Ketone bodies
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The three ketone bodies - acetone, acetoacetate, and β-hydroxybutyrate - are synthesized in the liver from fatty acids and serve as an energy source, especially for the brain, during periods of low glucose such as fasting or diabetes. Glucagon stimulates ketone body production while insulin inhibits it. Increased ketone body production can lead to ketoacidosis, causing the blood to become acidic and potentially life-threatening. Treatment involves correcting metabolic issues with insulin administration and hydration.
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Ketone bodies.pptx
Ketone bodies are water soluble molecules that contain the ketone groups produced from fatty acids by the liver.
Ketone bodies Generation and utilization
Ketone bodies (acetone, acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate) are produced in the liver through a process called ketogenesis when fatty acids are broken down. They can be used by tissues like muscle and heart as an energy source, especially during periods of low glucose such as fasting or diabetes. Ketone bodies are converted back to acetyl-CoA in tissues through a series of reactions. High levels of ketone bodies can cause ketoacidosis, lowering the pH of the blood, which is dangerous and requires treatment with insulin.
presenatation on ketone bodies
Hello friends ,this presentation is all about ketone bodies .this will help you to understand what are ketone bodies and their functioning .it will benefit specially bpharmacy students.
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Presentation by Katie Rapp for LBSC 690 Information Technology course at the University of Maryland, College Park
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The document outlines chapters and sections from a biology textbook covering cell biology topics. Specifically, it discusses Section 5.3 from Chapter 5 on metabolism, energy, and enzymes. This section describes the roles of the thyroid and parathyroid glands in regulating metabolic rate and blood calcium levels. The thyroid gland produces hormones that increase metabolic rate and regulates blood calcium. The parathyroid gland produces a hormone that increases blood calcium when it falls too low. Together these glands maintain appropriate calcium levels and metabolic rates in the body.
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Ketone bodies.pptx
Ketone bodies are water soluble molecules that contain the ketone groups produced from fatty acids by the liver.
Ketone bodies Generation and utilization
Ketone bodies (acetone, acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate) are produced in the liver through a process called ketogenesis when fatty acids are broken down. They can be used by tissues like muscle and heart as an energy source, especially during periods of low glucose such as fasting or diabetes. Ketone bodies are converted back to acetyl-CoA in tissues through a series of reactions. High levels of ketone bodies can cause ketoacidosis, lowering the pH of the blood, which is dangerous and requires treatment with insulin.
presenatation on ketone bodies
Hello friends ,this presentation is all about ketone bodies .this will help you to understand what are ketone bodies and their functioning .it will benefit specially bpharmacy students.
KETONE BODY METABOLISM. FOR MBBS, BDS, LABORATORY MEDICINE pptx
Ketone bodies are produced from acetyl-CoA, mainly in the mitochondrial matrix of liver cells when carbohydrates are so scarce that energy must be obtained from breaking down of fatty acids.
Ketone bodies
They are water soluble substances.
2. They are synthesized at a relatively low rate in well nourished individuals.
3. Plasma level of ketone bodies < 1mg/dl.
4. Urinary level of ketone bodies <3 mg/24 hour urine.
biochm ketons new.pptx
The document discusses ketone bodies, which are water-soluble compounds produced by the liver from fatty acids during times of low blood glucose such as fasting or a low-carbohydrate diet. The three main ketone bodies are acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. They are released from the liver and used by tissues like the brain and heart as an energy source when glucose levels are low. Conditions like prolonged fasting, starvation, untreated type 1 diabetes, or a very low-carb diet can lead to ketosis, which occurs when ketone body levels in the blood and urine are high.
Ketone bodies, ketosis & it’s pathogenesis
Ketone bodies (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone) are water-soluble molecules produced by the liver from fatty acids during periods of low food intake (fasting or starvation), prolonged intense exercise, and uncontrolled diabetes. The liver exports ketone bodies to be used as an energy source by the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles in place of glucose. Ketone body production is regulated by controlling fatty acid release from adipose tissue, fatty acid oxidation in the liver, and partitioning of acetyl-CoA between ketogenesis and the citric acid cycle. Excessive ketone body accumulation can overwhelm acid-base buffering mechanisms and lead to ketoacidosis, as
Formation and utilization of ketone bodies; ketoacidosis
Formation and utilization of ketone bodies is part of lipid metabolism. After completion of this topic one can understand about Ketogenesis, utilization of Ketone bodies and ketoacidosis
Ketone Bodies.pptx
Ketone bodies are produced by the liver and used peripherally as an energy source when glucose is not readily available.
Ketosis- causes and consequences
Ketosis occurs when the liver breaks down fatty acids into ketone bodies like acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate. This process (called ketogenesis) takes place in the liver and involves three enzymes that convert two acetyl-CoA molecules into acetoacetate. The liver then exports ketone bodies to other tissues as an alternative fuel when glucose levels are low, such as during prolonged fasting or starvation. Other tissues utilize ketone bodies by converting them back into acetyl-CoA to enter the TCA cycle, except for the liver which lacks an enzyme needed for this conversion.
Ketone Bodies (1).pptx
This document discusses ketone metabolism, including ketogenesis, ketolysis, and ketosis. It provides details on:
- Ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid, β-hydroxybutyric acid, and acetone produced from fatty acid breakdown in the liver.
- Ketogenesis involves condensation of acetyl-CoA molecules to form acetoacetyl-CoA and HMG-CoA, then cleavage to produce acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyric acid.
- Ketolysis is the oxidation of ketone bodies to CO2 and H2O, primarily in mitochondria of extrahepatic tissues using the enzyme thiophorase.
- Ketosis occurs when
Ketone bodies
This document provides an overview of ketone bodies including:
- Ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetate, and β-hydroxybutyrate which are produced when fatty acids are broken down in the liver.
- Ketone bodies can be used as an energy source by other tissues when glucose is unavailable, as in starvation or untreated diabetes.
- Untreated diabetes and starvation can cause an overproduction of ketone bodies leading to dangerously high levels in the blood and urine.
- Jamaican vomiting sickness is caused by a toxin that inhibits fatty acid breakdown in the liver, causing ketone body and glucose dependence.
Ketosis a quick revision
This document discusses ketone bodies and ketosis. It defines ketone bodies as water-soluble transporters of acetyl units produced in the liver from fatty acids during periods of low carbohydrate availability. The three main ketone bodies are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone. Ketone bodies serve as an alternative fuel for tissues like the brain during glucose deprivation. The document outlines the pathways of ketone body synthesis in the liver and utilization in other tissues, as well as conditions that cause excess ketone production (ketosis).
Ketone body metabolism
This document discusses ketone bodies, their metabolism, and conditions of excess ketone body production. Ketone bodies are produced in the liver from acetyl-CoA when fatty acid breakdown exceeds the ability of the citric acid cycle to process acetyl-CoA. They can be used as an energy source by other tissues. Excess ketone body production occurs in starvation and uncontrolled diabetes, leading to ketosis or ketoacidosis as ketone levels rise and pH decreases due to ketone acid buildup.
Ketonebodies2014
The document discusses ketone bodies, their production through ketogenesis in the liver from acetyl-CoA, and their utilization as an energy source by extrahepatic tissues. It notes that ketone body production is regulated by lipolysis in adipose tissue and the availability of acetyl-CoA. Conditions like starvation and uncontrolled diabetes can result in diabetic or starvation ketoacidosis if ketone bodies are produced in excess, overwhelming the body's pH buffering mechanisms and leading to metabolic acidosis.
Ketogenesis and ketolysis ---Sir Khalid (Biochem)
Ketogenesis is the formation of ketone bodies in the liver mitochondria when fatty acid breakdown from beta-oxidation exceeds carbohydrate breakdown, such as during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. This is because acetyl-CoA production overloads the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA is converted to ketone bodies like acetoacetate, acetone, and 3-hydroxybutyrate, which travel through the bloodstream and are used by muscles and brain as fuel, providing an easy transport of fatty acid energy when glucose is limited.
ketogenesis and utilisation of ketone bodies.pptx
The document discusses ketone bodies, which are produced when fatty acids are broken down in excess. The three major ketone bodies are acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Ketone bodies are an alternative energy source and are produced when glucose availability is limited, such as during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. They are synthesized in the liver and can be used by tissues like the brain. Conditions that result in excessive ketone body production are called ketosis.
Ketone Bodies Synthesis and Degradation.pptx
This document summarizes ketone bodies, including their synthesis (ketogenesis), degradation (ketolysis), and excess production (ketosis). Ketone bodies are produced in the liver from fatty acid breakdown and serve as an energy source when glucose is limited, as in starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. Ketogenesis involves the conversion of acetyl-CoA into acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate through a series of reactions. Ketolysis utilizes these ketone bodies in other tissues through their conversion back into acetyl-CoA. Ketosis occurs when ketone body levels become excessive, typically due to starvation or diabetes, leading to ketonemia, ketonuria, and metabolic acidosis.
907471 properties-of-triacylglycerols
The document discusses various topics related to lipids and their metabolism, including the properties and breakdown of triglycerides, cholesterol metabolism and its role in atherosclerosis, ketone body formation during fasting as an energy source, and diabetic ketoacidosis resulting from high levels of ketone bodies in the blood. It also provides information on examville.com, an online resource for practice tests, classes, tutoring and other educational materials.
907471 properties-of-triacylglycerols
The document discusses various topics related to lipids and their metabolism, including the properties and reactions of triacylglycerols, cholesterol metabolism and its role in atherosclerosis, ketone body formation and their role as an energy source, particularly for the brain during periods of starvation. Atherosclerosis results from elevated cholesterol levels, especially LDL cholesterol, and diet and exercise can help lower cholesterol. Ketone bodies are produced from fatty acids and certain amino acids in the liver during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate availability and serve as an energy source.
Ketone bodies
Ketone bodies (acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate) are produced in the liver from fatty acids and serve as an important source of energy for tissues when glucose levels are low. They can pass through the blood-brain barrier to fuel the brain during periods of starvation. Ketone body production is controlled by insulin and glucagon levels. In times of low insulin and high glucagon, lipolysis is increased in fat cells and ketogenesis is increased in the liver. High levels of ketone bodies in the blood can result in ketoacidosis, a dangerous condition where ketones overwhelm the body's ability to regulate pH levels. Ketoacidosis is most commonly seen in uncontrolled diabetes but can also
4 Ketone body metabolism.ppt
Ketone bodies are produced in the liver during periods of low carbohydrate availability as an alternative fuel source. The three main ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Ketone bodies can be used as an energy source by the brain and other tissues. Ketosis occurs when there are high levels of ketone bodies in the blood and urine, typically due to prolonged fasting or uncontrolled diabetes which limits the body's access to glucose.
Ketogenesis and ketolysis
The document discusses ketone bodies, ketogenesis, and ketolysis. It provides details on:
- Ketone bodies are produced when fats are broken down in the liver and include acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate.
- Ketone bodies can be used as an energy source by tissues and can cross the blood brain barrier.
- Ketogenesis occurs in the liver mitochondria when glucose levels are low, such as during starvation or untreated diabetes. This allows fatty acids to be broken down into ketone bodies.
- Ketolysis is the breakdown of ketone bodies which occurs in extrahepatic tissues to produce acetyl CoA for energy production.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates like proteins, lipids, and other small molecules. It occurs primarily in the liver, kidneys, and intestine to maintain blood glucose levels. The pathway consists of eleven enzyme-catalyzed reactions, many of which are the reverse of glycolysis. The rate-limiting step is the conversion of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate by fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase. This pathway generates glucose which can then be released from cells and used by other tissues.
Urea cycle
The urea cycle is a series of biochemical reactions that occurs primarily in the liver and to a lesser extent the kidneys. It converts highly toxic ammonia produced from amino acid catabolism into urea for excretion. The cycle consists of five main enzymatic steps that incorporate ammonia along with carbon dioxide and aspartate to form urea, which is excreted in urine. Disorders of the urea cycle can cause serious issues such as coma, death, and liver damage if ammonia is not eliminated from the body.
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KETONE BODY METABOLISM. FOR MBBS, BDS, LABORATORY MEDICINE pptx
Ketone bodies are produced from acetyl-CoA, mainly in the mitochondrial matrix of liver cells when carbohydrates are so scarce that energy must be obtained from breaking down of fatty acids.
Ketone bodies
They are water soluble substances.
2. They are synthesized at a relatively low rate in well nourished individuals.
3. Plasma level of ketone bodies < 1mg/dl.
4. Urinary level of ketone bodies <3 mg/24 hour urine.
biochm ketons new.pptx
The document discusses ketone bodies, which are water-soluble compounds produced by the liver from fatty acids during times of low blood glucose such as fasting or a low-carbohydrate diet. The three main ketone bodies are acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. They are released from the liver and used by tissues like the brain and heart as an energy source when glucose levels are low. Conditions like prolonged fasting, starvation, untreated type 1 diabetes, or a very low-carb diet can lead to ketosis, which occurs when ketone body levels in the blood and urine are high.
Ketone bodies, ketosis & it’s pathogenesis
Ketone bodies (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone) are water-soluble molecules produced by the liver from fatty acids during periods of low food intake (fasting or starvation), prolonged intense exercise, and uncontrolled diabetes. The liver exports ketone bodies to be used as an energy source by the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles in place of glucose. Ketone body production is regulated by controlling fatty acid release from adipose tissue, fatty acid oxidation in the liver, and partitioning of acetyl-CoA between ketogenesis and the citric acid cycle. Excessive ketone body accumulation can overwhelm acid-base buffering mechanisms and lead to ketoacidosis, as
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Formation and utilization of ketone bodies is part of lipid metabolism. After completion of this topic one can understand about Ketogenesis, utilization of Ketone bodies and ketoacidosis
Ketone Bodies.pptx
Ketone bodies are produced by the liver and used peripherally as an energy source when glucose is not readily available.
Ketosis- causes and consequences
Ketosis occurs when the liver breaks down fatty acids into ketone bodies like acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate. This process (called ketogenesis) takes place in the liver and involves three enzymes that convert two acetyl-CoA molecules into acetoacetate. The liver then exports ketone bodies to other tissues as an alternative fuel when glucose levels are low, such as during prolonged fasting or starvation. Other tissues utilize ketone bodies by converting them back into acetyl-CoA to enter the TCA cycle, except for the liver which lacks an enzyme needed for this conversion.
Ketone Bodies (1).pptx
This document discusses ketone metabolism, including ketogenesis, ketolysis, and ketosis. It provides details on:
- Ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid, β-hydroxybutyric acid, and acetone produced from fatty acid breakdown in the liver.
- Ketogenesis involves condensation of acetyl-CoA molecules to form acetoacetyl-CoA and HMG-CoA, then cleavage to produce acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyric acid.
- Ketolysis is the oxidation of ketone bodies to CO2 and H2O, primarily in mitochondria of extrahepatic tissues using the enzyme thiophorase.
- Ketosis occurs when
Ketone bodies
This document provides an overview of ketone bodies including:
- Ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetate, and β-hydroxybutyrate which are produced when fatty acids are broken down in the liver.
- Ketone bodies can be used as an energy source by other tissues when glucose is unavailable, as in starvation or untreated diabetes.
- Untreated diabetes and starvation can cause an overproduction of ketone bodies leading to dangerously high levels in the blood and urine.
- Jamaican vomiting sickness is caused by a toxin that inhibits fatty acid breakdown in the liver, causing ketone body and glucose dependence.
Ketosis a quick revision
This document discusses ketone bodies and ketosis. It defines ketone bodies as water-soluble transporters of acetyl units produced in the liver from fatty acids during periods of low carbohydrate availability. The three main ketone bodies are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone. Ketone bodies serve as an alternative fuel for tissues like the brain during glucose deprivation. The document outlines the pathways of ketone body synthesis in the liver and utilization in other tissues, as well as conditions that cause excess ketone production (ketosis).
Ketone body metabolism
This document discusses ketone bodies, their metabolism, and conditions of excess ketone body production. Ketone bodies are produced in the liver from acetyl-CoA when fatty acid breakdown exceeds the ability of the citric acid cycle to process acetyl-CoA. They can be used as an energy source by other tissues. Excess ketone body production occurs in starvation and uncontrolled diabetes, leading to ketosis or ketoacidosis as ketone levels rise and pH decreases due to ketone acid buildup.
Ketonebodies2014
The document discusses ketone bodies, their production through ketogenesis in the liver from acetyl-CoA, and their utilization as an energy source by extrahepatic tissues. It notes that ketone body production is regulated by lipolysis in adipose tissue and the availability of acetyl-CoA. Conditions like starvation and uncontrolled diabetes can result in diabetic or starvation ketoacidosis if ketone bodies are produced in excess, overwhelming the body's pH buffering mechanisms and leading to metabolic acidosis.
Ketogenesis and ketolysis ---Sir Khalid (Biochem)
Ketogenesis is the formation of ketone bodies in the liver mitochondria when fatty acid breakdown from beta-oxidation exceeds carbohydrate breakdown, such as during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. This is because acetyl-CoA production overloads the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA is converted to ketone bodies like acetoacetate, acetone, and 3-hydroxybutyrate, which travel through the bloodstream and are used by muscles and brain as fuel, providing an easy transport of fatty acid energy when glucose is limited.
ketogenesis and utilisation of ketone bodies.pptx
The document discusses ketone bodies, which are produced when fatty acids are broken down in excess. The three major ketone bodies are acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Ketone bodies are an alternative energy source and are produced when glucose availability is limited, such as during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. They are synthesized in the liver and can be used by tissues like the brain. Conditions that result in excessive ketone body production are called ketosis.
Ketone Bodies Synthesis and Degradation.pptx
This document summarizes ketone bodies, including their synthesis (ketogenesis), degradation (ketolysis), and excess production (ketosis). Ketone bodies are produced in the liver from fatty acid breakdown and serve as an energy source when glucose is limited, as in starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. Ketogenesis involves the conversion of acetyl-CoA into acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate through a series of reactions. Ketolysis utilizes these ketone bodies in other tissues through their conversion back into acetyl-CoA. Ketosis occurs when ketone body levels become excessive, typically due to starvation or diabetes, leading to ketonemia, ketonuria, and metabolic acidosis.
907471 properties-of-triacylglycerols
The document discusses various topics related to lipids and their metabolism, including the properties and breakdown of triglycerides, cholesterol metabolism and its role in atherosclerosis, ketone body formation during fasting as an energy source, and diabetic ketoacidosis resulting from high levels of ketone bodies in the blood. It also provides information on examville.com, an online resource for practice tests, classes, tutoring and other educational materials.
907471 properties-of-triacylglycerols
The document discusses various topics related to lipids and their metabolism, including the properties and reactions of triacylglycerols, cholesterol metabolism and its role in atherosclerosis, ketone body formation and their role as an energy source, particularly for the brain during periods of starvation. Atherosclerosis results from elevated cholesterol levels, especially LDL cholesterol, and diet and exercise can help lower cholesterol. Ketone bodies are produced from fatty acids and certain amino acids in the liver during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate availability and serve as an energy source.
Ketone bodies
Ketone bodies (acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate) are produced in the liver from fatty acids and serve as an important source of energy for tissues when glucose levels are low. They can pass through the blood-brain barrier to fuel the brain during periods of starvation. Ketone body production is controlled by insulin and glucagon levels. In times of low insulin and high glucagon, lipolysis is increased in fat cells and ketogenesis is increased in the liver. High levels of ketone bodies in the blood can result in ketoacidosis, a dangerous condition where ketones overwhelm the body's ability to regulate pH levels. Ketoacidosis is most commonly seen in uncontrolled diabetes but can also
4 Ketone body metabolism.ppt
Ketone bodies are produced in the liver during periods of low carbohydrate availability as an alternative fuel source. The three main ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Ketone bodies can be used as an energy source by the brain and other tissues. Ketosis occurs when there are high levels of ketone bodies in the blood and urine, typically due to prolonged fasting or uncontrolled diabetes which limits the body's access to glucose.
Ketogenesis and ketolysis
The document discusses ketone bodies, ketogenesis, and ketolysis. It provides details on:
- Ketone bodies are produced when fats are broken down in the liver and include acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate.
- Ketone bodies can be used as an energy source by tissues and can cross the blood brain barrier.
- Ketogenesis occurs in the liver mitochondria when glucose levels are low, such as during starvation or untreated diabetes. This allows fatty acids to be broken down into ketone bodies.
- Ketolysis is the breakdown of ketone bodies which occurs in extrahepatic tissues to produce acetyl CoA for energy production.
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Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates like proteins, lipids, and other small molecules. It occurs primarily in the liver, kidneys, and intestine to maintain blood glucose levels. The pathway consists of eleven enzyme-catalyzed reactions, many of which are the reverse of glycolysis. The rate-limiting step is the conversion of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate by fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase. This pathway generates glucose which can then be released from cells and used by other tissues.
Urea cycle
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Hmp shunt
The document discusses the hexose monophosphate shunt (HMP shunt), an alternative pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle for oxidizing glucose. The HMP shunt occurs in the cytosol and is more anabolic in nature, producing NADPH and pentose through oxidative and non-oxidative phases. Tissues with high HMP shunt activity like the liver, adipose tissue, and lactating mammary glands use the NADPH produced for biosynthesis of fatty acids and steroids.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and can proceed with or without oxygen. The pathway involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that phosphorylate and then split glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, reducing NAD+ to NADH in the process. Net production is two ATP per glucose via substrate-level phosphorylation. With oxygen present, NADH can be further oxidized through the electron transport chain to produce much more ATP.
Beta oxidation
The document summarizes fatty acid oxidation (β-oxidation) which involves three main stages: 1) Activation of fatty acids in the cytosol, 2) Transport of fatty acids into mitochondria via the carnitine shuttle system, and 3) β-Oxidation within the mitochondrial matrix which occurs via four reactions that sequentially cleave two-carbon acetyl-CoA units from the fatty acid acyl-CoA. This process continues in cycles until the fatty acid is completely broken down.
Citric acid cycle part 2
Succinyl CoA is converted to succinate by succinate thiokinase in a substrate level phosphorylation reaction producing ATP. GTP is converted to ATP by nucleoside diphosphate kinase. Succinate is oxidized to fumarate by succinate dehydrogenase, producing FADH2. Fumarase catalyzes the conversion of fumarate to malate with the addition of H2O. Malate is then oxidized to oxaloacetate by malate dehydrogenase, producing NADH. Oxaloacetate combines with another acetyl CoA to continue the TCA cycle.
Citric acid cycle part 1
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle, occurs in mitochondria during aerobic cellular respiration. It is the key metabolic pathway that generates energy in the form of ATP and reduced cofactors like NADH and FADH2. The cycle involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA condenses with oxaloacetate to form citrate, which undergoes a series of chemical reactions catalyzed by specific enzymes, resulting in the oxidation of acetyl-CoA, the production of carbon dioxide, and the generation of reduced cofactors that fuel the electron transport chain to
Fermentation
Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through enzyme action, typically extracting energy from carbohydrates without oxygen. It is used to preserve foods through lactic acid production and make alcoholic beverages. Key products include ethanol, lactic acid, hydrogen gas, and others. It is an ancient metabolic pathway common to bacteria and eukaryotes that takes place in anaerobic environments.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and can proceed with or without oxygen. The pathway involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that phosphorylate and then split glucose into two 3-carbon molecules. This releases energy to produce a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose via substrate-level phosphorylation. With oxygen present, NADH is also produced to fuel the electron transport chain for additional ATP generation via oxidative phosphorylation.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and cyanobacteria convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds like sugars, using energy from sunlight. It occurs in chloroplasts through two stages - the light-dependent reactions where light energy is captured to form ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions where carbon dioxide is fixed into sugars using ATP and NADPH. Oxygen is released as a byproduct of photosynthesis, which has played a key role in maintaining the oxygen content of Earth's atmosphere.
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
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Ketone bodies
- 2. The compounds namely acetone, acetoacetate and β- hydroxybutyrate (or 3-hydroxybutyrate) are known as ketone bodies. Ketone bodies are water-soluble and energy yielding.
- 3. KETOGENESIS (SYNTHESIS OF KETONE BODIES) The synthesis of ketone bodies occurs in the Liver. The enzymes for ketone body synthesis are Located in the mitochondrial matrix.
- 5. Utilization of ketone bodies
- 6. ketone bodies-acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate serve as important sources of energy for the peripheral tissues such as skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, renal cortex etc. when glucose is in short supply to the tissues, during starvation, and diabetes mellitus, ketone bodies serve as the major fuel source for the brain and other parts of central nervous system.
- 8. Overproduction of ketone bodies When the rate of synthesis of ketone bodies exceeds the rate of utilization, their concentration in blood increases, this is known as ketonemia and ketonuria occurs. Diabetes mellitus is associated with insulin deficiency, results in impaired carbohydrate metabolism and increased lipolysis, both of them ultimately leading to the accumulation of acetyl CoA and its conversion to ketone bodies.
- 9. HARMONAL REGULATION OF KETOGENESIS The hormone glucagon stimulates ketogenesis whereas insulin inhibits ketogenesis Ketoacidosis As acetoacetate and p-hydroxybutyrate are strong acids (pKa =4), increase in their concentration in blood would cause acidosis. the ketone bodies in the blood dissociate and release H+ ions which lower the ph. Diabetic ketoacidosis is dangerous-may result in coma, and even death.
- 10. TREATMENT Diabetic ketoacidosis is required to correct the metabolic abnormalities and the associated water and electrolyte imbalance. Administration of insulin is necessary to stimulate uptake of glucose by tissues and inhibition of ketogenesis.