The document outlines language-in-education policies across Southeast Asian countries, highlighting the linguistic diversity and the challenges of implementing these policies. It provides detailed examples from nations such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, illustrating the balance between dominant and non-dominant languages in educational settings. Additionally, it notes the role of local communities in supporting bilingual education and the varying degrees of success in language preservation and instruction.

1. Language-in-Education
Policies in
Southeast Asia
Language-in-
Education
Policies in
Southeast Asia

2. Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. identify the
different countries in
Southeast Asia;
b. express the
importance of
different language
policies in Southeast
Asian countries; and
c. examine the table
regarding Language-
in-education Policies
and answer the
questions that
follow.

3. Activity:
As a starter, we will test your geographic knowledge of Southeast (SE)
Asia. Each group in the class will receive a blank map. Draw a line to
locate the following Southeast Asian countries on the blank map
provided.
Brunei
Cambodia
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Malaysia
Timor-Leste
Vietnam

4. Follow-up questions:
What do you think are the challenges faced by these countries in terms of:
• choosing an official language and the language of instruction;
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
• language policy implementation;
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
• preservation and protection of the nondominant local languages or
mother tongue
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

6. Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) -
is a regional intergovernmental organization established in 1965
among governments of Southeast Asian countries to promote
regional cooperation in education, science, and culture in the
region.
SEAMEO

7. Southeast Asia is a culturally and linguistically diverse region. All
Southeast Asian nations have their respective dominant
ethnolinguistic groups and national/official languages, but that
does not contradict their great cultural and linguistic diversity.
There are around 1,000 languages that are spoken in the region.
Language in Education
Policies in Southeast Asia

9. Brunei Darussalam
- is the smallest Southeast Asian nation in terms of population. It
is ethnically and linguistically diverse. Most of the population
belongs to various Malay groups, speaking several Malay
languages. In the table shown earlier, It is estimated that
seventeen languages are spoken in Brunei.
Brunei is the only SEAMEO country where the use of local
languages in education is legally proscribed.

10. The Bilingual Education Policy in Brunei demonstrated a consistent
focus on promoting bilingual education. The education system uses
Standard Malay and English as the media of instruction, according
to a language policy emphasizing bilingualism in those languages.
Standard Malay and English - used as the media of instruction by
the education system, according to a language policy emphasizing
bilingualism in those languages.
Standard Malay is used more at the pre-primary level and in the
early grades of primary education while English is a more prominent
medium at higher levels of learning.

11. Standard Malay - as used in Peninsular Malaysia, is the official
language according to the Constitution of 1959. However, it is only
used to formal situations like government, business, and education,
and is not generally current in daily interpersonal communication.
Brunei Malay - The most widely spoken language in the country,
which serves as the medium of wider communication, and is spoken
as the first language by a vast majority of the population.

12. Cambodia
In Cambodia, 22 languages are spoken, with Khmer being the
largest ethnolinguistic group, comprising approximately 90% of
the population. This makes Cambodia one of the linguistically least
diverse nations in Asia. The Constitution of 1993 establishes
Khmer as the official language, and the Khmer script also has
official status.

13. Education Policy
Until the late 1990s, Khmer was the medium of instruction at all education
levels. Some schools also taught Chinese and Vietnamese as subjects. L1-
based bilingual education programs, using five non-dominant languages
(Brao, Bunong, Kavet, Krung, and Tampuan), have been introduced in both
formal and nonformal settings.
Bilingual Education Programs
The use of non-dominant languages (NDLs) has been successful, particularly
in regions where ethnolinguistic minorities previously lacked access to
education. A major factor in their success has been the active involvement of
local communities, including their role in curriculum and language
development, producing educational materials, and recruiting teachers. In
formal education projects like the Highland Children’s Education Project,
success is also attributed to community governance, local staff who speak
NDLs, competitive teacher salaries, and strong community participation.

14. The Education Law of 2007 grants authorities the flexibility to
choose the languages of instruction, including non-dominant
languages. However, it remains unclear if the law includes
immigrant languages like Cham, Chinese, and Vietnamese. Recent
policy changes have weakened earlier support for NDLs, which
initially allowed instruction in public schools in students' first
languages.
Education Law of 2007

15. Indonesia
Indonesia, with more than 740 languages, is linguistically the most
diverse country in all of Asia. It is second globally after Papua New
Guinea, where some 850 languages are spoken. The official and
national language – according to the 1945 Constitution – is
Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia). Indonesian is also the language of
instruction at all levels of education.

16. The Indonesian Constitution of 1945 guarantees the use and
development of non-dominant languages and encourages people to
use, develop, and preserve their local languages.
Law No. 20 of 2003 (Chapter VII, Article 33, Section 2) – states that
a mother tongue other than Indonesian can be used as the language
of instruction in the early stages of education, if needed in the
delivery of particular knowledge and/or skills.

17. Lao PDR
In the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR or Laos), the
estimated number of languages spoken is eighty-six. According to
the Constitution of 1991, Lao is the official language, and the Lao
script is the official script. Lao is the dominant language in the
country, with more than 3 million first language speakers.

18. Khmu – spoken by the largest ethnolinguistic minority and
accounting for around 11% of the national population, and
Hmong – with around 8% (Lao PDR, 2007), though there are
actually two Hmong languages subsumed by this title.
The Education Law of 2000 – stipulates the use of Lao in education
and can be interpreted to allow the use of Lao only (Kosonen, 2007;
Lao PDR, 2008, Leclerc, 2009; UNESCO, 2008).

19. - promotes the use, learning, and teaching of NDLs that already
have orthographies. The Plan also promotes the further
development and maintenance of NDLs as steps in developing
the poorest areas of the country.
- proposes further research on orthography development in non-
dominant languages and recommends that minority language
orthographies be based on the Lao-script to contribute to the
quality teaching of Lao to non-Lao speakers.
National Socio-Economic Development Plan (NSEDP,
2006)
Lao People’s Party (2007)

20. It is estimated that about 140 languages are spoken in Malaysia.
The Malays, the dominant ethnolinguistic group, make up about
half of the total population. The population of some
ethnolinguistic minorities is in the millions. The Constitution of
1957 establishes Standard Malay (Bahasa Malaysia or Bahasa
Melayu) as the official and national language. The Constitution
also guarantees people's freedom to use, teach, and learn any
language, as well as the preservation and maintenance of non-
dominant languages.
Malaysia

21. Education Act 1961
The education act applied to all levels of education where Malay
language is used as the medium of instructions in schools, all
schools have a common curriculum and a public examination will
be administered for all schools (Puteh, 2010).
The National Education
- was implemented in 1970 where English medium schools were
gradually converted to national schools where Malay language
was not only used as the medium of instruction but learnt as a
subject in both primary and secondary schools. English language
at this stage was gradually phased out but retained as an
important L2 subject taught in schools.

22. The National Education Policy in 1970
- has a major reformation of the education system in 1979 was
the implementation of the New Primary Schools Curriculum or
Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah (KBSR) a in 1983 and the
Integrated Secondary School Curriculum or Kaurikulum
Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) in 1989. Both these
curricula were fully implemented by 2020.

23. Government system of formal education has two kinds of
schools:
1.) National Primary Schools - The national primary schools use
Standard Malay as the main language of instruction, whereas
mathematics and science are taught in English.
‘Pupil’s Own Language’ (POL) - a studied subject where their
medium were Malay Tamil and Mandarin, as well as other non-
dominant languages, including ethnolinguistic minority languages.
This subject is offered on some conditions:
• there are at least fifteen students whose parents request a mother
tongue class, and
• teachers and materials for the language in question are available.

24. 2.) National-Type Primary Schools - The national-type primary
schools use some other language, such as Mandarin Chinese, Tamil,
or an alternative Indian language, as the main medium of
instruction, and mathematics and science are taught in that language
and English.
In the East Malaysian state of Sarawak, Iban has been taught as a
school subject for several years.
In the state of Sabah, also in East Malaysia, Kadazandusun has been
taught in government schools for some time.
In the state of Sabah, also in East Malaysia, Kadazandusun has been
taught in government schools for some time.

25. Over 100 languages are spoken in the Union of Myanmar, with some
estimates suggesting the number could be closer to 200. The Myanmar
(Bamar or Burmese) group, the largest ethnolinguistic group, accounts for
about 75% of the population. Many other ethnolinguistic groups have large
populations. The Shan, for example, make up over 10% of the nation with
around 3 million people. The Arakanese, Sgaw Karen, Pwo Karen, Pa'o
Karen, Mon, and Jingpho each have populations around or over a million,
while another thirty ethnolinguistic groups have over 100,000 members
(Ethnologue, 2005; Leclerc, 2009).
Myanmar

26. The official language of Myanmar, according to the 2008 Constitution, is
Burmese (Myanmar). This is also the main language of instruction in the
government education system. However, until the late 1980s, minority
languages were widely used in education, particularly in states with large
non-Bamar populations. The 1974 Constitution had affirmed the right of
minorities to be taught in their languages alongside Burmese, but these
policies were discontinued in the late 1980s.
Language Policy
The 2008 Constitution reaffirms the right of minorities to use and
develop their languages, but there are no longer specific statements
about the language of education in the Constitution. As a result, non-
dominant languages are not widely used in formal education.

27. - The majority of children are educated in Burmese, although around 30% of
children do not speak Burmese when they first enter the education system,
creating significant challenges for their learning.
Education System
Government-supported nonformal education programs, including literacy
classes, are conducted in Burmese, although in some areas, non-dominant
languages like Mon are taught as school subjects outside of regular school
hours. However, support for these languages has been reduced in recent years.
- Non-dominant languages are primarily used in nonformal education, often
organized by civil society and religious communities. For example, languages
like Chin, Karen, and Jingpho are still taught in certain remote elementary
schools and nonformal settings, particularly in northern states and regions
where ethnic minorities predominate.

28. In terms of language diversity, the Philippines is second only to
Indonesia in Southeast Asia, as 180 languages are estimated to be
spoken in the country (Ethnologue, 2008). Languages such as Bicol,
Cebuano, Illongo, Ilocano, and Tagalog are spoken by millions of
people and widely used as languages of wider communication in
their respective areas. Orthographies already exist in most of the
languages, and more than 100 languages possess written materials.
Philippines

29. According to the 1987 Constitution, the national language is Filipino
(based on Tagalog), and Filipino and English are the official
languages.
The Bilingual Education Policy of 1974, revised in 1987, states that
English and Filipino are the languages of education and the official
languages of literacy. The goal of the bilingual policy is to create a
population bilingual in the official languages.
Since the 1987 revised policy, regional non-dominant languages have
been elevated to the role of auxiliary languages. In practice, however,
this has usually meant that NDLs are used orally to explain the
curriculum to students, rather than using them seriously as media of
instruction.

30. Around thirty languages are believed to be spoken in Singapore. Three-
quarters of the population are ethnic Chinese, speaking many different
varieties of Chinese. Malays, who make up about 14% of the population,
and Indians, who account for around 9%, speak many different languages,
with Tamil speakers being the largest community. About 2% of the
population consists of other ethnolinguistic groups. Most Singaporeans
are multilingual, and it should be noted that in Singapore, ethnicity, home
language, and/or mother tongue do not always correspond.
Singapore

31. Singapore’s language policy is unique in Southeast Asia. The Constitution
of 1965 stipulates four official languages: Malay, Mandarin Chinese,
Tamil, and English. Standard Malay is the national language. The
Constitution guarantees the use, teaching, and learning of these
languages, and supports the maintenance of non-dominant languages.
Language Policy
Education System
- English is the main language of instruction at all levels of education.
However, some subjects are taught through one of the official "mother
tongue languages," i.e., Malay, Mandarin, or Tamil. Students speaking
Indian languages other than Tamil can also study those as subjects.

32. - There is a system in place for students whose home language is none
of the above, but they still must study through two languages not
spoken at home.
- Speakers of non-dominant languages can choose from those offered in
the school curriculum, though there is no provision for education in non-
dominant languages as such.
In Singapore, the shift towards English as the home language among
the major ethnic groups, especially the Chinese, is ongoing. Census data
shows that English is increasingly becoming the main home language,
with Mandarin also seeing significant adoption, particularly among the
Chinese population.

33. Standard Thai, based on Central Thai as spoken in the capital,
Bangkok, is the de facto official and national language of Thailand.
Approximately 90% of Thai citizens speak Standard or Central
Thai as their first language. Standard Thai is widely spoken
throughout the country, although there are also related Tai
languages spoken in different regions.
Thailand

34. The Thai Constitution of 1997, along with societal changes since
the early 1990s, has provided opportunities for ethnolinguistic
minorities to use their languages. However, despite this, there is no
explicit written language policy in Thailand. The use of Standard
Thai as the language of instruction is a significant obstacle to
educational achievement for those whose first language is not Thai.
Language Policy
Education System
- Standard Thai is the primary medium of instruction at all levels of
education. Around half of the population, whose first language is
not Standard Thai, face challenges in comprehension and
achievement, particularly in the early grades.

35. - Non-dominant languages (NDLs) are primarily used in nonformal
education or community-driven initiatives. Some minority groups,
such as the Tai, use their languages alongside Standard Thai, but
this practice is not widespread or officially supported.
- NGOs and civil society organizations have been more active in
promoting bilingual education and literacy in minority languages,
but there is no formal policy from the government supporting this.
The debate over language use in education continues, with different
opinions on how best to integrate NDLs into the national education
system.

36. Timor Leste is the newest member of SEAMEO. The country has an
estimated nineteen languages spoken within its borders. According
to the Constitution of 2002, Tetum and Portuguese are the official
languages, while English and Indonesian are recognized as working
languages when necessary. The Constitution also emphasizes the
importance of valuing and developing Tetum and other national
languages.
Timor-Leste

37. The 2002 Constitution recognizes Tetum and Portuguese as official
languages, with English and Indonesian also holding the status of
working languages. The policy aims to promote and develop Tetum and
other national languages, ensuring their use in education and
governance.
Language Policy
- According to the 2004 National Census, about 37% of the population
speaks, reads, and writes Portuguese to some extent, while 86% has
proficiency in Tetum. However, these figures may be inflated due to
self-reporting and the lack of a clear definition of proficiency.
Education System

38. - The language-of-education situation has been in flux since
independence in 1999. Initially, both official languages were used in
education, with a new language-in-education policy introduced in 2008.
This policy made both Portuguese and Tetum languages of instruction,
with Tetum being the primary language in early education and
Portuguese gradually introduced at higher levels.
- The 2008 policy marked a significant shift from the previous 2004-08
policy, which used Portuguese predominantly. The new bilingual model
allows for greater flexibility, with Tetum being the main language of
instruction in Grade 1, a mix of Tetum and Portuguese in Grade 2, and
Portuguese taking over by Grade 4.

39. - Timor Leste continues to face significant challenges in education,
particularly in access and quality. A large proportion of teachers were
trained during Indonesian rule, making the transition to teaching in
Tetum and Portuguese difficult.
Challenges
- The country is grappling with high repetition and dropout rates in
lower primary years, which is partly attributed to the complexity of the
bilingual education system. Various assessments indicate that these
challenges are closely linked to the use of language in instruction and
literacy.

40. Vietnam officially recognizes fifty-four ethnic groups. According to
unofficial estimates and 1999 census data, approximately 10% of
the population belongs to ethnic minority groups. However, this
number is likely to be underestimated. The Vietnamese, also known
as Kinh, make up about 86% of the population, leaving the
remaining percentage to the other 53 recognized ethnic groups.
Vietnam

41. The national and official language is Vietnamese, and it functions as the
language of wider communication across the country. The use of non-
dominant languages (NDLs) in government and education is severely
restricted. Vietnamese is the main language of instruction at all levels of
education. The 1991 Education Law, revised in 2005, states that ethnic
minority groups have the right to use their own languages for education,
but this is not often practiced.
Language Policy
Education System
- Vietnamese is the primary medium of instruction at all levels of
education. Minority groups, which make up about 10% of the population,
face challenges in educational achievement due to the language barrier.

42. - Most programs that involve minority languages as subjects of study
are limited in scope and tend to be top-down in approach. Local
communities often have little influence over the curriculum, with only
about 20% of it being allocated to the teaching of minority languages.
- In recent years, new initiatives have been launched, such as a pilot
program developed by the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET)
in collaboration with UNICEF, which adopts a fully bilingual approach.
This program, implemented in three provinces and covering languages
like Hmong, Gia Rai, and Khmer, focuses on L1 literacy as a basis for
learning additional languages and academic content.

43. Activity: On ½ sheet of paper, use the table provided in the group
chat as a guide to understand the data and answer the
following questions. Answer directly
1. On the average, how many official or national language/s do SE Asian
countries have?
2. Do all SE Asian countries have a language policy? Explain your answer.
3. What can you infer about the status or use of nondominant languages (NDL)
in education in SE Asian countries?
4. What is the most striking about the data presented? Why is it significant?

44. Thank
You