Children are not blank slates and are born with innate language abilities according to Chomsky's theory of innateness. The environment alone cannot account for how quickly and accurately children acquire language based on the poverty of stimulus in the input they receive. Innate universal grammar constraints guide language learning and allow children to comprehend and generate sentences they have never heard before.
This document provides an overview of the history and evolution of fiction. It discusses early fictional forms like myths, legends, fables and fairy tales. It also outlines the development of novels and short stories in the 19th century. Edgar Allan Poe is cited for his analysis of short story structure, advocating for unity of effect and readability in one sitting. The document contrasts realistic fiction, which depicts everyday life, with nonrealistic fiction, which requires a suspension of disbelief.
The social interaction theory proposes that language is learned through interaction with others. It emphasizes the important role of social and cultural environment in language acquisition. Key proponents include Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. Vygotsky believed that language develops first through social interactions and then internally. He introduced concepts like the zone of proximal development and private speech. Bruner expanded on this work by emphasizing scaffolding, the language acquisition support system where caregivers adjust their language, and child-directed speech to aid language learning.
1) The document discusses grammaring, which is an ongoing process of using grammar structures accurately and appropriately in context, rather than just learning rules.
2) It provides a sample lesson plan focused on teaching the simple past tense to intermediate English learners.
3) The lesson plan includes warm up activities, a pre-activity, teaching the target grammar point, a post-activity and homework assignment focused on having students practice using the simple past tense.
The Audio-Lingual Method emerged in the United States after World War II due to a need for language specialists in the military. It was based on behaviorist theory that language learning involves habit formation through repetition and memorization. Under this approach, students learn through drills like repetition, substitution and transformation without understanding the meaning of what they are saying. The teacher controls the class, modeling language and correcting students, while students play a reactive role responding to drills.
This document defines and provides examples of homonyms, polysemy, and hyponymy. Homonyms are words that are spelled or pronounced the same but have different meanings, such as no/know. Polysemy refers to words that have multiple related senses, like foot. Hyponymy is a hierarchical relationship where the meaning of one word includes another word, for example cook is a hyponym of roast.
The document provides three rules for biographical and historical analysis of literary works:
1. Do not rely solely on the author's biography, go deeper and analyze the text.
2. Do not assume the main character represents the author, as characters are fictional even if based on the author's life.
3. The author's exact intentions can never be known, so analysis should not claim to understand them absolutely.
Historical and biographical context is useful for understanding allusions and influences, but real analysis requires close examination of the text itself rather than just reporting facts about the author's life.
Understanding Experiential Function of LanguageRusdi Noor Rosa
These slides introduce the basic understanding of experiential functions of language. Besides, some examples of simple analysis of clauses based on their transitivity elements were presented.
The document discusses the Direct Method of language teaching. It was developed by Maximilian Berlitz as an alternative to the Grammar Translation Method. Key aspects of the Direct Method include using only the target language in the classroom, teaching grammar inductively without explicit rules, focusing on speaking before reading and writing, and immersing students in everyday language use and culture.
This document provides an overview of the history and evolution of fiction. It discusses early fictional forms like myths, legends, fables and fairy tales. It also outlines the development of novels and short stories in the 19th century. Edgar Allan Poe is cited for his analysis of short story structure, advocating for unity of effect and readability in one sitting. The document contrasts realistic fiction, which depicts everyday life, with nonrealistic fiction, which requires a suspension of disbelief.
The social interaction theory proposes that language is learned through interaction with others. It emphasizes the important role of social and cultural environment in language acquisition. Key proponents include Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. Vygotsky believed that language develops first through social interactions and then internally. He introduced concepts like the zone of proximal development and private speech. Bruner expanded on this work by emphasizing scaffolding, the language acquisition support system where caregivers adjust their language, and child-directed speech to aid language learning.
1) The document discusses grammaring, which is an ongoing process of using grammar structures accurately and appropriately in context, rather than just learning rules.
2) It provides a sample lesson plan focused on teaching the simple past tense to intermediate English learners.
3) The lesson plan includes warm up activities, a pre-activity, teaching the target grammar point, a post-activity and homework assignment focused on having students practice using the simple past tense.
The Audio-Lingual Method emerged in the United States after World War II due to a need for language specialists in the military. It was based on behaviorist theory that language learning involves habit formation through repetition and memorization. Under this approach, students learn through drills like repetition, substitution and transformation without understanding the meaning of what they are saying. The teacher controls the class, modeling language and correcting students, while students play a reactive role responding to drills.
This document defines and provides examples of homonyms, polysemy, and hyponymy. Homonyms are words that are spelled or pronounced the same but have different meanings, such as no/know. Polysemy refers to words that have multiple related senses, like foot. Hyponymy is a hierarchical relationship where the meaning of one word includes another word, for example cook is a hyponym of roast.
The document provides three rules for biographical and historical analysis of literary works:
1. Do not rely solely on the author's biography, go deeper and analyze the text.
2. Do not assume the main character represents the author, as characters are fictional even if based on the author's life.
3. The author's exact intentions can never be known, so analysis should not claim to understand them absolutely.
Historical and biographical context is useful for understanding allusions and influences, but real analysis requires close examination of the text itself rather than just reporting facts about the author's life.
Understanding Experiential Function of LanguageRusdi Noor Rosa
These slides introduce the basic understanding of experiential functions of language. Besides, some examples of simple analysis of clauses based on their transitivity elements were presented.
The document discusses the Direct Method of language teaching. It was developed by Maximilian Berlitz as an alternative to the Grammar Translation Method. Key aspects of the Direct Method include using only the target language in the classroom, teaching grammar inductively without explicit rules, focusing on speaking before reading and writing, and immersing students in everyday language use and culture.
Samuel Johnson did not produce any singular great works of criticism but had a significant influence on English criticism through several works including papers in The Rambler, remarks on poetry in Rasselas, and a preface to Shakespeare's plays. Johnson believed that literature is shaped by the era and environment of its author, and that for a work to be excellent it must conform to nature and reason while also pleasing many readers for a long time through its imitation of truth and life.
This document discusses the audiolingual method of language teaching. It originated from World War 2 training programs and structural linguistics theory combined with behaviorist psychology. The method focuses on repetition drills, memorization, and aural-oral skills to form mechanical habits. Language skills are taught sequentially from listening, speaking, reading and writing. Teachers use dialogs, drills, and audiovisual equipment while students respond to stimuli with the goal of immediate, accurate speech. The method declined in popularity due to criticisms that its foundations in language and learning theories were unsound and it produced no practical results, replaced later by theories like transformational grammar.
Communicative competence refers to an individual's knowledge and ability to use language appropriately in social contexts. It was proposed by Hymes as an expansion of Chomsky's notions of linguistic competence and performance. Hymes argued that communicative competence includes not just knowledge of grammar but also sociocultural knowledge necessary for effective communication. It encompasses grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competencies. Later theorists like Canale and Swain, and Bachman further developed and categorized the dimensions of communicative competence.
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James Asher that uses physical movements and actions to help teach language. It is based on the theory that language is acquired through receiving comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment. In a TPR classroom, the teacher uses imperative sentences to instruct students to perform various actions and the students respond through physical movement. The goal is to teach basic speaking skills through comprehension and association of speech and motor activity before introducing grammatical concepts.
This document provides a review of morphology concepts including:
1. Examples of words being identified as simple or complex and marking bound morphemes.
2. Exercises identifying parts of speech and morphological processes like compounding, affixation, and derivation.
3. Practice analyzing word structure by underlining roots and circling affixes and drawing tree structures.
4. Examples are provided from textbooks and papers on morphology to illustrate concepts for students.
The document discusses several key aspects of teaching spoken English fluency, including clustering to organize speech, using redundancy to clarify meaning, dealing with reduced forms, performance variables in thinking while speaking, ensuring students understand colloquial language and practice it, helping students achieve an acceptable rate of delivery, the importance of stress, rhythm and intonation patterns, and the value of interaction to develop conversational skills.
The lesson plan aims to teach students about the elements of poetry through analyzing Rudyard Kipling's poem "If". It includes objectives, materials, and a procedure with pre-reading, during reading, and post-reading activities. In the pre-reading, students give antonyms and discuss the meaning of "if". They then read and analyze the poem. Post-reading has comprehension questions about the poem's message and qualities of a man. An evaluation checks students' understanding through true/false questions about the poem's inferences. Students end by listing self-improvements.
The document discusses the cognitive code approach to teaching English as a second language. It states that this approach arose in reaction to behaviorism, combining new thinking from psychology, anthropology, and linguistics. Under this approach, language is conceived as a mental process rather than a behavior, and is considered an abstract and conventional system. The cognitive code approach emphasizes developing vocabulary and grammar through reading and writing, and views errors as a natural part of learning. Teachers provide tools for students to work independently to solve problems.
The document discusses different types of narrative poetry such as ballads, epics, and medieval romances. Ballads narrate stories in short stanzas and can be traditional or modern. Epics are long poems that narrate the deeds of legendary figures and past histories. Medieval romances tell tales of famous kings and knights featuring Christian morals. The document also covers dramatic poetry which is performed on stage using props, lights and music. Examples of dramatic poetry include comedies, morality plays, and mystery plays. Shadow plays use puppet shadows to enact stories accompanied by music.
The document discusses reasons for teaching literature such as developing language skills, promoting critical thinking, and motivating learners. It also outlines different ways students can respond to literature, like describing or interpreting texts, and defines common literary terms such as genres, elements of fiction, and forms of poetry, essays, and drama. Key aspects of drama genres - tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy, and farce - are also defined.
Learning literature through English Language TeachingIfrad Mahbub
ELT or 'English Language Teaching' indicates to teaching of English to people whose first language is not English. In the process of learning literature, teaching of English comes forward as the most powerful tool in the school bag. The larger portion of people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons in non-native English speaking nations.
This document provides an introduction to syntax, the study of sentence patterns. It begins with a preview of parts of speech, then defines the main syntactic categories like noun, verb, adjective. It explains phrases like noun phrases and verb phrases. It discusses syntactic rules and ambiguity. Finally, it covers the main structures of sentences like simple, compound, and complex sentences. The key topics covered are parts of speech, phrases, syntactic categories, phrase structure rules, ambiguity, and sentence structures.
The document discusses the stages of learner language development according to Corder (1973). There are four stages: 1) the random/presystematic stage where learners make random errors with little awareness of rules, 2) the emergent stage where learners begin discerning patterns but may regress, 3) the systematic stage where learners demonstrate more consistency and can self-correct, and 4) the stabilization/fossilization stage where errors are relatively infrequent and fluency is achieved, though some errors may persist. Variability in learner language is also discussed.
Larsen-Freeman proposes a three dimensional framework for teaching grammar that includes form, meaning, and use. She challenges the conventional view of only focusing on grammatical form. The framework represents the dimensions as interconnected wedges in a pie chart to show they are not hierarchical. Teachers can use it to identify which dimension may pose the biggest challenge for students with a given grammar point. Several approaches are discussed for addressing grammar within a meaning-based or communicative language teaching approach, including recasting student errors, enhancing input, consciousness-raising tasks, and output production through communicative tasks.
1) The document discusses the process of writing materials for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses. ESP teachers spend most of their time writing materials because commercially available materials may not be suitable or available.
2) Good ESP materials help organize the learning process by providing a clear path through the language, activities, and a sense of progress. Materials should reflect the nature of language learning and the learning task.
3) The document presents a model for writing ESP materials that includes input, content focus, language focus, and tasks. It provides a framework to integrate various aspects of language learning and ensure coverage of syllabus items.
Drama was introduced to England by the Romans during the medieval period. Mystery and morality plays performed during this time focused on Christian themes. The English Renaissance in the 16th-17th centuries saw a golden age of English drama led by playwrights like Shakespeare. The Puritans closed theaters in the 17th century but drama flourished again after the Restoration, introducing new genres like restoration comedy. In the late 19th century, musical theater grew more popular and theaters saw larger audiences as transportation improved. Into the 20th century, film began to compete with live theater but English drama continued to evolve, with musicals by composers like Andrew Lloyd Webber remaining popular today.
The document discusses various lexical semantic relations between words such as synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophones, polysemy, and collocations. It defines each relation and provides examples to illustrate how the meaning of words can be related or contrasted in multiple ways. The key relations covered are synonyms (words with similar meanings), antonyms (opposite meanings), hyponyms (a specific example of a general category), and polysemy (a single word with multiple related meanings).
Theories of PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, Language acquisition, Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, F. B. Skinner, Innateness theory, Behaviorist theory, Cognitive theory.
The document summarizes theories of first language acquisition. It discusses the imitation/behaviorist theory proposed by Skinner, which views language learning as habit formation through reinforcement. It also discusses the innateness/nativist theory of Chomsky, which posits that humans are born with an innate language acquisition device. The document further examines cognitive, input, and connectionist theories and their varying perspectives on how the environment and mental faculties influence language learning.
Samuel Johnson did not produce any singular great works of criticism but had a significant influence on English criticism through several works including papers in The Rambler, remarks on poetry in Rasselas, and a preface to Shakespeare's plays. Johnson believed that literature is shaped by the era and environment of its author, and that for a work to be excellent it must conform to nature and reason while also pleasing many readers for a long time through its imitation of truth and life.
This document discusses the audiolingual method of language teaching. It originated from World War 2 training programs and structural linguistics theory combined with behaviorist psychology. The method focuses on repetition drills, memorization, and aural-oral skills to form mechanical habits. Language skills are taught sequentially from listening, speaking, reading and writing. Teachers use dialogs, drills, and audiovisual equipment while students respond to stimuli with the goal of immediate, accurate speech. The method declined in popularity due to criticisms that its foundations in language and learning theories were unsound and it produced no practical results, replaced later by theories like transformational grammar.
Communicative competence refers to an individual's knowledge and ability to use language appropriately in social contexts. It was proposed by Hymes as an expansion of Chomsky's notions of linguistic competence and performance. Hymes argued that communicative competence includes not just knowledge of grammar but also sociocultural knowledge necessary for effective communication. It encompasses grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competencies. Later theorists like Canale and Swain, and Bachman further developed and categorized the dimensions of communicative competence.
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James Asher that uses physical movements and actions to help teach language. It is based on the theory that language is acquired through receiving comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment. In a TPR classroom, the teacher uses imperative sentences to instruct students to perform various actions and the students respond through physical movement. The goal is to teach basic speaking skills through comprehension and association of speech and motor activity before introducing grammatical concepts.
This document provides a review of morphology concepts including:
1. Examples of words being identified as simple or complex and marking bound morphemes.
2. Exercises identifying parts of speech and morphological processes like compounding, affixation, and derivation.
3. Practice analyzing word structure by underlining roots and circling affixes and drawing tree structures.
4. Examples are provided from textbooks and papers on morphology to illustrate concepts for students.
The document discusses several key aspects of teaching spoken English fluency, including clustering to organize speech, using redundancy to clarify meaning, dealing with reduced forms, performance variables in thinking while speaking, ensuring students understand colloquial language and practice it, helping students achieve an acceptable rate of delivery, the importance of stress, rhythm and intonation patterns, and the value of interaction to develop conversational skills.
The lesson plan aims to teach students about the elements of poetry through analyzing Rudyard Kipling's poem "If". It includes objectives, materials, and a procedure with pre-reading, during reading, and post-reading activities. In the pre-reading, students give antonyms and discuss the meaning of "if". They then read and analyze the poem. Post-reading has comprehension questions about the poem's message and qualities of a man. An evaluation checks students' understanding through true/false questions about the poem's inferences. Students end by listing self-improvements.
The document discusses the cognitive code approach to teaching English as a second language. It states that this approach arose in reaction to behaviorism, combining new thinking from psychology, anthropology, and linguistics. Under this approach, language is conceived as a mental process rather than a behavior, and is considered an abstract and conventional system. The cognitive code approach emphasizes developing vocabulary and grammar through reading and writing, and views errors as a natural part of learning. Teachers provide tools for students to work independently to solve problems.
The document discusses different types of narrative poetry such as ballads, epics, and medieval romances. Ballads narrate stories in short stanzas and can be traditional or modern. Epics are long poems that narrate the deeds of legendary figures and past histories. Medieval romances tell tales of famous kings and knights featuring Christian morals. The document also covers dramatic poetry which is performed on stage using props, lights and music. Examples of dramatic poetry include comedies, morality plays, and mystery plays. Shadow plays use puppet shadows to enact stories accompanied by music.
The document discusses reasons for teaching literature such as developing language skills, promoting critical thinking, and motivating learners. It also outlines different ways students can respond to literature, like describing or interpreting texts, and defines common literary terms such as genres, elements of fiction, and forms of poetry, essays, and drama. Key aspects of drama genres - tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy, and farce - are also defined.
Learning literature through English Language TeachingIfrad Mahbub
ELT or 'English Language Teaching' indicates to teaching of English to people whose first language is not English. In the process of learning literature, teaching of English comes forward as the most powerful tool in the school bag. The larger portion of people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons in non-native English speaking nations.
This document provides an introduction to syntax, the study of sentence patterns. It begins with a preview of parts of speech, then defines the main syntactic categories like noun, verb, adjective. It explains phrases like noun phrases and verb phrases. It discusses syntactic rules and ambiguity. Finally, it covers the main structures of sentences like simple, compound, and complex sentences. The key topics covered are parts of speech, phrases, syntactic categories, phrase structure rules, ambiguity, and sentence structures.
The document discusses the stages of learner language development according to Corder (1973). There are four stages: 1) the random/presystematic stage where learners make random errors with little awareness of rules, 2) the emergent stage where learners begin discerning patterns but may regress, 3) the systematic stage where learners demonstrate more consistency and can self-correct, and 4) the stabilization/fossilization stage where errors are relatively infrequent and fluency is achieved, though some errors may persist. Variability in learner language is also discussed.
Larsen-Freeman proposes a three dimensional framework for teaching grammar that includes form, meaning, and use. She challenges the conventional view of only focusing on grammatical form. The framework represents the dimensions as interconnected wedges in a pie chart to show they are not hierarchical. Teachers can use it to identify which dimension may pose the biggest challenge for students with a given grammar point. Several approaches are discussed for addressing grammar within a meaning-based or communicative language teaching approach, including recasting student errors, enhancing input, consciousness-raising tasks, and output production through communicative tasks.
1) The document discusses the process of writing materials for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses. ESP teachers spend most of their time writing materials because commercially available materials may not be suitable or available.
2) Good ESP materials help organize the learning process by providing a clear path through the language, activities, and a sense of progress. Materials should reflect the nature of language learning and the learning task.
3) The document presents a model for writing ESP materials that includes input, content focus, language focus, and tasks. It provides a framework to integrate various aspects of language learning and ensure coverage of syllabus items.
Drama was introduced to England by the Romans during the medieval period. Mystery and morality plays performed during this time focused on Christian themes. The English Renaissance in the 16th-17th centuries saw a golden age of English drama led by playwrights like Shakespeare. The Puritans closed theaters in the 17th century but drama flourished again after the Restoration, introducing new genres like restoration comedy. In the late 19th century, musical theater grew more popular and theaters saw larger audiences as transportation improved. Into the 20th century, film began to compete with live theater but English drama continued to evolve, with musicals by composers like Andrew Lloyd Webber remaining popular today.
The document discusses various lexical semantic relations between words such as synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophones, polysemy, and collocations. It defines each relation and provides examples to illustrate how the meaning of words can be related or contrasted in multiple ways. The key relations covered are synonyms (words with similar meanings), antonyms (opposite meanings), hyponyms (a specific example of a general category), and polysemy (a single word with multiple related meanings).
Theories of PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, Language acquisition, Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, F. B. Skinner, Innateness theory, Behaviorist theory, Cognitive theory.
The document summarizes theories of first language acquisition. It discusses the imitation/behaviorist theory proposed by Skinner, which views language learning as habit formation through reinforcement. It also discusses the innateness/nativist theory of Chomsky, which posits that humans are born with an innate language acquisition device. The document further examines cognitive, input, and connectionist theories and their varying perspectives on how the environment and mental faculties influence language learning.
The document discusses several theories of language acquisition:
1) Behaviourism - children imitate language and are reinforced for correct utterances
2) Innateness - children are born with innate language mechanisms that allow them to learn language rules
3) Cognitive - language develops alongside general cognitive/intellectual development
4) Interactionist - language is learned through interaction between children and caregivers.
While each theory provides some insights, no single theory fully explains the complex process of language acquisition.
This document summarizes several theories of language acquisition, including:
- Behaviorism (Skinner): Children imitate adults and language is acquired through reinforcement.
- Cognitive (Piaget): Language develops as one part of a child's overall cognitive development.
- Innateness (Chomsky): Language ability is innate and guided by a language acquisition device and universal grammar.
- Interactionism (Bruner): Both innate abilities and interactions with caretakers in early childhood support language acquisition.
The document summarizes several theories of language acquisition, including behaviorism, cognitive theory, and Chomsky's innateness theory. According to behaviorism, language is acquired through reinforcement of behaviors. Cognitive theory views language acquisition as dependent on cognitive development. Chomsky's innateness theory posits that humans are born with an innate language acquisition device and universal grammar that allows children to learn language by setting parameters based on primary linguistic data.
steps in children acquiring a languageEmine Özkurt
This document summarizes the key stages of language development in children. It discusses four main perspectives on how language is acquired: learning, nativist, interactionist, and cognitive. Children progress through prelinguistic, one-word, telegraphic speech, and early grammar stages from ages 0-5. Piaget's theory of cognitive development also explains language acquisition through its sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. The critical period hypothesis suggests there is an ideal time window for acquiring language skills.
The passage discusses different perspectives on language acquisition in children:
1) The innatist/nativist perspective championed by Noam Chomsky, which argues that children are born with innate linguistic knowledge and abilities that allow them to acquire complex grammar even from limited environmental input.
2) The interactionist/developmental perspective, which sees both innate abilities and environmental influences as important. Jean Piaget's work showed how cognitive development influences language acquisition. Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and cooperation with more knowledgeable individuals.
3) The interactionist view sees language acquisition as one example of human learning abilities, influenced by cognitive and social development through interactions with the environment, rather than as an innate,
This document discusses several theories of language acquisition:
1. Behaviorism (Bloomfield, Skinner, Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike): Language is learned through conditioning and reinforcement from the environment. Behaviorists view language learning as habit formation through imitation and reinforcement.
2. Nativism (Chomsky, Lenneberg): Humans are born with an innate language acquisition device that allows them to rapidly and effortlessly acquire language according to a universal grammar. The environment plays a limited role.
3. Cognitivism (Piaget): Language is acquired through cognitive development in stages as children form mental representations (schemas) of the world and adapt them through assimilation and accommodation of new
Language Acquisition Theories in Linguistics with reference to Linguistic Scholars such as Noam Chomsky, B.f Skinner, Jean Piagot, J.B. Watson, Pavlov, and Vygotsky
The document discusses two main theories of language acquisition:
1) The Behaviorist theory proposes that language is learned through stimulus-response conditioning and reinforcement from the environment.
2) The Mentalist theory, proposed by Chomsky, argues that children are born with an innate language acquisition device that allows them to unconsciously learn the rules of language based on limited exposure.
Most psychologists agree with the Mentalist view that both nature and nurture influence language acquisition, with innate abilities laying the framework that exposure builds upon as children master the rules of their native language in a short period of time.
First language acquisition class online 3334cswstyle
1. Behaviorism explains early language acquisition through imitation, reinforcement and habit formation but cannot explain more complex structures.
2. Nativism argues humans are born with an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that enables language learning.
3. Interactionism views language development as occurring through social interactions, combining innate abilities with environmental experiences.
The document summarizes three major theories of language acquisition:
1. Behaviorist theory proposes that language is learned through imitation and reinforcement of behaviors. Children imitate adults and are rewarded for correct utterances.
2. Innatist theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky, argues that humans are born with an innate language acquisition device in the brain that allows them to learn language according to innate linguistic principles and parameters.
3. Cognitive theory views language acquisition as one part of a child's overall intellectual development, and sees language as a symbolic representation that allows children to abstract the world.
1. The document discusses theories of language acquisition including behaviorism, reinforcement, analogy, and mothersese or caretaker speech. Behaviorism views language as learned through imitation and reinforcement of behaviors, while analogy involves extending sentences through examples.
2. Mothersese refers to the simplified speech used by caretakers with exaggerated features to aid children's language development. Key stages of language acquisition from babbling to single words to sentences are also outlined.
3. The innate ability of children to learn language regardless of background is discussed alongside debates on whether language is a conscious or unconscious process for children. The interaction between psychological and linguistic factors in acquiring language is the focus of psycholinguistics.
The document discusses language acquisition and provides details on several key theories of how children learn language. It describes behaviorist theories which posit that language is learned through imitation and reinforcement, as well as nativist theories which argue that humans are born with an innate language acquisition device. The document also discusses interactionist theories which view language development as dependent on both biological and environmental factors, including interaction with others. It provides details on Chomsky's theory of an innate universal grammar and evaluates the different theories based on the stages of language acquisition.
This document summarizes cognitive development in infants in the first two years. It discusses Piaget's theory of sensorimotor intelligence, information processing theory, the development of language, and different theories of how infants learn language. The main developments are that infants organize their perceptions and learn cause and effect by the end of the first year. They also develop dynamic perception focused on movement and prefer humans. Language acquisition follows a universal sequence from babbling to first words to combining words. Theories propose that infants are taught language, teach themselves through innate capacities, or that social interactions foster language learning.
The document discusses behaviorism and the work of B.F. Skinner. It explains that behaviorism views learning as the acquisition of new behaviors based on environmental conditions through reinforcement. Skinner believed that language is learned through a process of reinforcement, punishment, and shaping behaviors using rewards. He invented the Skinner box to study operant conditioning and hypothesized that children learn language through imitation and receiving positive reinforcement from parents for correct utterances. The document contrasts Skinner's views with Chomsky's theory that language is innate through a language acquisition device.
Here is a 193-word response to the question:
In my view, the interactionist theory of L1 acquisition makes the most sense. As an observer of young children learning language, I've seen evidence that supports aspects of all three theories. Children do learn vocabulary and sounds through imitation and reinforcement, as behaviorists suggest. But they also display an innate ability to recognize patterns and apply grammatical rules creatively, supporting nativist ideas.
Most convincingly, though, children learn most effectively through social interaction with caregivers. They learn new words by interacting with objects in context. And they make rapid progress in combining words once they start two-way conversations. This supports the interactionist view that language develops through the interplay
In the first two years, infants develop cognitive abilities including language, learning, memory, and intelligence. Their cognition progresses from sensorimotor intelligence in the first year to increased information processing abilities. Infants develop the ability to organize sensations, perceive objects/people, understand cause/effect, and remember experiences with reminders. Their language abilities also develop significantly, starting from listening/responding to babbling, first words, a naming explosion around 18 months, and combining words into sentences using intonation and holophrases. Theories about how infants learn language include being taught, teaching themselves via innate capacities, and that social impulses foster learning through communication.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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2. THEORIES OF LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
Theory Central idea linguist
Behaviourist Children imitate adults Skinner
Cognitive Lang. is just one aspect of a child‟s
overall intellectual development
Piaget
Innateness Lang. is an innate capacity Chomsky
Interaction Emphasis the interaction b/w child
and their care giver
Bruner
3. BEHAVIOURISM
John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878 –
September 25, 1958) an American
psychologist who established the
psychological school of behaviorism.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov September
26, 1849 – February 27, 1936) was a
famous Russian physiologist
6. BEHAVIOURISM
B.F Skinner (March 20,1904-August 18,1990) was an
American Psychologist.
B.F Skinner proposed this theory as an explanation for
Language acquisition in human.
B. F SKINNER‟S entire system is based on operant
conditioning (learning's a function of change in overt
behaviour)
Language is a „conditioned behavior‟: the stimulus
response process
Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement
7. Thus, Children learn language step by step
Imitation
Repetition
Memorization
controlled drilling
Reinforcement
Reinforcement can either be positive or negative
8. BEHAVIOURISTS’ VIEWS:
Behaviorists view the process of language
acquisition as a building process that results
from interaction with the environment. In
outlining his assertion that humans acquire
spoken language as a result of behavioral
conditioning.
9. ***
B.F. Skinner writes that
“A child acquires verbal behavior when
relatively unpatterned vocalizations,
selectively reinforced, gradually assume
forms which produce appropriate
consequences in a given verbal community”
(Skinner)
10. ***
Skinner views the child as the "passive
subject of operant conditioning in whom
randomly occurring behavior is
selectively reinforced" (Vocate).
11. PRINCIPLES
1. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will
reoccur
2. Information should be presented in small
amounts so that responses can be
reinforced
3. Reinforcement will generalize similar stimuli
(stimulus generalization)
12. Objections
In formulating the process of language
acquisition we do not feed to mention stimuli
occurring prior to the behavior to be
reinforced. It is difficult, if not impossible, to
discover stimuli which evoke specific vocal
responses in the young child.
For example: What a lovely scene!
13. ***
There is no stimulus which makes a child say
b or a or e, as one may make him salivate by
placing a lemon drop in his mouth or make his
pupils contract by shining a light into his eyes.
The raw responses from which verbal
behavior is constructed are not "elicited." In
order to reinforce a given response we simply
wait until it occurs.
14. Two Kinds Of Evidence Used To Criticize Behaviorist
Theory
First Evidence: Based on the kind of language
children produce
first piece of evidence taken from the way
children handle irregular grammatical
patterns
While encountering irregular items, there is a
stage when they replace forms based on the
regular patterns of language
Gradually they switch over to the process of
„analogy‟ – a reasoning process as they start
working out for themselves
15. Two Kinds Of Evidence Used To Criticize Behaviorist
Theory
Second Evidence: Based on what children do not
produce
The other evidence is based on the way children seem unable
to imitate adult grammatical constructions exactly
Best known demonstration of this principle is provided by
American Psycholinguist David McNeill (1933)
Child: Nobody don‟t like me
Mother: No, say „no body likes me‟
Child: Nobody don‟t like me (eight repetitions of this dialogue)
Mother: No, now listen carefully: say „no body likes me‟
Child: Oh! No body don‟t likes me
Thus, language acquisition is more a matter of maturation than
of imitation
16. Limitations in Behaviorism
Language is based on a set of structures or
rules, which could not be worked out simply
by imitating individual utterances
Children are often unable to repeat what an
adults say
18. COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognitive Theory
•The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
placed acquisition of language within the
context of a child‟s mental or cognitive
development.
•Language is just one aspect of a child‟s
overall intellectual development.
.
19. ***
A child has to understand a concept before he/she
can acquire the particular language from which
expresses that concept.
21. STAGES
• The four developmental stages are
described in Piaget‟s theory as:
1. Sensorimotor Stage
• From birth to age 2(children are
extremely egocentric, meaning they can‟t
perceive the world from others
viewpoints.
22. Sub Stages
1. Simple Reflexes(1 month infants reflexes
such as rooting and sucking)
2. First habits and primary circular
reaction(1 to 4 infants learn to
coordinate sensation )
3. Secondary circular recation(4 to 8 infants
become aware of things, they are more
object oriented)
23. 4. Cordition of secondary circular recation(8
to 12 infants do things intentionally)
5. Tertiary circular reaction(12 to 18 infants
explore new possibilities of objects)
6. Internalization of schemes(18 to 24 they
shift to symbolic thinking)
24. • 2. Preoperational Stage
• From 2 to 7 (magical thinking
predominates). Egocentrism begins
strongly and then weakens. Children
can‟t conserve or use logical thinking.
25. 3. Concrete Operational Stage
From 7 to 12(Children begin to think logically
but are very concrete in their thinking). They
are no longer egocentrics.
26. 4. Formal Operational Stage
• Start from 11 and continues into
adulthood. Individual move beyond
concert experiences and begin to think
abstractly)
27. 3. Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky is perhaps the best known and the most
influential linguist of the second half of the Twentieth
Century. He has made a number of strong claims about
language : in particular, he suggests that LANGUAGE IS
AN INNATE ABILITY - that is to say that we are born
with set of rules about language in our brains called the
„UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR‟ or Generative Grammar.
29. Behaviourist position (Skinner, 1950s)
Main behaviourist claim: all learning,
including language learning, is the product of
habit formation.
We learn through imitation and repetition.
Emphasis on the importance of the
observable in any theory claiming to be
scientific (empirical view).
Since only behaviour is observable, we must
study learning by observing behaviour
patterns.
30. Behaviourist position
We learn through:
Imitation + reinforcement (praise or success in
communication) = habit formation.
According to this view Stimulus-Response-
Reinforcement IS the learning mechanism.
Language is considered „verbal behaviour‟.
Children practise and repeat what they hear, and in
this way learn their L1.
32. INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS:
An innatist theory
“Nature” over “Nurture”
According to Chomsky, crucial parts of the
human language ability are built into the
brain – part of our biology, programmed
into our genes
33. Chomsky V Skinner
Remember Skinner?
Late 1950s: environment-only theories of
language acquisition in the ascendant
Chomsky (1959) reviewed Skinner‟s book
Verbal Behaviour
Chomsky found flaws in Skinner‟s mechanism
Chomsky argued that environment-only
mechanisms couldn‟t possibly account for
language acquisition
35. The brain: missing evidence?
Neuroscience could be convincing…
…but our knowledge of the brain is not that
advanced.
We cannot see the proposed language structures
Even if we could, we could not establish that
these structures were innate
36. Creativity
Language is CREATIVE
– We can produce and understand an infinite range
of novel grammatical sentences
– Children do not imitate a fixed repertoire of
sentences
Chomsky: creativity is not explicable if language
is learnt just from the environment
37. Creating a Grammar
5 rules:
S NP VP
NP Det N
NP N
VP V NP
VP V
9 words:
Det: the, four, some
N: dogs, cats, slugs
V: understood, ate,
approached
How many sentences?
38. Degeneracy of the data
The child‟s language data is degenerate
Ungrammatical utterances are frequent and are
not marked out as “wrong”
Therefore it is impossible to deduce the grammar
of a language, if your only input data is
utterances from the environment
39. Poverty of the stimulus
Chomskyan syntax: more complex than
people had previously thought syntax to be!
The grammar of a sentence can‟t be deduced
from its surface form
– The schoolchildren were difficult to teach
– The schoolchildren were eager to teach
So environmental language data is
insufficient: grammar can‟t be learned from it
40. Misleading feedback
Adults correct children for truth, not
grammaticality
… so the feedback data children receive does
not actually tell them how well they are doing
Misleading feedback makes it even harder for
children to learn grammar
41. Evidence from Creoles
Pidgin: simple language that arise in contact
situations
Creole: a fully complex language descended
from a pidgin
The grammar of a Creole is created by children
as they learn it
This is evidence that this grammar comes from
some innate source
42. Universal features of language
Languages vary greatly, but have some common
features
Example: nouns and verbs
Example: structure dependency
– Grammatical rules rely on the structure of the
sentence, not the surface order of the words
43. Structure dependency
Mr Smith was a good man
Was Mr Smith a good man?
Mr Smith was a good man
Man good a was Smith Mr?
Joe was a good man
A Joe was good man?
44. Syntax
Well-formed sentence without meaning:
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
Syntax as well as meaning deprived of inner logic:
Ideas furiously green colorless sleep.
46. Universals explained
Universals unexpected if language is learnt from
the environment alone
Universals due to innate language
Or due to something else?
– Universal functions of language
– Universal forms of cognition
47. The theory:
innate language knowledge
If children don‟t/can‟t learn the rules of
grammar from the language around them in
their environment…
… then these rules must have been in-born
This explains all the difficulties we found with
environment-only acquisition theories
49. Innatism
What is innate?
Chomsky: the essential core of grammar is
innate
A generative grammar that can produce an
infinite range of novel sentences
The innate system for language learning
– Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
– Universal Grammar (UG)
– “bioprogram”
– “language organ”
– “language instinct” Steven Pinker (1994)
51. Is language autonomous?
Chomsky thinks that language is autonomous in
the mind
This means that language (i.e. UG) is a separate
system in the brain‟s architecture
It is connected to, but does not interact
extensively with, other sorts of thought
53. Maturation
Chomsky‟s theory is a maturationist theory
Language acquisition runs to an innate biological
timetable
UG matures in the brain and is slowly released in
predetermined stages as the child grows
This linguistic maturation is analogous to the sexual
maturation we go through at puberty…
… and is just as involuntary!
– Only the younger ones were at the right stage of maturation
54. Language is species-specific
UG and the language system only occur in the
human brain
Therefore, no other animals can acquire a
human language
But is this solely due to their lesser intelligence?
Can chimps learn language? We‟ll look at this
next term!
55. Evolution??
How did UG get there in the first place?
There is much disagreement on this
– Chomsky: not by natural selection!
– Chomsky, Bickerton: a single lucky language
mutation (a “Hopeful Monster”)
– Pinker: by normal natural selection
56. Universal Grammar
But what exactly is Universal Grammar?
What knowledge does it contain?
How does it function in the process of language
acquisition?
57. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (U.G.):
“Children are equipped with an innate
template or blueprint for language and this
blueprint aids the child in the task of
constructing a grammar for their language.”
This is known as “Innateness Hypothesis.”
58. Children Construct Grammars:
“Language learning is not really something that
the child does; it is something that happens to the
child placed in an appropriate environment much
as the child‟s body grows and matures in a
predetermined way when provided with
appropriate nutrition and environmental
stimulation.”
--Noam Chomsky
59. What does U.G. (Universal
Grammar) have?
Chomsky says:
The UG does not have the actual rules of
each language but it has PRINCIPLES &
PARAMETERS.
The rules of language are derived from the
PRINCIPLES & PARAMETERS.
60. The “black box”
What is in the UG black box?
Chomsky says that the contents of UG explains:
– a) the nature of syntax
– b) language acquisition
The description of the grammar and the explanation of
how it is learnt are unified in this theory
61. The role of the input
What is the input?
– Primary linguistic data
– This means all the language the child hears
– From the child‟s environment
The input is critical
– Without input at the right stage of maturation, the
child‟s UG cannot develop into a grammar
– Evidence: “feral” children e.g. Genie
– Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg)
62. What is the output?
Chomsky sees language competence in terms
of a formal language
– A lexicon
Contains words, idioms, etc.
Lexical items have meanings
– A set of abstract, algebraic rules
Including the rules of syntax, phonology, etc.
The rules have no meaning
The lexicon is learned normally (from
experience, trial and error, imitation)
… but the rules are innate
63. Therefore…
This answers our question!
Q: What does UG contain?
A: UG contains the core, formal rules of the
grammar
This is Chomsky‟s explanation for how the
generative creativity of language is acquired
64. CHOMSKYAN GENERATIVE
GRAMMAR:
The Chomskyan approach towards Syntax, often
termed Generative Grammar studies grammar as a
body of knowledge possessed by language users.
Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that
much of this knowledge is innate, implying that
children need only learn certain parochial features of
their native languages. The innate body of linguistic
knowledge that is often termed Universal Grammar
is already there.
65. Chomsky’s Syntactic Theory:
The first task of Chomsky's syntax is to
account for the speaker's understanding of
the internal structure of sentences. Chomsky
and other grammarians can represent much,
though not all, of the speaker's knowledge of
the internal structure of sentences with rules
called "phrase structure" rules.
66. Chomskyan rules
How do these Chomskyan rules work?
Instructions for generating sentence
structures, e.g.:
– S NP VP
– NP Det Adj N
Structural slots filled by elements from the
lexicon, e.g.
– Det Adj N The tall building
68. Principles and parameters
The rules that produce these “tree” structures
are innate…
… but these rules differ from language to
language!
Chomsky: the UG does not contain the actual
rules of each language.
Instead, it contains PRINCIPLES and
PARAMETERS
– The rules of each language are derived from the
principles and parameters
69. Universals revisited
“Principles” == linguistic universals
Features found in all languages
So what exactly are these universals?
Are there really that many firm universals?
Probably not
Many linguists take other approaches to
universals
70. The Pro-drop Parameter
Controls whether subject pronouns can be
dropped in the language
– I understand Chomsky‟s theory
– * understand Chomsky‟s theory WRONG
– je comprends la théorie de Chomsky
– * comprends la théorie de Chomsky WRONG
– comprendo la teoría de Chomsky OK
Spanish: [+ Pro-drop]
English and French: [- Pro-drop]
71. Heads and complements
The Head of a phrase is the “compulsory
word” of the phrase
– A verb is the head of a verb phrase
– A noun is the head of a noun phrase
The Complement of a phrase is an “optional”
other element in the phrase
– A verb‟s complement is its object
ride a horse, explain the problem
– A preposition‟s complement is its noun phrase
in the house, behind my back, after the party
72. Some examples -
Languages like English:
– Verb before Object
– Preposition before NP
– Question-words at start of sentence
Languages like Japanese:
– Verb after Object
– Preposition after NP (= postposition)
– Question-words at end of sentence
73. The Head Parameter
In English, the head consistently comes
before the complement…
In Japanese, the head consistently comes
after the complement…
… in many different kinds of syntactic
phrases!
This same pattern is found in other languages
74. The Head Parameter
The orders of verb & object, pre/postposition
& NP, and question word & sentence are all
controlled by the Head Parameter
This has two settings:
– Head-First (e.g. English)
– Head-Last (e.g. Japanese)
75. Setting Parameters
The child must set the parameter for their
language, based on evidence in the input
Remember, the input is vital!
When the Head Parameter matures, the child
sets it to:
– Head First if their input contains things like verb-object
– Head Last if their input contains things like object-verb
76. The power of parameters
A single parameter can affect many areas of
the grammar
One example of verb-object or object-verb is
enough to set the Head Parameter…
– Eat your spinach! (Head First)
– Your spinach eat! (Head Last)
… which is all the child needs to correctly order
verbs, pre/postpositions and question words
(and other constructions too)
78. 4.Jerome Bruner— Interactionist.
(1915--Present)
“The language behaviour of adults when talking to
children (known by several names by most easily
referred to as child-directed speech or CDS) is
specially adapted to support the acquisition process.
This support is often described to as scaffolding for
the child's language learning. Bruner also coined the
term Language Acquisition Support System or LASS
in response to Chomsky's LAD.”
79. Jerome Bruner (SOCIAL
INTERACTIONIST THEORY):
The psychologist Jerome is of the view that while Chomsky
suggests a LAD, there must also be a Language Acquisition
Support System or LASS. He is referring to the family and
the social environment of the child in which he interacts
and acquires language.
80. BRUNER’S LASS:
If we look at the child‟s early learning environment we can
see how:
A CHILD INTERACTS WITH THE ADULTS
AROUND HIMHER.
CONSTANT & CONTINUAL CHANCES ARE
PROVIDED TO THE CHILD TO ACUIRE HISHER
MOTHER TONGUE.
PARENTS & ADULTS PROVIDE A LEARNIG
ENIRONMENT TO THE CHILD.
81. THEORY OF BRUNER
(Social Interaction)
Bruner is one of the founding fathers of
Constructivist Theory.
“Learners construct new ideas and concepts
based upon their existing knowledge.”
- Learning goes on and is an active process.
82. Research on Children’s
Development: (in 1966)
Bruner gave three modes of representation in
children‟s development:
Enactive representation (action-based),
Iconic representation (image-based),
Symbolic representation (language-based).
83. Intellectual Development:
Bruner postulated three stages of intellectual
development:
The first stage he termed "Enactive", when a
person learns about the world through actions
on physical objects and the outcomes of these
actions.
(used in first 18 months)
84. ***
The second stage was
called "Iconic" where
learning can be obtained
through using models and
pictures.
(develops from 18 months)
85. ***
The final stage was
"Symbolic" in which
the learner develops
the capacity to think
in abstract terms.
(6 to 7 years onwards)
86. CATEGORIZATION:
Bruner's theories emphasize the
significance of categorization in
learning.
“To perceive is to categorize, to
conceptualize is to categorize, to learn
is to form categories, to make decisions
is to categorize."
87. Bruner’s Theory:
Like Piaget, Bruner believed that children have an
innate capacity that helps them make sense of the work
and that cognitive abilities develop through active
interaction.
Unlike Piaget however, Bruner argued that social
factors, particularly language, were important for
cognitive growth. These underpin the concept of
„scaffolding‟.
88. ***
Bruner was also
concerned with how
knowledge is represented
and organised through
different modes of
representation
89. Scaffolding (1976)
Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976) – adults
particularly parents, support children's
cognitive development through everyday play
interactions.
Scaffolding is a temporary support structure
around that child‟s attempts to understand
new ideas and complete new tasks.
90. The purpose of the support is to allow the
child to achieve higher levels of development
by:
1. simplifying the task or idea
2. motivating and encouraging the child
Highlighting important task elements or
errors
Giving models that can be imitated.
91. BRUNER’S VIEW:
“The child learns how to use language within
the social context of language use in which
the child interacts. He grows up and needs to
interact in the social scenario of the
caretaker (s) around him and he gradually
adopts their movements & language.”
92. ***Example of A Childhood
Game***
Bruner gives example of a well-known childhood
game to explain language acquisition:
First Language Acquisition takes place like a game
in which the mother or care-taker first appear and
then disappear with simple comments as
„hello…how are you?” etc. and then lengthier
comments or words and the child learns about the
play as well as the contexts being provided t him.
93. The Narrative Construction of
Reality: (in 1991)
In 1991, Bruner published an article “Critical Inquiry”
entitled "The Narrative Construction of Reality." In
this article, he argued:
“the mind structures its sense of reality using mediation
through "cultural products, like language and other
symbolic systems“.
He focuses on the idea of narrative as one of these
cultural products.