome (BOS). This devastating illness “afflicts those
inflamed by the fascinating new discoveries in the
neurosciences,” leading to a “rationality-unhinging
effect . . . the final pathway, in all cases . . . is that
more legal implications are claimed for the brain sci-
ence than can be justified” (Ref. 3, p 403).
Part of the problem is that neuroscience evidence
is genuinely mind boggling. A bar chart can be gen-
erated by a grade schooler on her smartphone, but a
fu.
Human Brain Atlas' Maps The Intricate Organ In Stunning Detail | The Lifescie...The Lifesciences Magazine
In a stunning collection of more than 3,000 different types of brain cells that together give rise to emotion, thought, memory, and illness, scientists on Thursday released the most intricate and detailed depiction of the human brain to date.
In recent decades, psychologists and economists have cataloged the ways in which human behavior deviates
from economic theory.1 They have done this mostly through experiments and observation. Daniel Kahneman
and Amos Tversky, psychologists who formalized this research, showed that individuals use heuristics, or rules
of thumb, to make their judgments. These heuristics lead to biases when compared to normative economic
behavior.2 For example, people generally place too much weight on information that is available to their minds,
often associated with an event that is vivid or recent, and overestimate the probability of a similar event
occurring again.
Jason KnottBritain on ViewPhotolibrarychapter 1Psych.docxchristiandean12115
Jason Knott/Britain on View/Photolibrary
chapter 1
Psychology as a Science
Chapter Contents
• Research Areas in Psychology
• Scientific Thinking and Paths to Knowledge
• Hypotheses and Theories
• Searching the Literature
• Ethics in Research
CO_
CO_
new66480_01_c01_p001-046.indd 1 10/31/11 9:11 AM
CHAPTER 1Introduction
In an article in Wired magazine, journalist Amy Wallace described her visit to the annual conference sponsored by Autism One, a nonprofit group organized around the belief that autism is caused by mandatory childhood vaccines:
I flashed more than once on Carl Sagan’s idea of the power of an “unsatisfied
medical need.” Because a massive research effort has yet to reveal the precise
causes of autism, pseudoscience has stepped in to the void. In the hallways
of the Westin O’Hare hotel, helpful salespeople strove to catch my eye . . .
pitching everything from vitamins and supplements to gluten-free cookies . . .
hyperbaric chambers, and neuro-feedback machines.
(Wallace, 2009, p. 134)
The “pseudoscience” to which Wallace refers is the claim that vaccines generally do more
harm than good and specifically cause children to develop autism. In fact, an extensive statis-
tical review of epidemiological studies, including tens of thousands of vaccinated children,
found no evidence of a link between vaccines and autism. But something about this phrasing
doesn’t sit right with many people; “no evidence” rings of scientific mumbo jumbo, and a
“statistical review” pales in comparison to tearful testimonials from parents that their child
developed autistic symptoms shortly after being vaccinated. The reality is this: Research
tells us that vaccines bear no relation to autism, but people still believe that they do. Because
of these beliefs, increasing numbers of parents are foregoing vaccinations, and many com-
munities are seeing a resurgence of rare diseases including measles and mumps.
So what does it mean to say that “research” has reached a conclusion? Why should we
trust this conclusion over a parent’s personal experience? One of the biggest challenges
in starting a course on research methods is learn-
ing how to think like a scientist—that is, to frame
questions in testable ways and to make decisions
by weighing the evidence. The more personal
these questions become, and the bigger their con-
sequences, the harder it is to put feelings aside.
But, as we will see throughout this course, it is
precisely in these cases that listening to the evi-
dence becomes most important.
There are several reasons to understand the impor-
tance of scientific thinking, even if you never take
another psychology course. First, at a practical
level, critical thinking is an invaluable skill to
have in a wide variety of careers. Employers of all
types appreciate the ability to reason through the
decision-making process. Second, understanding
the scientific approach tends to make you a more
skeptical consumer of.
Human Brain Atlas' Maps The Intricate Organ In Stunning Detail | The Lifescie...The Lifesciences Magazine
In a stunning collection of more than 3,000 different types of brain cells that together give rise to emotion, thought, memory, and illness, scientists on Thursday released the most intricate and detailed depiction of the human brain to date.
In recent decades, psychologists and economists have cataloged the ways in which human behavior deviates
from economic theory.1 They have done this mostly through experiments and observation. Daniel Kahneman
and Amos Tversky, psychologists who formalized this research, showed that individuals use heuristics, or rules
of thumb, to make their judgments. These heuristics lead to biases when compared to normative economic
behavior.2 For example, people generally place too much weight on information that is available to their minds,
often associated with an event that is vivid or recent, and overestimate the probability of a similar event
occurring again.
Jason KnottBritain on ViewPhotolibrarychapter 1Psych.docxchristiandean12115
Jason Knott/Britain on View/Photolibrary
chapter 1
Psychology as a Science
Chapter Contents
• Research Areas in Psychology
• Scientific Thinking and Paths to Knowledge
• Hypotheses and Theories
• Searching the Literature
• Ethics in Research
CO_
CO_
new66480_01_c01_p001-046.indd 1 10/31/11 9:11 AM
CHAPTER 1Introduction
In an article in Wired magazine, journalist Amy Wallace described her visit to the annual conference sponsored by Autism One, a nonprofit group organized around the belief that autism is caused by mandatory childhood vaccines:
I flashed more than once on Carl Sagan’s idea of the power of an “unsatisfied
medical need.” Because a massive research effort has yet to reveal the precise
causes of autism, pseudoscience has stepped in to the void. In the hallways
of the Westin O’Hare hotel, helpful salespeople strove to catch my eye . . .
pitching everything from vitamins and supplements to gluten-free cookies . . .
hyperbaric chambers, and neuro-feedback machines.
(Wallace, 2009, p. 134)
The “pseudoscience” to which Wallace refers is the claim that vaccines generally do more
harm than good and specifically cause children to develop autism. In fact, an extensive statis-
tical review of epidemiological studies, including tens of thousands of vaccinated children,
found no evidence of a link between vaccines and autism. But something about this phrasing
doesn’t sit right with many people; “no evidence” rings of scientific mumbo jumbo, and a
“statistical review” pales in comparison to tearful testimonials from parents that their child
developed autistic symptoms shortly after being vaccinated. The reality is this: Research
tells us that vaccines bear no relation to autism, but people still believe that they do. Because
of these beliefs, increasing numbers of parents are foregoing vaccinations, and many com-
munities are seeing a resurgence of rare diseases including measles and mumps.
So what does it mean to say that “research” has reached a conclusion? Why should we
trust this conclusion over a parent’s personal experience? One of the biggest challenges
in starting a course on research methods is learn-
ing how to think like a scientist—that is, to frame
questions in testable ways and to make decisions
by weighing the evidence. The more personal
these questions become, and the bigger their con-
sequences, the harder it is to put feelings aside.
But, as we will see throughout this course, it is
precisely in these cases that listening to the evi-
dence becomes most important.
There are several reasons to understand the impor-
tance of scientific thinking, even if you never take
another psychology course. First, at a practical
level, critical thinking is an invaluable skill to
have in a wide variety of careers. Employers of all
types appreciate the ability to reason through the
decision-making process. Second, understanding
the scientific approach tends to make you a more
skeptical consumer of.
The current scientific paradigm of material reductionism has problems accommodating a theory of the conscious mind, so it defines away the problem by claiming that consciousness equals neuron activity. That claim does not hold up to preponderance of evidence that proves an alternate state of consciousness, called a near death experience, can and does occur even after trauma to the brain ceases all neuron activity. Furthermore, NDE subjects report that their minds are far more lucid in that state than when they are awake or dreaming. Many NDE subjects get a clear impression that life is meant for learning and that being present in physical bodies is necessary for that to happen. The essay includes a discussion about the Hameroff-Penrose work on microtubules in brain neurons, which could be the actual seat of consciousness and could provide a link between the normal and the paranormal, and ends with an unusual twist.
Yeah, i'm too lazy to open up adobe...
enjoy!
(I hear NSHS has a record number of students attending this year!)
[which means that ass kicking is mandatory]
Stronger the Foresight Reflects The Stronger Scientific AcuityBalwant Meshram
Foresight is the ability to judge correctly what is going to be happened in the future and plan your actions based on the knowledge. It is a desirable capability that can be developed through engaging with strong and weak signals in the emerging environment, however, acuity is the ability to hear/ see/ think accurately and clearly. While discussing the acuity and foresight after science, several parameters require to be taken into account.
Scientific Consensus on Brain Fingerprinting and Differing Views on the Scien...Karlos Svoboda
The following proposed Scientific Consensus on Brain fingerprinting has arisen from discussionsamong forensic scientists, legal experts, psychophysiologists, and experts in law enforcementand national security. These discussions were initiated by Lawrence A. Farwell. This is a workin progress. Discussions of these and other related issues are ongoing. Please refer commentsand suggestions to Lawrence A. Farwell at LFarwell@brainwavescience.com .The most fundamental point of consensus among scientists and other relevant experts regardingbrain fingerprinting, forensic science, and science in general is that different methods producedifferent results. Brain fingerprinting, from the seminal Farwell and Donchin (1986; 1991) andFarwell and Smith (2001) papers to the present, has never produced an error, neither a falsenegative nor a false positive. Some alternative methods of applying the same brain responses inattempts to detect concealed information have resulted in 10% to 15% errors and in some casesas high as nearly 50% errors, no better than chance. Even some purported “replications” ofFarwell and Donchin have in fact used fundamentally different methods. Consequently theyhave failed to achieve accuracy approaching that of brain fingerprinting and, unlike brainfingerprinting, are susceptible to countermeasures. These fundamental differences in scientificmethods are the reason why brain fingerprinting has been successfully applied in the field andruled admissible in court, and these alternative methods are unsuitable for field use or applicationin the criminal justice system or national security.In developing this consensus, we have specified precisely the standard scientific methods thatconstitute brain fingerprinting and attempted to identify the specific standards that are necessaryand sufficient to obtain the results that brain fingerprinting has consistently attained. We havesought to identify differences in methods that are responsible for the widely divergent resultsobtained in different laboratories conducting related research.Fundamental brain fingerprinting scientific principles, methods, and scientific standards arebriefly described the first section of this article. The proposed Scientific Consensus on BrainFingerprinting presumes a thorough understanding of the information contained therein. It alsoassumes familiarity with the articles in the literature cited in the Background section below.In the course of developing a consensus, some points have arisen on which there is considerablediversity of opinion. Some of these Differing Views on Brain Fingerprinting are briefly outlinedfollowing the Scientific Consensus on Brain Fingerprinting.
E C O N F O C U S T H I R D Q U A R T E R 2 0 1 3 31.docxbrownliecarmella
E C O N F O C U S | T H I R D Q U A R T E R | 2 0 1 3 31
O
ne of the great success stories of American retail-
ing, Circuit City got its start in 1949 as a tiny
storefront in Richmond, Va. From that modest
beginning, founder Sam Wurtzel quickly built the company
into a national chain, and his son Alan turned it
into a household name. By 2000, Circuit City employed
more than 60,000 people at 616 locations across the
United States.
Circuit City is also one of American retailing’s great fail-
ures. In November 2008, the 59 -year-old company filed for
bankruptcy. Within months, it closed its stores and liquidat-
ed more than $1 billion worth of merchandise, and on March
8, 2009, the last Circuit City store turned off its lights for
good. Today there are few reminders of the groundbreaking
retailer; the company’s 700,000-square-foot headquarters
complex outside Richmond is filling up with new tenants,
and the empty stores have been taken over by new retailers.
In part, Circuit City was just one of the many victims of
the financial crisis and recession, which also brought down
other large national retailers such as Linens ’n Things and
The Sharper Image. And businesses fail even during the
best of economic times, as part of the natural process of
“creative destruction” that is the engine of capitalism. But at
business schools across the country, Circuit City’s story is
taught as an example of what can happen when success
breeds complacency.
From Tire Store to Fortune 500
In 1949, New Yorker and serial entrepreneur Sam Wurtzel
was having his hair cut in Richmond on his way to a family
vacation in North Carolina. The barber mentioned that the
first television station in the South had opened in Richmond
less than a year earlier. Wurtzel, fresh from a failed import-
export business, thought this new entertainment device
might be his next opportunity.
The first experimental television stations began operat-
ing in the early 1940s, and commercial broadcasting began
after World War II. Few households owned sets at the time
of Wurtzel’s barbershop visit, but the medium was growing
rapidly: The number of TV stations in the United States
nearly tripled in 1949, from 27 to 76. Through a friend,
Wurtzel knew someone at Olympic Television, a small
manufacturer in Long Island City; through relatives, he had
connections to bankers and businesspeople in Richmond.
Within a month, Wurtzel had moved his family from New
York to Virginia and was selling televisions out of the front
half of a tire store on Broad Street, a few blocks west of
downtown Richmond.
Wurtzel thought his last name might be hard for people
to pronounce, so he named his store Wards, an acronym for
his family’s names: W for Wurtzel, A for his son Alan, R for
his wife, Ruth, D for his son David, and S for Sam. Rather
than try to compete directly with the big department stores,
he catered to lower-income consumers by offering install-
ment payment plans. He also developed a unique s.
E B B 3 5 9 – E B B S P o r t f o l i o V C o u r.docxbrownliecarmella
E B B 3 5 9 – E B B S P o r t f o l i o V
C o u r s e P r o j e c t T e m p l a t e - O n l i n e
2018
2
The Distribution & Marketing Plan Template
Using this Template (attached below), provide your ideas and research for the distribution
strategies you will recommend for the logistical movement and delivery of the product to
targeted users in a niche market. You should research similar products to determine what
other self-distributors are doing to deliver their product to a niche market.
The template is just a guide for organizing your paper with headings and sub-
headings. Retype and duplicate the headings and sub-headings. Everything else is your
original content.
Do not include any of the instructor’s comments in blue in the Template when submitting
this assignment. Reproduction of anything other than the headings and sub-headings
from the template will cause a deduction in points for your assignment.
Use the Budget portion of the template to organize your distribution and marketing
expenses. List each item you plan to spend money on, the frequency with which you will
use it, and the cost for your company’s first year.
All of the tools and tactics found in the written section of the plan must match the dollars
that are allocated to them in the Budget Worksheet.
Do not include any costs in the budget that are not directly related to specific distributing
(selling) and marketing (building awareness) strategies proposed for the product.
Costs should be realistic for what you are trying to accomplish. Remember you are
working with a micro budget of $1500 for the entirety of the one-year plan. So, for example,
World Tours and World Premieres are out. This budget will barely afford more than a local
venue or two to showcase your product.
The best way to tackle the Sales Projections and Budget is to create them in Excel, using
formulas in Excel, and then copy and paste the spreadsheet into your Word document
based on the sample provided.
It should take you a few seconds to set up these spreadsheets and type in the column
headings from the template. All of the line items are custom to your project and should be
revised by you to fit your project.
10/19/18 3
Course Project – Outline Template
(Be sure to start with Title Page to include Project Title, Your Name, Course Name, and Date
in proper APA format)
I. Executive Summary
The Company:
Establish in a sentence or two your experience and goals of the company.
The Project:
Explain your project through a premise statement (Artist’s Story or USP or Logline, depending
on your media) along with ways to relate potential success to the investor through similar
successful projects or its appeal to your Target Market.
Sales Projections / Return on Investment:
Summarize how their one-year investment of the agreed upon amount based on your Client
Interview with them will see the project.
e activityhttpsblackboard.strayer.edubbcswebdavinstitutionBU.docxbrownliecarmella
e activity
https://blackboard.strayer.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/BUS/520/1134/Self-Assessments/Assessment%2014-%20Machiavellianism.pdf
Use the Internet to locate recent (within five years) news of a company whose ethical behavior has led to public corruption and investigation.
1-2 paragraph.
.
Dynamics of Human Service Program ManagementIndividuals who .docxbrownliecarmella
Dynamics of Human Service Program Management
Individuals who enter into a human service area of practice often start from an altruistic perspective and a desire to help a particular population. Getting into the field and discovering value incongruence and the high level of bureaucratic demands—regardless of whether the organization is a government, nonprofit, or for-profit human service organization—can result in disillusionment or departure from the field.
In your initial post, suggest ways a human service program leader can manage the competing demands of bureaucratic standards. What actions can leaders or managers take to help service delivery personnel retain motivation and job satisfaction?
.
Dynamic Postural Assessment Name _____________________.docxbrownliecarmella
Dynamic Postural Assessment
Name ________________________________________ Date __________
Overhead Squat
View
Kinetic Chain
Checkpoint
Observation Notes
Anterior
Foot / Ankle Feet turn out? Left Right
Knee
Knees move:
In? Out?
Left Right
Lateral
LPHC
Excessive forward lean?
Low back arches?
Shoulder Arms fall forward?
Single-Leg Squat
View
Kinetic Chain
Checkpoint
Observation Notes
Anterior Knee
Knees move:
In? Out?
Left Right
Pushing / Pulling
View
Kinetic Chain
Checkpoint
Observation Notes
Lateral
LPHC Low back arches? Push Pull
Shoulder Shoulders elevate? Push Pull
Head / Neck Head moves forward? Push Pull
To determine which muscles are overactive or underactive, compare your observations to the
downloadable Postural Assessment
Solution
s chart that accompanies this assessment template.
Overactive Muscles
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Underactive Muscles
_____________________________________________________________________________________
National Council of Teachers of English is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to College
Composition and Communication.
http://www.jstor.org
The Rhetoric of the Open Hand and the Rhetoric of the Closed Fist
Author(s): Edward P. J. Corbett
Source: College Composition and Communication, Vol. 20, No. 5 (Dec., 1969), pp. 288-296
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
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The kRh oric of the Open -land and the Rhtoric
of the Closed Ti§t
EDWARD P. J. CORBETT
THE FAVORITE METAPHORS USED during
the Renaissance in referring to logic
and rhetoric were Zeno's analogies of
the closed fist and the open hand. The
closed fist symbolized the tight, spare,
compressed discourse of the philosopher;
the open hand symbolized the relaxed,
expansive, ingratiating discourse of the
orator. When, sometime after the ap-
pearance of Descartes's Discou.
Dylan (age 45, Caucasian) is a heroin addict who has been in and o.docxbrownliecarmella
Dylan
(age 45, Caucasian) is a heroin addict who has been in and out of rehab facilities and prison since he was 17; he has a 1 year old daughter with a women he dated for a few months, but he is not allowed contact due to his unreliable behavior and constant drug use. He dropped out of high school when he was 17, after the first failed attempt at in-patient treatment. Dylan engages in other drug use – prescription pills, marijuana, and cocaine – but prefers heroin and other opioid-based drugs. Dylan has a twin brother, Daniel (age 45, Caucasian) who is a happily married father of three and owns his own graphic design firm. The parents, Harriet and William (ages 70 and 72, Caucasian) both report being invested and supportive of both of their sons’ interests (i.e. football, photography) during childhood and adolescence as Harriet was a stay-at-home mother and William emphasized family by working a lot from home during the boys’ childhood. They grew-up in a middle class suburb with the Neighborhood Watch and regular neighborhood gatherings. Harriet reports that Dylan struggled with change and seemed anxious with any new situation, whereas Daniel was very adaptable and rolled with any situation.
Rubric
.
Dustin,A case study is defined by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhi.docxbrownliecarmella
Dustin,
A case study is defined by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2015), as when a researcher collects in the field observations and documentation of information from multiple sources to study a current event. The phenological design is referenced by Saunders et al. (2015), as the respondent’s explanation and remembrance of the activities and involvements being studied. These are quite diverse in being unbiased and factual.
There are other distinctions, such as time and costs associated with each one. The case study requires one person from 1 company, the multiple case study requires at least three companies with at least two persons, and the phenological design requires at least 20 persons. The amount of time commitment to speak to 20 people for 1 hour, is more significant than the amount of time needed to speaks to fewer persons being interviewed or surveyed as part of the study. This time obligation will also transect the financial aspect of the need for additional funding for the research, if more time is needed, then transversely proportional is the monetary aspect (Walden, 2019).
Benefits of Using a Case Study for DBA Doctoral Research
The benefits of using a case study for doctoral research is the cost savings and time required to complete or accomplish the study (Saunders et al., 2015; Yin, 2018). The case study is still a factual designed, based on developing true aspects, but is less problematic than the phenological design.
References
Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2015). Research methods for business students (7th ed.). Essex, England: Pearson Education Unlimited.
Walden University. (2019). DBA doctoral study rubric and research handbook. Available from http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/researchcenter/osra/dba
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Marshall
To begin a discussion about case study design and phenomenological research design it is important to define qualitative data. Sanders, Lewis and Thornhill (2015) define qualitative data as data that can be characterized by the richness and fullness of information that is used to explore a subject in a real setting where the researcher derives meaning from images and words, not numbers and data. The quality of qualitative research is defined by the interaction between the data collection process, such as a case study, and the analysis used to explore the meanings of the data (Sanders et al., 2015).
When determining the type of qualitative research that the researcher will conduct it is important to determine the method of collection and how it will be used to analyze the empirical evidence. Yin (2018) proposes that multiple research method can be used for exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies if properly applied to the research topic. However, there is often one methodology that is more appropriate to address the research q.
DWPM
7/17/13
1
543707.1
MEMBERSHIP AGREEMENT
This Membership Agreement (the “Agreement”) is made between 180 Fitness, Inc. (the
“Club”), a Massachusetts Corporation, and the undersigned member (the “Member”). This
Agreement is made because Member wishes to receive and the Club wishes to provide personal
training services in the form of Training Sessions, defined herein, and health club services at the
Club’s facility, which facility is located at [ADDRESS] (the “Facility” or “Facilities”).
In this Agreement, the terms “you” and “your” refer to the Member. A “Training Session” is a
time period in which a personal trainer provides instruction to a Member based on a tailored
exercise program, which is designed for that Member and takes into account that Member’s
fitness objectives, level, and experience. A Training Session may include exercise counseling,
instruction in the proper use of equipment and technique, and dietary suggestions.
I. BASIC MEMBERSHIP INFORMATION
1. Contact Information
2. Membership, Term, and Payment.
a. Membership. Your Membership entitles you to use the Facility until your
Membership Expiration Date, below, and is created when you execute this Agreement, including
fulfilling all Membership Qualifications according to Article II, below, and pay your Fee,
defined below.
b. Fee. Your Fee includes your initial fee (“Initial Fee”), and a fee based on the length
of your membership (“Membership Fee”). Your Initial Fee is due upon execution of this
Agreement. Your Membership Fee may be paid in one (1) lump sum, or in equal monthly
installments.
$ ___________ + $ ____________ = $ ________________
Initial fee Membership Fee TOTAL DUE (Fee)
You opt to pay the Membership Fee in one lump sum (___) equal monthly installments.
Name:
___________________________________
Phone:
______________________________
Address:
_________________________________
Email:
_______________________________
_________________________________________
Date
of
Birth:
_________________________
EMERGENCY
CONTACT:
_________________________________/_________________________/______________________________
Name
Relationship
Phone
Number(s)
DWPM
7/17/13
2
543707.1
circle one
If you decide to pay in equal monthly installments, your payment is due on the first day of the
month.
Membership Start Date: ___/___/___ Membership Expiration Date: ___/___/___
[c. Billing Authorization – automatic withdrawals?]
[d. Membership Freeze. You may put your Membership on hold for any reason for one
.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
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Yeah, i'm too lazy to open up adobe...
enjoy!
(I hear NSHS has a record number of students attending this year!)
[which means that ass kicking is mandatory]
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Foresight is the ability to judge correctly what is going to be happened in the future and plan your actions based on the knowledge. It is a desirable capability that can be developed through engaging with strong and weak signals in the emerging environment, however, acuity is the ability to hear/ see/ think accurately and clearly. While discussing the acuity and foresight after science, several parameters require to be taken into account.
Scientific Consensus on Brain Fingerprinting and Differing Views on the Scien...Karlos Svoboda
The following proposed Scientific Consensus on Brain fingerprinting has arisen from discussionsamong forensic scientists, legal experts, psychophysiologists, and experts in law enforcementand national security. These discussions were initiated by Lawrence A. Farwell. This is a workin progress. Discussions of these and other related issues are ongoing. Please refer commentsand suggestions to Lawrence A. Farwell at LFarwell@brainwavescience.com .The most fundamental point of consensus among scientists and other relevant experts regardingbrain fingerprinting, forensic science, and science in general is that different methods producedifferent results. Brain fingerprinting, from the seminal Farwell and Donchin (1986; 1991) andFarwell and Smith (2001) papers to the present, has never produced an error, neither a falsenegative nor a false positive. Some alternative methods of applying the same brain responses inattempts to detect concealed information have resulted in 10% to 15% errors and in some casesas high as nearly 50% errors, no better than chance. Even some purported “replications” ofFarwell and Donchin have in fact used fundamentally different methods. Consequently theyhave failed to achieve accuracy approaching that of brain fingerprinting and, unlike brainfingerprinting, are susceptible to countermeasures. These fundamental differences in scientificmethods are the reason why brain fingerprinting has been successfully applied in the field andruled admissible in court, and these alternative methods are unsuitable for field use or applicationin the criminal justice system or national security.In developing this consensus, we have specified precisely the standard scientific methods thatconstitute brain fingerprinting and attempted to identify the specific standards that are necessaryand sufficient to obtain the results that brain fingerprinting has consistently attained. We havesought to identify differences in methods that are responsible for the widely divergent resultsobtained in different laboratories conducting related research.Fundamental brain fingerprinting scientific principles, methods, and scientific standards arebriefly described the first section of this article. The proposed Scientific Consensus on BrainFingerprinting presumes a thorough understanding of the information contained therein. It alsoassumes familiarity with the articles in the literature cited in the Background section below.In the course of developing a consensus, some points have arisen on which there is considerablediversity of opinion. Some of these Differing Views on Brain Fingerprinting are briefly outlinedfollowing the Scientific Consensus on Brain Fingerprinting.
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E C O N F O C U S T H I R D Q U A R T E R 2 0 1 3 31.docxbrownliecarmella
E C O N F O C U S | T H I R D Q U A R T E R | 2 0 1 3 31
O
ne of the great success stories of American retail-
ing, Circuit City got its start in 1949 as a tiny
storefront in Richmond, Va. From that modest
beginning, founder Sam Wurtzel quickly built the company
into a national chain, and his son Alan turned it
into a household name. By 2000, Circuit City employed
more than 60,000 people at 616 locations across the
United States.
Circuit City is also one of American retailing’s great fail-
ures. In November 2008, the 59 -year-old company filed for
bankruptcy. Within months, it closed its stores and liquidat-
ed more than $1 billion worth of merchandise, and on March
8, 2009, the last Circuit City store turned off its lights for
good. Today there are few reminders of the groundbreaking
retailer; the company’s 700,000-square-foot headquarters
complex outside Richmond is filling up with new tenants,
and the empty stores have been taken over by new retailers.
In part, Circuit City was just one of the many victims of
the financial crisis and recession, which also brought down
other large national retailers such as Linens ’n Things and
The Sharper Image. And businesses fail even during the
best of economic times, as part of the natural process of
“creative destruction” that is the engine of capitalism. But at
business schools across the country, Circuit City’s story is
taught as an example of what can happen when success
breeds complacency.
From Tire Store to Fortune 500
In 1949, New Yorker and serial entrepreneur Sam Wurtzel
was having his hair cut in Richmond on his way to a family
vacation in North Carolina. The barber mentioned that the
first television station in the South had opened in Richmond
less than a year earlier. Wurtzel, fresh from a failed import-
export business, thought this new entertainment device
might be his next opportunity.
The first experimental television stations began operat-
ing in the early 1940s, and commercial broadcasting began
after World War II. Few households owned sets at the time
of Wurtzel’s barbershop visit, but the medium was growing
rapidly: The number of TV stations in the United States
nearly tripled in 1949, from 27 to 76. Through a friend,
Wurtzel knew someone at Olympic Television, a small
manufacturer in Long Island City; through relatives, he had
connections to bankers and businesspeople in Richmond.
Within a month, Wurtzel had moved his family from New
York to Virginia and was selling televisions out of the front
half of a tire store on Broad Street, a few blocks west of
downtown Richmond.
Wurtzel thought his last name might be hard for people
to pronounce, so he named his store Wards, an acronym for
his family’s names: W for Wurtzel, A for his son Alan, R for
his wife, Ruth, D for his son David, and S for Sam. Rather
than try to compete directly with the big department stores,
he catered to lower-income consumers by offering install-
ment payment plans. He also developed a unique s.
E B B 3 5 9 – E B B S P o r t f o l i o V C o u r.docxbrownliecarmella
E B B 3 5 9 – E B B S P o r t f o l i o V
C o u r s e P r o j e c t T e m p l a t e - O n l i n e
2018
2
The Distribution & Marketing Plan Template
Using this Template (attached below), provide your ideas and research for the distribution
strategies you will recommend for the logistical movement and delivery of the product to
targeted users in a niche market. You should research similar products to determine what
other self-distributors are doing to deliver their product to a niche market.
The template is just a guide for organizing your paper with headings and sub-
headings. Retype and duplicate the headings and sub-headings. Everything else is your
original content.
Do not include any of the instructor’s comments in blue in the Template when submitting
this assignment. Reproduction of anything other than the headings and sub-headings
from the template will cause a deduction in points for your assignment.
Use the Budget portion of the template to organize your distribution and marketing
expenses. List each item you plan to spend money on, the frequency with which you will
use it, and the cost for your company’s first year.
All of the tools and tactics found in the written section of the plan must match the dollars
that are allocated to them in the Budget Worksheet.
Do not include any costs in the budget that are not directly related to specific distributing
(selling) and marketing (building awareness) strategies proposed for the product.
Costs should be realistic for what you are trying to accomplish. Remember you are
working with a micro budget of $1500 for the entirety of the one-year plan. So, for example,
World Tours and World Premieres are out. This budget will barely afford more than a local
venue or two to showcase your product.
The best way to tackle the Sales Projections and Budget is to create them in Excel, using
formulas in Excel, and then copy and paste the spreadsheet into your Word document
based on the sample provided.
It should take you a few seconds to set up these spreadsheets and type in the column
headings from the template. All of the line items are custom to your project and should be
revised by you to fit your project.
10/19/18 3
Course Project – Outline Template
(Be sure to start with Title Page to include Project Title, Your Name, Course Name, and Date
in proper APA format)
I. Executive Summary
The Company:
Establish in a sentence or two your experience and goals of the company.
The Project:
Explain your project through a premise statement (Artist’s Story or USP or Logline, depending
on your media) along with ways to relate potential success to the investor through similar
successful projects or its appeal to your Target Market.
Sales Projections / Return on Investment:
Summarize how their one-year investment of the agreed upon amount based on your Client
Interview with them will see the project.
e activityhttpsblackboard.strayer.edubbcswebdavinstitutionBU.docxbrownliecarmella
e activity
https://blackboard.strayer.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/BUS/520/1134/Self-Assessments/Assessment%2014-%20Machiavellianism.pdf
Use the Internet to locate recent (within five years) news of a company whose ethical behavior has led to public corruption and investigation.
1-2 paragraph.
.
Dynamics of Human Service Program ManagementIndividuals who .docxbrownliecarmella
Dynamics of Human Service Program Management
Individuals who enter into a human service area of practice often start from an altruistic perspective and a desire to help a particular population. Getting into the field and discovering value incongruence and the high level of bureaucratic demands—regardless of whether the organization is a government, nonprofit, or for-profit human service organization—can result in disillusionment or departure from the field.
In your initial post, suggest ways a human service program leader can manage the competing demands of bureaucratic standards. What actions can leaders or managers take to help service delivery personnel retain motivation and job satisfaction?
.
Dynamic Postural Assessment Name _____________________.docxbrownliecarmella
Dynamic Postural Assessment
Name ________________________________________ Date __________
Overhead Squat
View
Kinetic Chain
Checkpoint
Observation Notes
Anterior
Foot / Ankle Feet turn out? Left Right
Knee
Knees move:
In? Out?
Left Right
Lateral
LPHC
Excessive forward lean?
Low back arches?
Shoulder Arms fall forward?
Single-Leg Squat
View
Kinetic Chain
Checkpoint
Observation Notes
Anterior Knee
Knees move:
In? Out?
Left Right
Pushing / Pulling
View
Kinetic Chain
Checkpoint
Observation Notes
Lateral
LPHC Low back arches? Push Pull
Shoulder Shoulders elevate? Push Pull
Head / Neck Head moves forward? Push Pull
To determine which muscles are overactive or underactive, compare your observations to the
downloadable Postural Assessment
Solution
s chart that accompanies this assessment template.
Overactive Muscles
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Underactive Muscles
_____________________________________________________________________________________
National Council of Teachers of English is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to College
Composition and Communication.
http://www.jstor.org
The Rhetoric of the Open Hand and the Rhetoric of the Closed Fist
Author(s): Edward P. J. Corbett
Source: College Composition and Communication, Vol. 20, No. 5 (Dec., 1969), pp. 288-296
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
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The kRh oric of the Open -land and the Rhtoric
of the Closed Ti§t
EDWARD P. J. CORBETT
THE FAVORITE METAPHORS USED during
the Renaissance in referring to logic
and rhetoric were Zeno's analogies of
the closed fist and the open hand. The
closed fist symbolized the tight, spare,
compressed discourse of the philosopher;
the open hand symbolized the relaxed,
expansive, ingratiating discourse of the
orator. When, sometime after the ap-
pearance of Descartes's Discou.
Dylan (age 45, Caucasian) is a heroin addict who has been in and o.docxbrownliecarmella
Dylan
(age 45, Caucasian) is a heroin addict who has been in and out of rehab facilities and prison since he was 17; he has a 1 year old daughter with a women he dated for a few months, but he is not allowed contact due to his unreliable behavior and constant drug use. He dropped out of high school when he was 17, after the first failed attempt at in-patient treatment. Dylan engages in other drug use – prescription pills, marijuana, and cocaine – but prefers heroin and other opioid-based drugs. Dylan has a twin brother, Daniel (age 45, Caucasian) who is a happily married father of three and owns his own graphic design firm. The parents, Harriet and William (ages 70 and 72, Caucasian) both report being invested and supportive of both of their sons’ interests (i.e. football, photography) during childhood and adolescence as Harriet was a stay-at-home mother and William emphasized family by working a lot from home during the boys’ childhood. They grew-up in a middle class suburb with the Neighborhood Watch and regular neighborhood gatherings. Harriet reports that Dylan struggled with change and seemed anxious with any new situation, whereas Daniel was very adaptable and rolled with any situation.
Rubric
.
Dustin,A case study is defined by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhi.docxbrownliecarmella
Dustin,
A case study is defined by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2015), as when a researcher collects in the field observations and documentation of information from multiple sources to study a current event. The phenological design is referenced by Saunders et al. (2015), as the respondent’s explanation and remembrance of the activities and involvements being studied. These are quite diverse in being unbiased and factual.
There are other distinctions, such as time and costs associated with each one. The case study requires one person from 1 company, the multiple case study requires at least three companies with at least two persons, and the phenological design requires at least 20 persons. The amount of time commitment to speak to 20 people for 1 hour, is more significant than the amount of time needed to speaks to fewer persons being interviewed or surveyed as part of the study. This time obligation will also transect the financial aspect of the need for additional funding for the research, if more time is needed, then transversely proportional is the monetary aspect (Walden, 2019).
Benefits of Using a Case Study for DBA Doctoral Research
The benefits of using a case study for doctoral research is the cost savings and time required to complete or accomplish the study (Saunders et al., 2015; Yin, 2018). The case study is still a factual designed, based on developing true aspects, but is less problematic than the phenological design.
References
Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2015). Research methods for business students (7th ed.). Essex, England: Pearson Education Unlimited.
Walden University. (2019). DBA doctoral study rubric and research handbook. Available from http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/researchcenter/osra/dba
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Marshall
To begin a discussion about case study design and phenomenological research design it is important to define qualitative data. Sanders, Lewis and Thornhill (2015) define qualitative data as data that can be characterized by the richness and fullness of information that is used to explore a subject in a real setting where the researcher derives meaning from images and words, not numbers and data. The quality of qualitative research is defined by the interaction between the data collection process, such as a case study, and the analysis used to explore the meanings of the data (Sanders et al., 2015).
When determining the type of qualitative research that the researcher will conduct it is important to determine the method of collection and how it will be used to analyze the empirical evidence. Yin (2018) proposes that multiple research method can be used for exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies if properly applied to the research topic. However, there is often one methodology that is more appropriate to address the research q.
DWPM
7/17/13
1
543707.1
MEMBERSHIP AGREEMENT
This Membership Agreement (the “Agreement”) is made between 180 Fitness, Inc. (the
“Club”), a Massachusetts Corporation, and the undersigned member (the “Member”). This
Agreement is made because Member wishes to receive and the Club wishes to provide personal
training services in the form of Training Sessions, defined herein, and health club services at the
Club’s facility, which facility is located at [ADDRESS] (the “Facility” or “Facilities”).
In this Agreement, the terms “you” and “your” refer to the Member. A “Training Session” is a
time period in which a personal trainer provides instruction to a Member based on a tailored
exercise program, which is designed for that Member and takes into account that Member’s
fitness objectives, level, and experience. A Training Session may include exercise counseling,
instruction in the proper use of equipment and technique, and dietary suggestions.
I. BASIC MEMBERSHIP INFORMATION
1. Contact Information
2. Membership, Term, and Payment.
a. Membership. Your Membership entitles you to use the Facility until your
Membership Expiration Date, below, and is created when you execute this Agreement, including
fulfilling all Membership Qualifications according to Article II, below, and pay your Fee,
defined below.
b. Fee. Your Fee includes your initial fee (“Initial Fee”), and a fee based on the length
of your membership (“Membership Fee”). Your Initial Fee is due upon execution of this
Agreement. Your Membership Fee may be paid in one (1) lump sum, or in equal monthly
installments.
$ ___________ + $ ____________ = $ ________________
Initial fee Membership Fee TOTAL DUE (Fee)
You opt to pay the Membership Fee in one lump sum (___) equal monthly installments.
Name:
___________________________________
Phone:
______________________________
Address:
_________________________________
Email:
_______________________________
_________________________________________
Date
of
Birth:
_________________________
EMERGENCY
CONTACT:
_________________________________/_________________________/______________________________
Name
Relationship
Phone
Number(s)
DWPM
7/17/13
2
543707.1
circle one
If you decide to pay in equal monthly installments, your payment is due on the first day of the
month.
Membership Start Date: ___/___/___ Membership Expiration Date: ___/___/___
[c. Billing Authorization – automatic withdrawals?]
[d. Membership Freeze. You may put your Membership on hold for any reason for one
.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
Dwight Waldo is known for his work on the rise of the administrative.docxbrownliecarmella
Dwight Waldo is known for his work on the rise of the administrative state, which prompted scholars to consider whether a large bureaucracy actually fosters or limits democracy. What do you think? Do we need lots of government in order to have the strongest democracy or does “big” government interfere with our democratic ideals? cite 2 academic resources
.
Dwayne and Debbie Tamai Family of Emeryville, Ontario.Mr. Dw.docxbrownliecarmella
Dwayne and Debbie Tamai Family of Emeryville, Ontario.
Mr. Dwayne Tamai and Mrs. Debbie Tamai case of electronic harassment involved 15-year-old son, Billy, who took control of all of the electronic devices in the family's home, including the phone, and manipulated them to the distress of other family members for his own amusement. The incidents began in December 1996, when friends of the family complained that phone calls to the Tamai home were repeatedly being waylaid, cut off missed messages, strange clicking and appears like a minor with a disembodied voice, unnervingly distorted by computer, who interrupted calls to make himself known.
After burping repeatedly, the caller frightened Mr. and Mrs. Tamai, and stated that I know who you are, and I stole your voice mail. Mocking, sometimes menacing, the high-tech stalker became a constant presence, eavesdropping on family conversations, switching TV channels, and shutting off the electricity.
The police department confirmed that the sabotage was an inside activity but refrain from releasing the name the culprit. The police further stated that nothing would be gained by filing charges against the suspect. Mr. Dwayne and Mrs. Debbie Tamai asserted that their son, Billy, had admitted engaging in the mysterious calls. The interruptions included burps, blathering and claims having control over the inner workings of the Tamai’s custom-built home, and the power to turn individual appliances on and off via remote control.
It started off as a witticism with friends and got out of control to an extent that he didn't know how to end the entire operation, become afraid to come forward and tell the parents for the fear of us disowning him.
On Saturday, Mr., and Mrs. Tamai get organized and planned to take their son to the police department to defend him against persistent rumors on him. Instead, Mr., and Mrs. Tamai’s son confessed and labelled an intruder code-named, Sommy. Mr., and Mrs. Tamai eliminated all external sources and had confidence in interior sources. After 2-days, a team of investigators, intelligence and security experts loaded with high-tech equipment failed to locate Sommy. The next day, the team brought in two television networks to assist in the process.
In conclusion, the son, Billy not (Sommy) contacted the victims; (his biological parents), launched verbal threats in combination with the electronic harassment, in an effort to demonstrate his power and authority over them. The best option was, Mr., and Mrs. Tamai victims were not physically harmed, but terrified and greatly inconvenienced by the fact that the unknown force appeared to have control over a great many aspects of their lives, and the unknown force turned out to be their biological son, Billy.
Scenario:
1
Criminal motive is connected to emotional, psychological, and material need are often impel by means of behavior and independent of technology operation. These criminal tendencies are believed to champion the re.
DVWASetting up DAMN VULNERABLE WEB APPLICATIONSDam.docxbrownliecarmella
DVWA
Setting up DAMN VULNERABLE WEB APPLICATIONS
Damn Vulnerable Web Application
DVWA is a DAMM VULNERABLE WEB APP coded in PHP/MYSQL.
Security professionals, ethical hackers test their skills and run the tools in a legal environment using DVWA.
DVWA helps web developer better understand the processes of securing web applications and teacher/students to teach/learn web application security in a safe environment.
Installing Kali Linux
Kali Linux has been installed using the Image on Virtual Box and it is up as you can see the Desktop and Browser.
4
DVWA SETUP
I have downloaded DVWA file and using the instructions in the video. I have installed it.
Using the Ifconfig command we can get the Ip address of the DVWA VM
We can use the address and enter it into the browser of the Kali Linux which is up and running.
Once you enter the address , the home page of the DVMA is opened
Enter the User name as admin
Enter the Password as password
I have started exploring options such as SQL Injection.
Go to Setup ------> Create/ Reset Database
I have changed the DVWA Security from High to Low
DVWA Security changed to Low
We can enable PHPIDS, Simulate an attack and View IDS Log
References
Maurice Dawson.(2018,October 3). Setting Up Damn Vulnerable Applications [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LOTaLgY5i5I
DVWA
Setting up DAMN VULNERABLE WEB APPLICATIONS
Damn Vulnerable Web Application
DVWA is a DAMM VULNERABLE WEB APP coded in PHP/MYSQL.
Security professionals, ethical hackers test their skills and run the tools in a legal environment using DVWA.
DVWA helps web developer better understand the processes of securing web applications and teacher/students to teach/learn web application security in a safe environment.
Installing Kali Linux
Kali Linux has been installed using the Image on Virtual Box and it is up as you can see the Desktop and Browser.
4
DVWA SETUP
I have downloaded DVWA file and using the instructions in the video. I have installed it.
Using the Ifconfig command we can get the Ip address of the DVWA VM
We can use the address and enter it into the browser of the Kali Linux which is up and running.
Once you enter the address , the home page of the DVMA is opened
Enter the User name as admin
Enter the Password as password
I have started exploring options such as SQL Injection.
Go to Setup ------> Create/ Reset Database
I have changed the DVWA Security from High to Low
DVWA Security changed to Low
We can enable PHPIDS, Simulate an attack and View IDS Log
References
Maurice Dawson.(2018,October 3). Setting Up Damn Vulnerable Applications [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LOTaLgY5i5I
DVWA
Setting up DAMN VULNERABLE WEB APPLICATIONS
Damn Vulnerable Web Application
DVWA is a DAMM VULNERAB.
Dusk of DawnDiscussion questions1. Explain when we call fo.docxbrownliecarmella
Dusk of Dawn
Discussion questions
1. Explain: “when we call for education, we mean real education. We believe in work. We ourselves are workers, but work is not necessarily education. Education is the development of power and ideal. We want our children to be trained as intelligent human beings should be, and we will fight for all time against any proposal to educate black boys and girls simply as servants and underlings, or simply for the use of other people. They have a right to know, to think, to aspire” (p. 92).
2. Explain: “in the folds of this European civilization I was born and shall die, imprisoned, conditioned, depressed, exalted and inspired. Integrally a part of it and yet, much more significant, one of its rejected parts” (p. 3).
3. What does Du Bois mean by “slave heritage in mind and home” and “compulsory ignorance” (p. 5)?
4. Explain: “these matters seldom bothered me because they were not brought to my attention” (p. 18).
5. Explain: “wealth was God” (p. 26). Does this sound familiar?
6. Explain: “the economic order determined what the next generation should learn and know” (p. 27).
7. Du Bois discusses lynching (the standard Jim Crow era enforcement practice) on pp. 29, 55, 241, and 251. What was your reaction to these sections?
8. Explain: “I was pleasantly surprised when the white school superintendent, on whom I had made a business call, invited me to stay for dinner; and he would have been astonished if he had dreamed that I expected to eat at the table with him and not after he was through” (p. 31).
8. Jim Crow laws disenfranchised black citizens by three common practices—grandfather clause, poll tax, and literacy test. Do you think they might have affected election outcomes from the 1870s to 1965?
9. Why was the lynching of Sam Hose a turning point in Du Bois’ life (pp. 67-68)?
10. What do you think of the principles of the ‘Niagara Movement’ (pp. 88-89)? Do they seem radical to you?
11. Did you realize that the Southern States became more segregated (socially, culturally, and legally) after the Civil War? Step by step, decade by decade, state and local legislatures passed laws and ordinances to separate and distinguish ‘white’ and ‘colored’ in every single way imaginable—right up until the mid-1960s. Comment.
12. Du Bois suggests that if the U.S. does not follow its own ideals it might truly become “the land of the thief and the home of the slave” (which was how most countries in the world thought of—and, funny enough, still think of—the United States). Comment.
13. Du Bois recognizes that thoughts—the thoughts in our heads—are “expressions of social forces more than of our own minds. These forces or ideologies embrace more than our reasoned acts” (p. 96). Explain.
14. Explain: “that history may be epitomized in one word—Empire; the domination of white Europe over black Africa and yellow Asia, through political power built on the economic control of labor, income and ideas” (p. 96).
15. .
Durst et al. (2014) describe the burden that some Romani experience .docxbrownliecarmella
Durst et al. (2014) describe the burden that some Romani experience in not feeling adequately Roma for the Roma communities while also feeling stigmatized and discriminated against by the white Hungarian communities that they assimilate into. How do those different pressures compare? Do such contradictory and compounding pressures exist for any groups within American society?
.
DuringWeek 4, we will shift our attention to the legislative.docxbrownliecarmella
During
Week 4, we will shift our attention to the legislative history behind the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services and the challenges faced by the organization in carrying out its responsibilities. Additionally, we will focus on specific implementation activities, such as designing, rulemaking, operating, and evaluating.
Your Learning Objectives for the Week:
Apply and interpret the stages in the policy making process.
Critique the practical aspects of how one might influence the policy process through the political process.
.
DuringWeek 3, we will examine agenda setting in more depth w.docxbrownliecarmella
During
Week 3, we will examine agenda setting in more depth with an emphasis on interest group involvement and the role of chief executives in the agenda setting process. This discussion on policy formulation will give you some additional insight into the development of legislation.
Your Learning Objectives for the Week:
Apply and interpret the stages in the policy making process.
Critique the practical aspects of how one might influence the policy process through the political process.
.
During the course of this class you have learned that Latin Ameri.docxbrownliecarmella
During the course of this class you have learned that Latin America is a very diverse region in terms of race, ethnicity, culture, and geography. Explain the reasons of Latin America diversity. (10 points)
Women in Argentina created monumental movements asking for the whereabouts of their loved ones disappeared for political reasons starting in the 1970s. Explain the political reasons of these disappearances; the names given to these organizations; how these women banded together; their actions; why these movements are labeled as “gendering of human rights;” how they dressed; detail their accomplishments. (10 points).
women in Chile organized to find the whereabout of their loved ones. When did this happened? Why did people disappeared in Chile? Who are the Arpilleras?
El Salvador and Guatemala also experienced political violence. You are asked to provide an explanation of how women reacted to that political violence.
.
During WW II, the Polish resistance obtained the German encoding mac.docxbrownliecarmella
During WW II, the Polish resistance obtained the German encoding machine called
enigma
. The machine was brought to England. The British broke the code machine just before an attack on the British city of Coventry. Churchill, the Prime Minister, faced a dilemma - tell Coventry about the forth-coming attack and save those people but the Germans would know that the British broke the code. The Germans would change it and London could be attacked killing even more people. OR not tell Coventry and protect London and other places.
What would you advise Churchill to do?
Would you tell him to lie about whether he knew?
Why?
____________________________________________
Participants must create a thread in order to view other threads in this forum.
Three postings
are the required minimum.
1 main response: 250 words minimum for the post addressing the questions given for the week. Note that all students are required to return to their main thread and address questions asked or comments made by at least one other person on your main thread.
2 reply postings with 100 words minimum.
One of these reply postings must be asking a content related question on another student’s posting. Another reply post must include a content question on another student's main thread.
.
During Week 5, we studied social stratification and how it influence.docxbrownliecarmella
During Week 5, we studied social stratification and how it influences what goes on in many social interactions among people. After you have read the reading assignment and lecture for this week, please respond to all parts of the discussion by the due date assigned:
What are some of the factors that affect social mobility? Can these be overcome?
Do you believe the structural-functionalist or the social conflict approach best explains social stratification? Why?
How does the media reflect attitudes on gender as far as depicting women and men in very traditional roles? Provide two detailed examples that substantiate your points—these can be an advertisement, television show, website, or magazine.
When you think of various groups (race, class, and gender) in society, which ones have the most power and which ones have the least? Using Intersection Theory, identify two groups that have unequal amounts of power and resources, being specific and using the text and outside resources. For each group, has the power dynamic changed over time? Do you think it will change in the future? Why or why not?
Kendall, D. (2013).
Sociology in Our Times, 11th
. Independence, KY: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN : 9781305503090
.
During this week you worked with the main concepts of Set Theory. Ch.docxbrownliecarmella
During this week you worked with the main concepts of Set Theory. Choose one newspaper, online journal, or library article that presents results of a survey, poll, or global information and identify the categories used to present the results. Do you think those categories are well defined? Present a different way to organize and categorize the results. How do you think rearranging categories would affect the communication of the article´s conclusions?
.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
E D I T O R I A LWhat Neuroscience Can andCannot Answer.docx
1. E D I T O R I A L
What Neuroscience Can and
Cannot Answer
Octavio S. Choi, MD, PhD
J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 45:278 – 85, 2017
We truly live in the golden age of neuroscience. Ad-
vances in technology over the past 20 years have
given modern neuro-researchers tools of unprece-
dented power to probe the workings of the most
complex machine in the universe (as far as we know).
Neuroscience as a field is driven by our natural fasci-
nation with understanding how a physical organ,
weighing three pounds and running on 20 watts of
power, can give rise to the mind, and with it, our
thoughts, feelings, soul, and identity. Brain activity is
presumably the source of all these things, but how,
exactly? Culturally, neuroscience is a currency that
enjoys very high capital, and public fascination with
neuroscience is evident in the news and popular cul-
ture.1 Neuroscience is cool: prestigious, high-tech,
complex, philosophically rich, and beautiful.
It is of increasing interest in the courtroom as well,
and each year the number of cases using neuroscience-
based evidence rises.2 The reasons for this are clear
enough. Many legal decisions depend on accurate
assessment of mental states and mental capacities
(such as capacity for rationality or control over one’s
2. behaviors), and the hope is that neuroscience can
shed light on these matters.
I have participated in several of these cases in my
early career and have seen enough to report that there
is trouble afoot. I have witnessed neuroscience re-
peatedly misrepresented and misused. Certain pat-
terns have emerged: speculations clothed as facts, er-
rors of logical reasoning, and hasty conclusions
unsupported by evidence and unrestrained by cau-
tion. I have found too much weight placed on iso-
lated neurofindings and too little weight on good
clinical observation and other kinds of behavioral
evidence.
Forensic psychiatrists will be increasingly asked to
opine on neuroevidence, and thus we must be able to
distinguish neuroscience from neuro-nonsense. To do
this, we should understand what kinds of questions
neuroscience currently can and cannot answer. Fur-
thermore, we must understand the kinds of questions
neuroscience will never be able to answer. Finally, in
the interests of justice, when we recognize that neu-
roscience is being misused or misrepresented, we
must be forthright in communicating this informa-
tion to finders of fact.
Presciently, in 2006 Morse identified signs of a
cognitive pathology he labeled brain overclaim syn-
drome (BOS). This devastating illness “afflicts those
inflamed by the fascinating new discoveries in the
neurosciences,” leading to a “rationality-unhinging
effect . . . the final pathway, in all cases . . . is that
more legal implications are claimed for the brain sci-
ence than can be justified” (Ref. 3, p 403).
3. Part of the problem is that neuroscience evidence
is genuinely mind boggling. A bar chart can be gen-
erated by a grade schooler on her smartphone, but a
functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI), for ex-
ample, carries with it the imprimatur of big science,
as it requires expensive machines and legions of geeks
to generate. Neuroevidence exploits the overwhelm-
ingly positive associations we have with neurosci-
Dr. Choi is Assistant Professor of Psychiatry, Oregon Health
and
Sciences University, Portland, OR, Chair of the AAPL Forensic
Psy-
chiatry Committee, and Director, Forensic Evaluation Service,
Ore-
gon State Hospital, Salem, OR. Address correspondence to:
Octavio
Choi, MD, PhD, 1526 NE Alberta Street, No. 213, Portland, OR
97211. E-mail: [email protected]
Disclosures of financial or other potential conflicts of interest:
None.
278 The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and
the Law
ence, all things smart, high-tech, and beautiful, and
thus can be highly persuasive beyond what the facts
support.4 This persuasive aspect is the so-called “se-
ductive allure of neuroscience” (Ref. 5, p 470). Al-
though some scholars have disputed whether this
seductive allure exists,6 I have found that the presen-
tation of neuroevidence often causes people to short-
circuit critical thinking and accept assertions that
4. they would dismiss in other circumstances.
The purpose of this editorial is to restore a clear-
eyed view that balances both the incredible potential
and current limitations of the use of neuroscience in
the courtroom. This is not a treatise about theories of
knowledge and causation or of neuroscience’s chal-
lenge to the nature of free will, which have been
covered elsewhere.7 Although such philosophical
discussions can be fascinating, as noted by others,8
ultimately they distract us from the practical prob-
lems that plague neuroscience-based legal claims
today.
I discuss two fundamental problems that limit the
evidentiary utility of neuroscience-based claims: the
problems of reverse inference and group-to-individual
inference. I describe how ignorance of these problems
leads to reasoning errors and brain overclaim syn-
drome. I end by discussing what I believe are genu-
inely useful applications of neuroscience in the court-
room: as a hypothesis generator and as support for
other types of evidence.
Reverse-Inference Errors
A common error I encounter in the presentation
of neuroevidence is the reverse-inference error. Gen-
erally, this is an error of inference that arises because
not all logical inferences are symmetrical. For exam-
ple, people who go to funerals wear black, but it
would be an error of logic to assume that all people
who wear black go to funerals. The reverse-inference
error is especially prevalent in the interpretation of
brain activity in functional neuroimaging studies.
5. Take for example, a neuroscience expert’s claim, re-
lying on quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG)
data, that an individual’s amygdala is abnormal and
overactive. In addition, based on overactivity and the
amygdala’s known role as the brain’s fear center, the
defendant likely had overwhelming levels of fear at
the time of an alleged offense, thus arguing for di-
minished culpability.
Before addressing the reverse-inference error here,
it is worth quickly mentioning other problems with
this reasoning. qEEG signals have not yet been ade-
quately characterized in the general population, and
definitions are needed to distinguish what is a normal
or abnormal signal in the first place. Further, even if
abnormality could be established, the field currently
lacks (with rare exceptions9) adequate studies that
correlate qEEG signals with legally relevant func-
tional impairments. Without these, qEEG remains
unable to distinguish abnormal signals that are sim-
ply statistical (e.g., rare but asymptomatic variants)
from abnormal signals that imply impairment. Be-
cause of these known limitations, the American
Academy of Neurology and the American Clinical
Neurophysiology Society have adopted a position
that recommends against the use of qEEG in civil
and criminal judicial proceedings,10 although it
should be noted that there are proponents of qEEG
that dissent from this position.11
In addition, there is the problem of time: because
people do not walk around wearing scanners, neuro-
imaging evidence presents information regarding
brain structure or function after the fact. Because the
6. brain is such a dynamic organ, one cannot reliably
reconstruct from a neuroscan the brain’s function at
the time of the index event. There is also the question
of ecological validity: is measuring the brain activity
of an individual who is instructed to do nothing for
two minutes in a laboratory setting relevant to brain
activity during the alleged offense?
However, the most pernicious error here, one that
is not easy to spot, is the claim that because the
amygdala is the fear center, activity there indicates
that the defendant was experiencing high levels of
fear. It is certainly true that many studies have iden-
tified the amygdalae (there are two of them, one on
each side of the brain) as critical processing centers
for the experience of fear. Thus, it would be correct
to say that activity in the amygdala may indicate the
individual was experiencing fear. However, because
the amygdala is active in many other circumstances,
it is a reverse-inference error to conclude that
amygdala activity necessarily indicates a fearful state.
Initial work focused on amygdala activity trig-
gered by threatening and fear-inducing stimuli12 be-
cause these kinds of stimuli were widely available and
evoked robust findings, thus earning the amygdala
the reputation as the fear center of the brain. How-
ever, later research found that the amygdala is acti-
vated in other situations as well, when viewing pic-
tures of donuts,13 for example, but only when the
Choi
279Volume 45, Number 3, 2017
7. subject was hungry, and photographs of seminude
women and interesting and novel objects,14 such as a
chrome rhinoceros. Over time, the unifying theory
that has emerged is that the amygdala is a salience
detector, activating to alert the person to a large va-
riety of stimuli (see Figure 1 in Ref. 15) determined
to be important to his needs.16
Beyond the amygdala, functional imaging studies
have demonstrated that generally, brain areas are ac-
tivated across a very large set of conditions.17 Phre-
nology, a pseudoscience invented and developed by
its founder Joseph Gall in the 18th century, is rightly
ridiculed today because of its simplistic one-to-one
model that mapped mental functions (“secretive-
ness,” “mirthfulness”) to single points on the brain. It
is generally accepted now that brain functions are
indeed localized (functional specialization18), but
only to a certain extent. The consensus view of mod-
ern neuroscience is that the brain accomplishes its
tasks by dynamically recruiting networks of inter-
connected brain modules that combine to process
and compute the required solution, a model called
distributed processing.19 This model is analogous to
the design of computer circuit boards, which contain
interconnected specialized chips that combine dy-
namically in different configurations, depending on
the task at hand.
The reverse-inference error in this case involves
qEEG, but because the problem arises from the basic
design of the brain (brain areas do multiple things), it
applies equally to all other modalities that purport to
measure brain activity, such as functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission to-
8. mography (PET). Functional MRI and PET do not
measure brain activity directly, but rather signals that
derive from neurovascular correlates of brain activity.
The bottom line: forensic psychiatrists must be
very wary of assertions in which the presence or ab-
sence of activation of a given brain area (e.g.,
amygdala and frontal lobes) is interpreted to mean
that the person experienced a specific mental state.
Because all known brain areas are involved in multi-
ple processes, knowledge of activity of a single area
cannot by itself establish what that brain area was
doing at the time. Because the amygdala activates to
threatening images, sexual images, donuts, and
chrome rhinoceri, knowledge of amygdala activity
alone does not necessarily mean the person was ex-
periencing fear. Not everyone who wears black has
been to a funeral.
The Group-to-Individual Inference
Problem
The other broad class of error that I frequently
encounter involves faulty claims that ascribe func-
tional impairments to localized brain defects in an
individual. For example, a structural MRI reveals a
brain defect in the frontal lobe, which is then used to
justify the assertion that because of the defect, the
person has impaired impulse control or impaired ra-
tionality. At first glance, this assertion seems reason-
able. After all, it is generally accepted, based on a vast
amount of clinical evidence and basic research, that
the frontal lobes play an important role in cognitive
control and decision-making,20 and that individuals
with defects in frontal lobe areas such as orbitofrontal
cortex, the area of frontal cortex adjacent to the or-
9. bits, exhibit impaired impulse control and impaired
decision-making, among other findings.21
However, let us consider a famous example from
the neurolaw literature: the case of Herbert Wein-
stein.22 This case is considered a landmark criminal
proceeding in neurolaw, as it is the first known at-
tempt in New York to use neuroimaging to argue for
insanity.23 Mr. Weinstein, an advertising executive
in his mid-60s with no prior psychiatric or criminal
history at the time of the incident, was accused of,
and later confessed to, killing his wife by throwing
her out the window of their 12th-story apartment
after a heated argument.24 A structural MRI was ob-
tained after the act, which revealed a large, left-side
arachnoid cyst. Subsequent PET scans established
glucose hypometabolism in the area of the cyst, as
well as surrounding areas.25
Mr. Weinstein’s lawyers signaled their intent to
use the neuroimages at trial to establish that he was
insane. The essential neuro claim made by his team
was that Mr. Weinstein’s arachnoid cyst impaired his
rationality. A Frye26-type prehearing was held in
which the judge ruled the scans admissible. How-
ever, Mr. Weinstein agreed to a plea deal of man-
slaughter, and the matter never went to trial. His
lawyer suggested that “the prosecutor would never
have agreed to a plea if the judge had excluded the
PET evidence” (Ref. 27, p 26N).
I encourage readers to view Mr. Weinstein’s brain
scans, which are widely available on the web and in
several journal articles.27 The cyst is impressive, and
based on what we know about the function of the
frontal lobes, its placement certainly raises the possi-
10. Neuroscience in the Courtroom
280 The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and
the Law
bility that it impaired his impulse control and ratio-
nality. By themselves, the scans cannot answer
whether he was impaired, or if impaired, whether the
cyst was the cause.
The problem is biovariability, which limits our
ability to predict impairments in individuals despite
knowledge of averaged group effects of brain defects.
This is a well-known problem in the neurolaw liter-
ature: the group-to-individual (G2i) inference prob-
lem.28 Studies that identify associations of brain de-
fects with impairments typically do so by comparing
a group of subjects with a localized defect to a group
of subjects without the defect (“healthy controls”).
For a hypothetical example, a group of 10 patients
with strokes in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is
compared with 10 healthy subjects on a test of im-
pulse control and are found to differ on this mea-
sure. Inevitably, however, the curves overlap; some
stroke patients will have better impulse control
than some healthy controls, and some healthy sub-
jects will have worse impulse control than some
stroke patients. The problem of overlapping curves is
the reason so few neuroimaging-based tests are used
in psychiatric diagnosis. Most such tests lack suffi-
cient sensitivity and specificity to be reliable enough
for inclusion in diagnostic criteria.
11. How is it possible that a person can have a brain
defect yet not have symptoms? There are several
known sources of biovariability that make individual
predictions of brain impairment devilishly tricky.
Impulse control, like any other complex behavior,
depends on the function of many brain areas, some of
which can compensate for the other if damaged (the
concept of neural redundancy29). Genetic differ-
ences between individuals can result in widely diver-
gent recruitment of brain areas for similar tasks. For
example, many lefthanders invoke different brain ar-
eas compared with righthanders in language process-
ing.30 In addition, for many functions, we have more
brain than we need, and thus a certain amount of
neural loss can be tolerated before impairments are
noticeable. This is the concept of cognitive reserve,31
which explains why the symptoms of Alzheimer’s
dementia, for example, are often not apparent until
decades after brain damage is thought to begin. It is
also worth keeping in mind that neuroplasticity can
compensate up to a certain point for brain loss, espe-
cially if the loss is slow, as in aging32 or a slow-
growing tumor.33
Studies of arachnoid cysts in medical populations
indicate that arachnoid cysts in adults are a frequent
finding, and although some are associated with func-
tional impairment, in fact most cases are asymptom-
atic,34 obviously limiting the predictions one can
make about the functional impact of such cysts in
individual cases. Based on its location and size, it is
plausible that Mr. Weinstein’s cyst contributed to
behavioral impairments and thus potentially is rele-
vant to finders of fact, but because of biovariability,
the neuroimages alone cannot establish whether he
12. was impaired, nor can it establish, if impaired, to
what extent the brain defect was a contributing
cause. Furthermore, neuroscience currently lacks
the evidence base to predict, based on neuroimag-
ing, how likely cysts like Mr. Weinstein’s cause
impairment.
These limitations are consequences of the
group-to-individual inference problem in neuro-
science. Beyond arachnoid cysts, the inability to
make individual predictions is a general problem
for any claim that a localized brain defect is re-
sponsible for a functional impairment in an indi-
vidual or that an impairment is caused by a partic-
ular brain defect. For this reason, the first
neurolaw arguments that have gained traction in
the U.S. Supreme Court are group-based argu-
ments, for which we can make more confident
inferences: Roper v. Simmons,35 which prohibited
the death penalty for juveniles as a class; Graham v.
Florida,36 which prohibited life without parole for
juveniles in nonhomicide offenses; and Miller v.
Alabama,37 which prohibited mandatory life with-
out parole sentencing for juveniles.
How can neuroscience as a field move beyond
describing groups to making accurate individual
predictions? Recent studies that have examined
the causes of lack of replicability38 in published
research have made clear that neuroscience re-
searchers should sharpen their game. Neurosci-
ence as a field is hindered by underpowered study
designs that involve sample sizes that are too small.
Not only do researchers fail to detect real effects,
but of more concern, they may also falsely deter-
mine null effects to be real. In a recent meta-
13. review, Szucs and Ioannidis39 estimated that more
than 50 percent of published research findings in
psychology and cognitive neuroscience studies are
likely to be false. This is a fundamental problem in
Choi
281Volume 45, Number 3, 2017
the field and will only improve with better study
designs that include larger sample sizes.40
Neuroscience must also embark on large norma-
tive studies to understand the prevalence rates of
brain defects and functional impairments in the gen-
eral population. As discussed, small studies in indi-
vidual laboratories can be useful for demonstrating
proof of principle (brain defects in area X appear to
cause impairment Y), but such studies cannot assess
the strength of the causal relationship (akin to the
genetic concept of penetrance). To answer the ques-
tion of how likely is brain defect X to cause impair-
ment Y, we must have a sense of how many people
with the brain defect have impairment and how
many do not (if many people have the brain defect
but not the impairment, the causal relationship is
weak). To answer the inverse question of whether
impairment Y is likely to be caused by brain defect X,
we must know how many people with impairment
have the brain defect, and how many do not (if many
people have the impairment but not the brain defect,
then another cause is the more likely explanation).
For the testing specialist, the challenge is to ascer-
14. tain the predictive value of a given brain defect on a
proposed functional impairment. Sensitivity and
specificity can be estimated with small studies, but
ascertaining predictive values requires knowledge of
prevalence rates of the defect and impairment in the
relevant population.41 For the nonspecialist, the ba-
sic concept to grasp is that without large surveys of
brain structure and function in the general popula-
tion, we cannot know how many people are walking
around with brain imaging anomalies but are func-
tioning normally, because such individuals rarely
come to the attention of research studies.
Findings of brain defects in individuals may raise
valid and plausible claims of impairment. However,
because many brain defects do not result in impair-
ment, neuroimaging alone cannot establish, except
in rare cases,42 whether an individual is impaired, or,
if impaired, whether the brain defect is the cause.
Neuroscience currently lacks large normative
studies that are needed to quantify whether it is
likely that a defect in an individual will cause func-
tional impairment.
A Hypothesis Generator
Although neuroscience’s proper role in the courts
is limited by the problems mentioned above, I also
believe that neuroscience evidence can be very useful.
As others have opined,43 it may be helpful as one
component of an analysis that integrates psycholog-
ical and behavioral perspectives. As I have already
stated, problems arise when neuroevidence is incor-
rectly viewed as a confirmatory test, when in fact, it is
best suited for use as a hypothesis generator.
15. Neuroevidence may effectively generate hypothe-
ses, but generally cannot answer them. Perhaps this is
inevitable, considering the vast complexity of our
brains in comparison to the miniscule amount that
we know. I have found that although neuroevidence
is rarely dispositive on its own, it can be very useful to
direct and support other kinds of evidence, such as
neuropsychological testing and old-school behav-
ioral analysis. These three types of evidence work
well together because they can compensate for
each other’s relative weaknesses, while combining
their strengths.
Integrating Neuroimaging, Psychology,
and Behaviors
Neuropsychological testing, unlike neuroimaging
for the purposes of cognitive assessment, is generally
extensively validated and normed. Modern neuro-
psychological tests are well characterized in terms of
specificity, sensitivity, and predictive values. How-
ever, it is a dry kind of evidence, abstract and statis-
tical, limiting its persuasive impact. Relevance can be
a concern as well, as it is often unclear how exactly
certain neuropsychological test concepts, such as ex-
ecutive functioning, line up with legally relevant
mental states and capacities.
Behavioral evidence is the gold standard for deter-
mining functional impairment. We are well-suited to
analyze behaviors, having evolved both neural hard-
ware (expanded areas of the brain that support theory
of mind)44 and software (folk psychology)45 to as-
cribe intentions to the behaviors of others as a matter
of survival.46 However, the same areas of brain that
16. allow mentalization also enable deception47 because
we can best deceive when we know how other minds
work; behaviors can be faked, so malingering is a
perennial concern.
Neuroevidence such as brain scans have several
strengths. Unlike behaviors, certain kinds of neuro-
imaging, such as structural MRIs, are not possible to
fake, aside from deceptions like switching the films,
and can thus allay malingering concerns. It is worth
mentioning, however, that effective countermeasures
for functional neuroimaging-based tests such as
Neuroscience in the Courtroom
282 The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and
the Law
EEG48- and fMRI49-based lie detection are known
to exist. Unlike neuropsychological testing, neuro-
images are intuitive and concrete (everyone under-
stands that a “hole in your head” may cause thinking
or behavior problems) and naturally command at-
tention because of their novelty, beauty, and associ-
ations with scientific authority. However, as dis-
cussed above, neuroscience-based claims are limited
by problems of reverse inference and group-to-indi-
vidual inference and thus can rarely go beyond estab-
lishing that an impairment is plausible.
The presence of brain defects can certainly raise
plausible questions of mental impairment, but can
only rarely answer them. For confirmation, we must
look to other kinds of evidence. For example, I have
17. found that neuroimaging findings can be useful in
directing relevant follow-up neuropsychological test-
ing and bringing attention to important behavioral
details that might otherwise have been missed. When
the findings of biology, psychology, and behavioral
analysis converge, the argument becomes very
convincing.
Consider a clinical example: a patient walks into
your office complaining of back pain and asks for
opiates. She provides you with an extensive history of
complaints and descriptions of functional limita-
tions. As clinicians, we all know that pain is a com-
plex phenomenon and that frequently an organic
cause is not found. But how much more comfortable
would you be in prescribing opiates if her case were
accompanied by an MRI showing disk degeneration?
Although disk degeneration by itself is only poorly
predictive of back pain,50 I think most would agree
that the combination of the radiographic finding
with the history makes the case much stronger.
On the other hand, what should we do if the neu-
roevidence conflicts with behavioral evidence? This
appears to have been the case in People v. Weinstein.
Careful review of Mr. Weinstein’s thoughts and be-
haviors before and during the homicide by the pros-
ecution’s expert did not seem to support the presence
of rational or volitional impairment suggested by
his frontal lobe cyst. According to that expert, Mr.
Weinstein attempted to hide and destroy evidence
after the homicide and attempted to stage the
crime scene to make his wife’s death appear to be a
suicide. To find behavioral evidence that could cor-
roborate or disconfirm the presence of cognitive im-
pairment, the expert examined “personal writings,
18. journals, datebooks, calendars, checkbook records,
and financial records . . . for a three year period sur-
rounding the time of the offense” and concluded
“this analysis showed no evidence of impairment or
change in his management of his everyday affairs”
(Ref. 51, pp 191–192).
When behavioral evidence conflicts with neuro-
imaging findings, in general the high percentage
move will be to side with the behavioral, because
neuroscience is so poor at predicting individual out-
comes of brain defects. In other words, at this point,
in most cases careful behavioral analysis continues to
be more reliable than neuroimaging in ascertaining
the relevant mental states, capacities, and behaviors
that form the actual basis of legal criteria. Of course,
analysis of thoughts and behaviors is the cornerstone
of good forensic psychiatric work, and for this reason
we do not have to fear that neuroscience is going to
put us out of a job anytime soon.52
Future Developments in Neuroscience
I have spent much of this editorial sketching out
neuroscience’s evidentiary limitations, but the enve-
lope is pushed with each advance. Neuroscience con-
tinues to experience stunning progress in several im-
portant areas. In the basic sciences, optogenetics,53 a
technology invented by psychiatrist Karl Deisseroth in
2005,54 continues to reap rich rewards. This technol-
ogy, which allows researchers to precisely target in-
dividual brain circuits in a living brain and turn them
on and off with light, has vastly accelerated our func-
tional understanding of neural circuitry. Another
technique invented in his laboratory, CLARITY,55
19. renders the brain transparent and, coupled with flu-
orescent molecular dyes, has allowed us to see for the
first time intact brain circuits that traverse the whole
brain. At the other extreme of the scale, advances in
computing power are enabling researchers to create
automated three-dimensional reconstructions of
electron microscope slices of brain, albeit, in small
volumes thus far, at molecular scale resolution.56
Regarding more clinically relevant imaging, the
magnetic strength, and therefore resolution, of MRI
machines continues to advance. Most modern scan-
ners have three Tesla (T) magnets that can resolve
brain tissue down to 1 mm (a 1-mm3 block of brain
contains approximately 20,000 neurons),57 but the
most powerful MRI machine under construction
will surpass them all at 11.75 T, which is expected to
be able to resolve brain tissue down to 0.1 mm.58
Furthermore, magnetic particle imaging (MPI)
Choi
283Volume 45, Number 3, 2017
promises to increase significantly the resolution of
functional MRI by injecting magnetic nanoparticles
that act as contrast agents. Researchers believe that
with MPI, resolutions can be boosted to the theoret-
ical equivalent of a 30 T MRI scanner.59
Beautiful, high-resolution images are impressive,
but for legal applications, what neuroscience needs is
20. more data, particularly in the form of large, norma-
tive survey studies, as mentioned earlier. The first of
these large collaborative efforts is finally starting: the
Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD)
study.60 This ground-breaking work will collect
brain scans and a rich set of neuropsychological and
behavioral data on a cohort of approximately 10,000
children aged 9 –10 from the general population, and
track their scans and development over time. The
resulting gold mine of brain– behavior correlative
data will allow neuroscience experts to make far more
accurate individual inferences. We will also finally
get a good sense of the range of what brains in the
general population look like and how they change
over time.
Questions Neuroscience Will Never
Answer
In closing, I emphasize that although neuroscience
can inform, it will never be able to answer ultimate
legal questions of culpability and desert. Such deter-
minations are essentially moral judgments that re-
quire understanding behaviors and mental states
against the backdrop of cultural norms. The human
element is embedded in the law with words like ap-
preciation, sufficiency, and reasonableness, all of
which require human interpretation. Although sci-
ence may prove to be helpful in ascertaining behav-
iors and mental states, it will always be blind to the
cultural and moral context needed to judge their ap-
propriateness in a given situation. In other words,
although we may be guided by science in making
moral decisions, ultimately they remain ours to
make. Despite the effort it takes and the fraught na-
ture of decision-making in which freedom, life, and
21. treasure hang in the balance, that is the way it should
be. What makes us best suited for judging other peo-
ple is that we are people.
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