This document provides an overview of language variation and change from a sociolinguistic perspective. It discusses how small linguistic variations are determined by external social factors and can lead to language change over time. The field of sociolinguistics studies how social variables like class, gender, age, and style influence language use and the concept of linguistic variables. It also addresses topics like geographical language variation resulting from language contact.

1. Language Variation and ChangeLanguage Variation and Change
WS 2014/15, Campus EssenWS 2014/15, Campus Essen
Raymond Hickey, English LinguisticsRaymond Hickey, English Linguistics

2. Language variation and changeLanguage variation and change
The above term is used in presentThe above term is used in present--day sociolinguistics today sociolinguistics to
refer to the small variations which occur in language andrefer to the small variations which occur in language and
which are determined by external, social factors. Thesewhich are determined by external, social factors. These
variations can and do lead in time to language change.variations can and do lead in time to language change.
They contrast with variations in language which areThey contrast with variations in language which are
motivated by internal factorsmotivated by internal factors –– structural features of astructural features of a
languagelanguage –– which can also lead to change, especiallywhich can also lead to change, especially
when this internal variation occurs during first languagewhen this internal variation occurs during first language
acquisition.acquisition.
Language variation and change is an important researchLanguage variation and change is an important research
paradigm today and there many books on the subject asparadigm today and there many books on the subject as
well as a journal with this term as their name.well as a journal with this term as their name.

3. The following presentation is intended to give students anThe following presentation is intended to give students an
idea of what this lecture series will be about. Basicidea of what this lecture series will be about. Basic
principles and assumptions of language variation andprinciples and assumptions of language variation and
change / sociolinguistics are explained in the followingchange / sociolinguistics are explained in the following
slides and typical concerns of the field can beslides and typical concerns of the field can be
recognised.recognised.
To begin with several reasons for going to this lectureTo begin with several reasons for going to this lecture
series are given.series are given.
Introduction

4. Several good reasons for going toSeveral good reasons for going to thisthis lecturelecture
series:series:
1)1) To find out about how language and society interacts, how socialTo find out about how language and society interacts, how social
attitudes, social ambition and social bonding affect the mannerattitudes, social ambition and social bonding affect the manner inin
which people speak.which people speak.
2)2) To learn about how the internal structure of language interactsTo learn about how the internal structure of language interacts withwith
external social factors (language variation and change).external social factors (language variation and change).
3)3) To discover more about how languages change and how they donTo discover more about how languages change and how they don’’t,t,
given the significance of social factors on this process.given the significance of social factors on this process.
4)4) To look as specific social situations and see how these generalTo look as specific social situations and see how these general
principles are confirmed or refuted. Key sociolinguisticprinciples are confirmed or refuted. Key sociolinguistic
investigations, largely in America and Britain are of interest hinvestigations, largely in America and Britain are of interest here.ere.

5. 5)5) To examine closely how speakers use social networks toTo examine closely how speakers use social networks to stregthenstregthen
theirtheir identificaionidentificaion with the social group to which they feel theywith the social group to which they feel they
belong.belong.
6)6) To look at how men and women use language to express theTo look at how men and women use language to express the
relationship of the sexes (genderrelationship of the sexes (gender--related language use).related language use).
7)7) To see how such socially relevant phenomena as politeness areTo see how such socially relevant phenomena as politeness are
expressed in different languages.expressed in different languages.
8)8) To learn about the wider context in which societies are embeddedTo learn about the wider context in which societies are embedded
and how language relates to culture in general (linguisticand how language relates to culture in general (linguistic
anthropology).anthropology).
9)9) To throw new light on the relationship of the standard of a langTo throw new light on the relationship of the standard of a languageuage
and the dialects which are also found. In the Anglophone contextand the dialects which are also found. In the Anglophone context, to, to
consider how and why regional standards arose and how countries,consider how and why regional standards arose and how countries,
which are now independent, developed standards of their own.which are now independent, developed standards of their own.

6. nn SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics as a separate discipline develops in the early sixties,as a separate discipline develops in the early sixties,
first in the USA, later in Britain and then throughout the restfirst in the USA, later in Britain and then throughout the rest of theof the
western world. This is true although considerations of languagewestern world. This is true although considerations of language inin
relation to society go back a considerable way and although therelation to society go back a considerable way and although the
significance of society for language was stressed by thesignificance of society for language was stressed by the
structuralistsstructuralists at the beginning of the 20th century.at the beginning of the 20th century.
nn SociologySociology is the study of social structures. This is a discipline whichis the study of social structures. This is a discipline which
was developed into its modern form in 19th century France and inwas developed into its modern form in 19th century France and in
Germany in the early 20th century. In its analysis of social forGermany in the early 20th century. In its analysis of social forces itces it
is of immediate relevance to sociolinguistics although sociologyis of immediate relevance to sociolinguistics although sociology itselfitself
is not concerned with language.is not concerned with language.
Sociolinguistics and sociology

7. nn The basic assumption of sociolinguistics is that theThe basic assumption of sociolinguistics is that the variationvariation we can observewe can observe
in language isin language is nonnon--randomrandom, i.e. variation in language is, i.e. variation in language is socially significantsocially significant..
The task of the sociolinguist has been to quantify this variatioThe task of the sociolinguist has been to quantify this variation and to given and to give
a principled account of its occurrence. In a nutshell the findina principled account of its occurrence. In a nutshell the findings ofgs of
sociolinguistics have shown that language variation is largely dsociolinguistics have shown that language variation is largely determined byetermined by
social class and status. Variation furthermore correlates with tsocial class and status. Variation furthermore correlates with the relativehe relative
security of asecurity of a groupgroup´´ss position in society with a general tendency of lowerposition in society with a general tendency of lower--
status groups to imitate higherstatus groups to imitate higher--status groups as long as this imitation has astatus groups as long as this imitation has a
chance of leading to an improvement of social status as with thechance of leading to an improvement of social status as with the lowerlower--
middle classes in the western world.middle classes in the western world.
nn There is often a discrepancy between what speakersThere is often a discrepancy between what speakers saysay of their languageof their language
and what theyand what they practicepractice. For instance in Peter. For instance in Peter TrudgillTrudgill´´ss study of English instudy of English in
Norwich it was shown that the workingNorwich it was shown that the working--class have a low opinion of theirclass have a low opinion of their
own variety of language but continue to use it. This led to assuown variety of language but continue to use it. This led to assuming thatming that
varieties can havevarieties can have covertcovert prestige for their speakers.prestige for their speakers.
Some basic assumptions

8. Sociolinguistics and dialectologySociolinguistics and dialectology
nn In a way it is true to say that sociolinguistics arose out of diIn a way it is true to say that sociolinguistics arose out of dialectology.alectology.
Those linguists involved in this area in the last century and thThose linguists involved in this area in the last century and the beginning ofe beginning of
the present century were interested in registering language usethe present century were interested in registering language use and as suchand as such
were half on the way to being sociolinguists. However, many aspewere half on the way to being sociolinguists. However, many aspects ofcts of
dialectological research are unacceptable to modern sociolinguisdialectological research are unacceptable to modern sociolinguists. Thets. The
chief deficiency of the dialectological approach is that older,chief deficiency of the dialectological approach is that older, male, ruralmale, rural
speakers were given preference as informants. This went againstspeakers were given preference as informants. This went against the basicthe basic
principle of all sociolinguists, namely that the choice of inforprinciple of all sociolinguists, namely that the choice of informants bemants be
random and thus unbiased by the field worker. Characteristic ofrandom and thus unbiased by the field worker. Characteristic of
sociolinguistic methods are the following features:sociolinguistic methods are the following features:
nn 1)1) The prior definition of one's area of investigationThe prior definition of one's area of investigation
nn 2)2) The impartial choice of informantsThe impartial choice of informants
nn 3)3) The choice of optimal methods of investigation (e.g. tape recordThe choice of optimal methods of investigation (e.g. tape recordinging
rather than questionnaire)rather than questionnaire)

9. Gathering informationGathering information
nn The procedure of interviewing informants has the disadvantage thThe procedure of interviewing informants has the disadvantage that the field workerat the field worker
very often has a negative (orvery often has a negative (or standardisingstandardising) effect on the informants. This is called) effect on the informants. This is called
thethe observer'sobserver's paradoxparadox, namely that the nature of the object of investigation changes, namely that the nature of the object of investigation changes
under observation (more on this below). A dialogue situation inunder observation (more on this below). A dialogue situation in which the informantwhich the informant
is not made aware of his status as informant is much moreis not made aware of his status as informant is much more favourablefavourable and less likelyand less likely
to distort the results.to distort the results.
Types of language variationTypes of language variation
nn Just as the methods of the dialectologists were unacceptable toJust as the methods of the dialectologists were unacceptable to sociolinguists so wassociolinguists so was
the terminology they used. For one thing the sociolinguists wantthe terminology they used. For one thing the sociolinguists wanted to get away fromed to get away from
the use of the termthe use of the term dialectdialect. It carried with it the implication of a rural type of speech. It carried with it the implication of a rural type of speech
which is particularly conservative. The more neutral termwhich is particularly conservative. The more neutral term varietyvariety was chosen whichwas chosen which
had the additional advantage that it did not imply implicit conthad the additional advantage that it did not imply implicit contrast with a standardrast with a standard
variety of language. The termvariety of language. The term varietyvariety simply refers to a variant of a language. It maysimply refers to a variant of a language. It may
be the standard of this language or not, it may be a rural or anbe the standard of this language or not, it may be a rural or an urban variant, aurban variant, a
social or peer group variant, etc.social or peer group variant, etc.

10. Contact between speakersContact between speakers
nn One of the aspects of contact between speakers of different variOne of the aspects of contact between speakers of different varieties of aeties of a
language islanguage is accommodationaccommodation. By this is meant that one of the speakers. By this is meant that one of the speakers
attempts, in fact to face interaction, to approximate his speechattempts, in fact to face interaction, to approximate his speech to that ofto that of
his partner in conversation for a variety of reasons, to make hihis partner in conversation for a variety of reasons, to make him feel atm feel at
ease, in order to be accepted, etc. Thisease, in order to be accepted, etc. This accomodationaccomodation can be longcan be long--term orterm or
shortshort--term and is most readily accomplished by children.term and is most readily accomplished by children.
The linguistic variableThe linguistic variable
nn This term refers to a specific feature of a language which showsThis term refers to a specific feature of a language which shows particularparticular
variation in a community and which is used as a tag for classifyvariation in a community and which is used as a tag for classifying aing a
speaker's speech. For example in New York thespeaker's speech. For example in New York the realisationrealisation of /r/ is just suchof /r/ is just such
a variable. A common nona variable. A common non--linguistic designation for a linguistic variable,linguistic designation for a linguistic variable,
which derives from the Bible, iswhich derives from the Bible, is shibbolethshibboleth, speakers of one community, speakers of one community
pronouncing this word with an initialpronouncing this word with an initial shsh--sound and speakers of anothersound and speakers of another
pronouncing it with an initialpronouncing it with an initial ss--sound, i.e. /sound, i.e. /shsh/ versus /s/. A linguistic/ versus /s/. A linguistic
variable need not only be phonological. Examples of grammaticalvariable need not only be phonological. Examples of grammatical variablesvariables
are double negation, the use ofare double negation, the use of ain'tain't and the lack of marking with verbs inand the lack of marking with verbs in
the 3rd person singular among African Americans.the 3rd person singular among African Americans.

11. Indicators and markersIndicators and markers
nn It has been established in the case of the variable (It has been established in the case of the variable (ngng) (as in English) (as in English walkingwalking
[w>:kin]) that the index scores for [n][w>:kin]) that the index scores for [n] —— as in [w>:kin]as in [w>:kin] —— tend to decrease as thetend to decrease as the
formality of the speech situation increases, no matter which parformality of the speech situation increases, no matter which particular social group isticular social group is
involved. One explanation for thisinvolved. One explanation for this focussesfocusses on the fact that whenever there is classon the fact that whenever there is class
differentiation with a linguistic variable, speakers of all clasdifferentiation with a linguistic variable, speakers of all classes will direct theirses will direct their
attention towards the higher status variants and tend to increasattention towards the higher status variants and tend to increase their use of thosee their use of those
variants. Stylistic variation is, going by this account, a direcvariants. Stylistic variation is, going by this account, a direct result of social classt result of social class
variation.variation.
Class and styleClass and style
nn However, not all variables which are subject to class differentiHowever, not all variables which are subject to class differentiation show stylistication show stylistic
variation as well, i.e. variables correlate with social class vavariation as well, i.e. variables correlate with social class variation in terms ofriation in terms of
different index scores, but do not alter even if the speech situdifferent index scores, but do not alter even if the speech situation changes.ation changes.
Variables which are subject to stylistic variation as well as clVariables which are subject to stylistic variation as well as class, sex or age variationass, sex or age variation
are referred to asare referred to as markersmarkers. Variables which are not involved in systematic style. Variables which are not involved in systematic style
variation are calledvariation are called indicatorsindicators, an example would be the fricative, an example would be the fricative tt [8] of southern[8] of southern
Irish English, in a word likeIrish English, in a word like putput [pu8], which is found in all styles of this variety of[pu8], which is found in all styles of this variety of
English. Indicators do not contribute to the description of clasEnglish. Indicators do not contribute to the description of class differences ass differences as
markers do, since speakers appear to be less aware of the socialmarkers do, since speakers appear to be less aware of the social implications of animplications of an
indicator than of a marker.indicator than of a marker.

12. Geographical variation and language contactGeographical variation and language contact
nn Variation has not only social sources but also spatial ones. WheVariation has not only social sources but also spatial ones. Whenn
speakers disseminate into new locations, the language they takespeakers disseminate into new locations, the language they take
with them changes with time, for instance, in Canada or Southwith them changes with time, for instance, in Canada or South
Africa where there has been considerable language contact. TheseAfrica where there has been considerable language contact. These
changes very often are connected with the establishment ofchanges very often are connected with the establishment of
different standard forms of languages at the new locations (as idifferent standard forms of languages at the new locations (as inn
central Canada). Furthermore, at overseas locations, English hascentral Canada). Furthermore, at overseas locations, English has
been subject to language contact and this has in turn led to chabeen subject to language contact and this has in turn led to changesnges
in the forms of the language when this has taken place. South Afin the forms of the language when this has taken place. South Africarica
is a good example of a contact situation with Afrikaans (a colonis a good example of a contact situation with Afrikaans (a colonialial
form of early modern Dutch) the language with which English hasform of early modern Dutch) the language with which English has
been in contact.been in contact.

13. The work of William LabovThe work of William Labov
nn The main sociolinguist is WilliamThe main sociolinguist is William LabovLabov,,
an American linguist who started byan American linguist who started by
investigating language use ininvestigating language use in MarthaMartha´´ss
Vineyard (an island off the northVineyard (an island off the north--easteast
coast of the United States) and in Newcoast of the United States) and in New
York city. His seminal investigations wereYork city. His seminal investigations were
based on principles and methods whichbased on principles and methods which
have become standard in sociolinguisticshave become standard in sociolinguistics
and which led to insights which areand which led to insights which are
generally accepted today.generally accepted today.

14. LabovLabov´´ss principles and assumptionsprinciples and assumptions
1)1) Basic assumption: Linguistic variation is socially determined.Basic assumption: Linguistic variation is socially determined.
2)2) Speakers are in a double bind: on the one hand they show anSpeakers are in a double bind: on the one hand they show an
identification with their locality through the use of a local vaidentification with their locality through the use of a local variety ofriety of
language. On the other hand they aspire to social acceptabilitylanguage. On the other hand they aspire to social acceptability andand
hence in their speech they move towards the standard of theirhence in their speech they move towards the standard of their
area.area.
3)3) Surreptitious interview methods mean that the observers paradoxSurreptitious interview methods mean that the observers paradox isis
minimisedminimised. (N.B.: The. (N.B.: The observerobserver´´ss paradox maintains that theparadox maintains that the
linguisticlinguistic behaviourbehaviour of informants changes under observation,of informants changes under observation,
usually because people then talk the way they think the linguisusually because people then talk the way they think the linguistt
wants them to).wants them to).

15. LabovLabov´´s data collection methodss data collection methods
nn LabovLabov further stressed the need to collect data reliably. The linguisfurther stressed the need to collect data reliably. The linguistt
must be aware that an informant will show the following featuresmust be aware that an informant will show the following features inin
his speech: 1) style shifting (during an interview), 2) varyinghis speech: 1) style shifting (during an interview), 2) varying degreedegree
of attention, i.e. some speakers pay great attention to their owof attention, i.e. some speakers pay great attention to their ownn
speech (sospeech (so--called 'audiocalled 'audio--monitoring'); in excited speech and casualmonitoring'); in excited speech and casual
speech the attention paid by the speaker is correspondinglyspeech the attention paid by the speaker is correspondingly
diminished, 3) degree of formality, determined by the nature ofdiminished, 3) degree of formality, determined by the nature of thethe
interview; it can vary depending on how the informant reacts tointerview; it can vary depending on how the informant reacts to thethe
interviewer and the situation he/she is placed in.interviewer and the situation he/she is placed in.

16. How does language change?How does language change?
With regard to language change WilliamWith regard to language change William LabovLabov proposed three phasesproposed three phases
which can bewhich can be summarisedsummarised as follows: 1)as follows: 1) originorigin, a period in which many, a period in which many
variants exist for one and the same phenomenon, 2)variants exist for one and the same phenomenon, 2) propagationpropagation, the, the
period in which one of the variants established itself and 3) thperiod in which one of the variants established itself and 3) thee conclusionconclusion
in which the remaining variants are done away with. Various extein which the remaining variants are done away with. Various externalrnal
factors can accelerate the process of language change, above allfactors can accelerate the process of language change, above all socialsocial
pressure from above or below. Additional factors are the degreepressure from above or below. Additional factors are the degree of literacyof literacy
in a community, the restraining influence of a standard of a lanin a community, the restraining influence of a standard of a language, etc.guage, etc.
Schematically these three phases correspond to the beginning, miSchematically these three phases correspond to the beginning, middle andddle and
end of an Send of an S--curve which is frequently used as acurve which is frequently used as a visualisationvisualisation of languageof language
change (see next slide).change (see next slide).
nn LabovLabov proved his theories on language variation and language change bproved his theories on language variation and language change byy
investigating (in an anonymous manner) the English of various eminvestigating (in an anonymous manner) the English of various employeesployees
in New York department stores. Here he chose stores with differiin New York department stores. Here he chose stores with differing socialng social
status. The linguistic variables he was particularly interestedstatus. The linguistic variables he was particularly interested in are: (1) thein are: (1) the
presence or absence of syllablepresence or absence of syllable--final /r/, (2) thefinal /r/, (2) the pronounciationpronounciation of theof the
ambiambi--dental fricatives (/dental fricatives (/θθ/ and // and /ðð/ respectively) and (3) the quality of/ respectively) and (3) the quality of
various vowels.various vowels.

18. Insights of sociolinguisticsInsights of sociolinguistics
Language change can be observedLanguage change can be observed
nn The reasons for it are ultimately social, deriving from such facThe reasons for it are ultimately social, deriving from such factors astors as
forms used by prestigious groups. Any item of change starts as aforms used by prestigious groups. Any item of change starts as a
series of minute variations which spread through the lexicon ofseries of minute variations which spread through the lexicon of thethe
language (language (lexicallexical diffusiondiffusion). The difference between varying forms). The difference between varying forms
increases with time, due to a process known asincreases with time, due to a process known as phonologisationphonologisation
whereby small differences are exaggerated to make them distinctwhereby small differences are exaggerated to make them distinct
from other phonemic items in a language. Only a subset of anyfrom other phonemic items in a language. Only a subset of any
existing variations in a language at any point in time lead to aexisting variations in a language at any point in time lead to actualctual
later change. Just what variations result in change depends on tlater change. Just what variations result in change depends on theirheir
status for the speakers of a language. This status may be conscistatus for the speakers of a language. This status may be consciousous
in the case of identification markers or subconscious, the lattein the case of identification markers or subconscious, the latter notr not
being any less important than the former for language change.being any less important than the former for language change.

19. Which class is most active?Which class is most active?
nn Lower middle class speakers figure prominently in language changLower middle class speakers figure prominently in language change as theye as they
aspire upwards on the social scale.aspire upwards on the social scale.
TheThe behaviourbehaviour of womenof women
nn Women tend to use a more standard type of language than their maWomen tend to use a more standard type of language than their malele
counterparts (due to their uncertain position in westerncounterparts (due to their uncertain position in western--style societies?). Onstyle societies?). On
the other hand, however, women tend to represent the vanguard inthe other hand, however, women tend to represent the vanguard in aa
situation of socially motivated language change.situation of socially motivated language change.
The reversal of changeThe reversal of change
nn Language change can in some cases be reversed, i.e. more conservLanguage change can in some cases be reversed, i.e. more conservativeative
(older) forms can be re(older) forms can be re--established if enough speakers use them forestablished if enough speakers use them for
purposes of conscious or unconscious identification.purposes of conscious or unconscious identification.

20. Further issues in sociolinguisticsFurther issues in sociolinguistics
1)1) Social networksSocial networks (smaller and more powerful in their bonds than social classes)(smaller and more powerful in their bonds than social classes)
2)2) Dissociation as a form of language changeDissociation as a form of language change (changing your language to become more(changing your language to become more
different from others, usually speakers of low prestige.)different from others, usually speakers of low prestige.)
3)3) Sociolinguistics and gender differencesSociolinguistics and gender differences (to what extent does the social role of the(to what extent does the social role of the
genders determine their linguistic usage?)genders determine their linguistic usage?)
4)4) Solidarity and politenessSolidarity and politeness are further issues in individual sociolinguistic interaction anare further issues in individual sociolinguistic interaction andd
have to do with maintaininghave to do with maintaining oneone´´ss status and respect in interpersonalstatus and respect in interpersonal
communication (technically calledcommunication (technically called faceface).).
5)5) Sociolinguistics and second language acquisitionSociolinguistics and second language acquisition (how do social factors improve or(how do social factors improve or
inhibit the quality of second language acquisition?).inhibit the quality of second language acquisition?).
6)6) Sociolinguistics and educationSociolinguistics and education (how are children(how are children socialisedsocialised into their environmentinto their environment
through the schools they go to? To what extent do governments trthrough the schools they go to? To what extent do governments try to imposey to impose
linguistic standards in their countries via the educational systlinguistic standards in their countries via the educational system?)em?)

21. Types of speech communities: BilingualismTypes of speech communities: Bilingualism
A type of linguistic situation in which two languages co-exist in a
country or language community without there being a notable
distribution according to function or social class. Within Europe
Belgium, in those parts where French and Flemish are spoken
side by side, provides an example of bilingualism. Do not confuse
this with diglossia. A bilingual is an individual who speaks two
languages almost equally and does not show a functional
distribution of the languages. One must stress 'almost equally' as
one language nearly always predominates with any given
individual. True bilingualism can be seen as an ideal state which
one can approach but never entirely reach.

22. Types of speech communities:Types of speech communities: DiglossiaDiglossia
A type of linguistic situation in which there is a division between two
languages or two varieties of a language such that one variety, the so-
called 'high' or H variety, is used in public life — in addresses, in the
media, in schools and universities, etc. — and another variety, the so-
called 'low' variety or L variety, is used in domestic life — with family
and friends. Examples of diglossic situations are to be found in
Switzerland (Hochdeutsch and Schwizerdütsch), in various Arabian
countries (Classical Arabic and the local dialect of Arabic), Paraguay
(Spanish and Guaraní).

23. Types of speech communities: Language SplitTypes of speech communities: Language Split
This term is used to refer to the type of situation which obtains when for
political reasons two varieties which are scarcely distinguishable are
forcibly differentiated to maximalise differences between two countries.
This applies to the Moldavian dialect of Rumanian, which is now written
in Cyrillic and is the language of the Republic of Moldavia within the
former Soviet Union, and the remaining dialects of Rumanian. It also
applies to Hindi, the official language of India, alongside English, and
Urdu, the official language of Pakistan. Note that in these situations
much use is made of different writing systems. Thus Hindi is written
from left to right in the Devanagari script while Urdu is written right to left
in the Persian variant of Arabic. Once language split has been
introduced the differences may become real with time, e.g. with Hindi
and Urdu the different religions make for different vocabulary which
helps the originally artificial distinction between the languages to
become real. Historically in Europe Dutch and the Lower Rhenish
dialects represent a case of language split.

24. Types of speech communities: LanguageTypes of speech communities: Language
MaintenanceMaintenance
The extent to which immigrant speakers of a certain language retain
knowledge of the original language in the host country into the following
generations. Here language communities vary. The Irish, for example,
gave up their native language immediately in the United States whereas
the Estonians have shown a remarkable degree of language
maintenance. The reasons for this have to do with the attitude of the
respective groups to their original language. For the Irish their native
language was associated with a background of poverty and deprivation
and so they switched gladly to English in America.

25. Types of speech communities: LanguageTypes of speech communities: Language
PreservationPreservation
This is the extent to which a country has official institutions to preserve
the language in an ostensibly pure form. For example, in France an
academy has existed since 1634 which acts as a watchdog over the
purity of French. There is no corresponding institution in England or
Germany (though South Africa, as the only Anglophone country, does
have a language academy). In the latter two countries, major
publishing houses play the role of language academies, the Oxford
University Press in England and the Bibliographisches Institut
(Mannheim) in Germany, the publishers of the Duden series of
reference books. One should add that the value of prescriptive organs
is very much disputed as they cannot stop language change in the
form of borrowing (cf. the influence of English on French despite the
efforts of the academy).

26. Types of speech communities: Language DeathTypes of speech communities: Language Death
This highly emotive term is sometimes applied to those social situations
in which a language ceases to exist. The fact itself is of little concern, it
is rather the stages which the language goes through which arouse the
interest of the linguist. A well-studied instance of language death is
Scottish Gaelic in East Sutherland in the north-east of Scotland. The
language was progressively abandoned from one generation to the next
and during this process the grammar of the language showed clear
signs of disintegration, for example in its morphological system. In such
a scenario the attention of the linguist is directed at the question
whether significant generalisations can be made concerning this
grammatical decay.

27. Recommended literatureRecommended literature
Auer, Peter,Auer, Peter, FransFrans HinskensHinskens and Pauland Paul KerswillKerswill ((edseds) 2005.) 2005. Dialect Change. ConvergenceDialect Change. Convergence
and Divergence in European Languages.and Divergence in European Languages. Cambridge: University Press.Cambridge: University Press.
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