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1. Russian Medicine of IX-
XVII centuries

2.  In Russia traditional medicine
was developed from the earliest
times. Healers were called
lechtsi. About them it was told
in «Russkaya Pravda» — most
ancient set of Russian laws which
was written in the time of
Yaroslav The Wise (in the first
quarter of the XI century) and
subsequently was supplemented
repeatedly. «Russkaya Pravda»
legislatively established
compensation for lechtsi: under
laws of that time the person who
has put a damage to health of
other person, should pay a
penalty in the state treasury and
give out to the victim money for
payment for treatment.

3.  Lechets transferred the medical
knowledge and secrets from generation to
generation, from the father to the son in
so-called «family schools».
 The drugs prepared from plants used
great popularity: wormwood, nettle,
plantain, Labrador tea, “peril hater”
(fresh-water sponge), color of a linden,
leaves of a birch, bark of an ash-tree,
juniper berries, and also onions, garlic,
horse-radish, birch sap, and many other
folk remedies of doctoring.

4.  Among drugs of an animal origin the special
place was occupied by honey, a crude liver of
a cod, horse milk and “pant” (antlers of
young Siberian stags).
 Remedies of a mineral origin also found the
place in national doctoring and. At belly-
aches accepted the stone inside pounded in a
powder chrysolite. For simplification of
childbirth of the woman carried ornaments
from ruby or sapphire. Curative properties of
vinegar and a copper vitriol, turpentine and
saltpeter, «a sulfuric stone» and arsenic,
silver, mercury, antimony and other minerals
were known. Russian people long since knew
also about curative properties of "acidic
water".

5.  Subsequently experience of traditional medicine was generalized
in numerous herbariums and artzneibuchs (medical books) which
were made after acceptance of Christianity. Unfortunately, many
hand-written artzneibuchs were lost during wars and other
disasters.
 Up to now reached a little more than 250 Old Russian herbariums
and artzneibuchs. They contain descriptions of numerous
traditional methods of Russian doctoring as times of Christian
Russia, Kiev, and later — in Novgorod, Smolensk, Lvov. The
monastic hospital of Kiev Pechersk Lavra — the first Russian
monastery which based in the first half of the XI century in
vicinities of Kiev and has received the name from caves (pecher)
in which monks originally lodged had wide popularity.

6.  From all Russia wounded and
patients with various illnesses went
to Kiev Pechersk Lavra, and many
found there healing. For seriously ill
at a monastery there were special
rooms (hospitals) where the monks
who were looking after patients
were on duty. Monastic chronicles
(«Kiev Pechersk Patericon», XII
century) report about several
monks-devotees who became
famous for the iatrotechnics. Among
them — come from Athos «the
marvelous doctor» Antony (XI
century) which personally looked
after patients, giving them curing
"potion"; Saint Alimpy and Saint
Agapitos (died in 1095) — the pupil
of Saint Antony.

7.  Agapitos cured Vladimir Monomakh when that was
still the Chernigov prince — sent it "potions" from
which prince Vladimir quickly recovered. After
recovery the prince wished to reward generously the
healer, but Agapit asked to transfer expensive
princely gifts to deprived people.
 «Also heard about it in the city that in a monastery
there is lechets, and many patients came to it and
recovered».
 Thus, «Kiev Pechersk Patericon» contains the first
concrete data on medical ethics in ancient Russia: the
lechets should be an example of philanthropy up to
self-sacrifice, for the sake of the patient to perform all
the manual labors, to be tolerant and piteous to him,
to do all that he might for treatment of the patient
and not to care of personal enrichment or
professional vanity.

8.  At the same time doctoring in ancient
Russia wasn't church monopoly: along
with the monastic there was also more
ancient traditional medicine. However at
this stage of history pagan healers
appeared attendants of a devil and, as a
rule, were exposed to prosecutions.
 At princes’ and boyars’ courtyards secular
lechets both Russian and foreign served.
At a Chernigov prince’s court the famous
healer Peter Siriyanin (i.e. the Syrian)
served in the XII century.

9.  Some Old Russian monastic hospitals were as
well the education centers: in them trained in
medicine, collected the Greek and Byzantine
manuscripts. During the translation of
manuscripts from Greek and Latin monks
supplemented them with the knowledge
based on experience of Russian national
doctoring.

10.  "Svyatoslav’s Izbornik" was one of the
most popular books of the XI century.
It was translated from Greek in
Bulgaria for son Yaroslav of Wise
prince Svyatoslav, from where
received the name.
 "Izbornik" according to the contents
was beyond an initial task — to
connect the public relations in Russia
with norms of new Christian morals —
and gained lines of the encyclopedia.
Are described in it and some diseases
corresponding to that time of idea of
their reasons, treatment and the
prevention, are given councils about a
food (for example, «forces in
vegetables are great», or «drink
immense» in itself «is deleterious»)
and recommendations to keep a body
clean, systematically to wash, carry
out ablution.

11.  In "Izbornik" it is told about surgeons, who
are able «to cut tissues», to amputate
extremities, other patients or the become
lifeless parts of a body to do medical
cauterizations by means of the heated iron,
to treat the damaged place herbs and
ointments. Knifes for a section are described
also and medical sharpened. At the same
time incurable illnesses were given in
"Izbornik“: that against which the medicine
of that time was powerless.
 In Old Russian literature of the XII century
there are data on female healers, the
“grandmas” bone-setters who were skillfully
making massage, on involvement of women
for care of patients.

12.  The level of development of sanitary
business in the Old Russian state in the
X-XIV centuries advanced such in the
countries of Western Europe. At
archeological excavations of ancient
Novgorod the documents relating to
1346 in which it is reported about
existence in Novgorod of hospitals for
the civilian population and about experts
the alchemists who were engaged in
preparation of drugs are found.
 In the territory of ancient Novgorod are
open and studied many-tier (to 30
floorings) the wooden pavements
created in the X—XI centuries, more
than 2100 constructions with the
subjects which were in them of hygienic
use, are opened potter's and wooden
catchment basins and drainage systems
— one of the most ancient in Northern
Europe.

13.  Russian steam bath which long since was considered as
remarkable means of doctoring was the integral component
of a medicosanitary life of ancient Russia. The bath was the
purest room in the estate.
 That is why along with the direct appointment the bath was
used and as a place where delivered, carried out the first
care of the newborn, set dislocations and did phlebotomy,
carried out massage and «imposed cupping glasses»,
treated cold and diseases of joints, pounded medicinal
ointments at skin diseases. Nestor's chronicle (XI century)
contains the first description of Russian steam bath.

14.  In the Middle Ages Europe was the arena of
devastating epidemics. In Russian chronicles
along with numerous descriptions of diseases of
princes and certain representatives of the
highest estate (boyars, clergy) are given
terrifying pictures of big epidemics of plague and
other infectious diseases which in Russia called
"pestilence" or “general diseases”.
 In the people there was an opinion that
pestilence arise from supernatural forces, change
of provision of stars, anger of gods, weather
changing. In aspiration to stop general diseases
the people went on the most desperate
measures. For example, when in Novgorod in the
XIV century plague burst, citizens within 24
hours constructed Andrey Stratilat's church
which remained up to now.

15.  However neither construction of churches, nor
prayers didn't rescue the people from disasters —
epidemics in Europe carried away at that time tens of
thousands of human lives. The largest number of
epidemics in Russia falls on the period of a mongolo-
tatar yoke (1240-1480).
 Kirillo-Belozersky monastery which was not being
exposed to enemy invasion was one of the centers of
Russian medicine of that time. Within the precincts of
a monastery at the beginning of the XV century monk
Kirill Belozersky (1337-1427) translated from Greek
«Galinovo to Ippokrat» (Galen's comments to
«Corpus Hippocraticum»). At a monastery there were
some hospitals. One of them is restored and is
protected now by the state as an architecture
monument.

16.  Up to the end of the XVII century traditional
medicine occupied leading situation in Russia.
Experience of Russian traditional medicine is
reflected in numerous historical and historical
and household stories of that time. Among
them — written down in XV century «The story
about Peter and Fevronia of Murom» in which it
is told about wonderful healing of prince Peter
of Murom. Having cut a dragon animal with
sword, he was sprinkled by its blood and fell ill
with a serious skin disease. Seriously ill Peter
went to the Ryazan earth which was famous for
its lechets. The simple country girl — the
daughter of the collector of honey of wild bees
— Fevronia cured the prince (most likely, by
means of honey). The recovered prince
returned to the Murom earth, but without
Fevronia the illness renewed, and Peter married
wise Fevronia. They for many years lived
happily and reigned in Murom. Prince David and
his wife Euphrosinia, reigning in Murom in the
XIII century were prototypes of heroes.

17.  In medical books of this period the important
place was allocated for surgery.
 Lulled the patient by means of a mandrake,
poppy and wine. Tools (files, scissors, chisels,
axes) carried out through fire. Wounds
processed birch water, wine and ashes, and
sewed up with fibers of flax, hemp or small
intestines of animals.
 To extraction of metal splinters of arrows
applied magnetic iron ore. Were famous in
Russia and original designs of artificial limbs
for the bottom extremities.

18.  However overseas trade had also negative
consequences. In the Middle Ages trading
opened a way to epidemics.
 The thought on "prilipchivost"
(contagiousness) of an infection led to
introduction of precautionary measures. At
first it was expressed in isolation of patients
and a cordon of unsuccessful places: the died
buried «in the same yards in which who will
die, in all dress and on what who will die».
Communication with infected with pestilence
houses stopped, their inhabitants fed from
the street through gate.

19.  At the end of XVI - the beginning of the XVII
century quarantine measures began to gain
the state character. From 1654 to 1665 in
Russia more than 10 imperial decrees «about
precaution from pestilence» were issued.
 During plague of 1654-55 on roads outposts
were established and mark, through which
nobody was authorized to be passed on pain
of capital punishment, despite of ranks. All
infected subjects were burned on fires.
Letters by the way of their following
repeatedly copied, and originals burned.
Money was washed up in vinegar. Dead must
be buried behind city boundaries.

20.  To priests on pain of capital punishment it
was forbidden to read the burial service over
the dead. If someone of doctors casually
visited the "prilipchivy" patient, he was
obliged to inform the sovereign and to be at
home «until imperial permission».
 Import and export of all goods, and also work
on fields stopped. All this led to crop failures
and hunger which always went along with
epidemics. There was scurvy and other
diseases which together with hunger gave a
new wave of mortality.

21.  The medicine of that time was powerless against
epidemics, and thus the system of the
governmental quarantine activities developed at
that time in the Moscow state had bigger value.
The importance in fight against epidemics had
creation of the Aptekarskiy prikaz.
 Initial task of the Aptekarskiy prikaz was
providing medical assistance to the tsar, his
family and confidants.
 The medicine intended for a palace was tried by
doctors, it registered, druggists, it prepared,
and, at last, the person to whom it was given for
transfer "upward". Intended for the tsar «perfect
medical means» were stored in a drugstore in a
special room — "kazenka" behind the seal of the
clerk of the Aptekarskiy prikaz.

22.  Being court establishment, «tsar’s drugstore»
only as an exception served other people.
Many petitions addressed to the tsar with a
request remained to release them this or that
medicine.
 At existence in the country only one
drugstore the population bought drugs at
grocery benches where free trade of "potion"
was conducted. It conducted to abuses of
poisonous and strong substances. In this
regard in 1672 the second drugstore in the
country was opened.

23.  The Aptekarskiy prikaz not only controlled
drugstores. To the middle of the XVII century he
grew from a court institution in the large nation-
wide establishment which functions considerably
extended.
 Into its maintaining entered: the invitation to
service of doctors (domestic, and together with
the Posol’skiy prikaz – foreign), control of their
work and its payment, preparation and
distribution of doctors on positions, check of
«stories of diseases, supply of armies by
medicines and the organization of quarantine
measures, medicolegal survey, collecting and
storage of books, the management of
drugstores, kitchen gardens. and collecting
medicinal raw materials.

24.  At the beginning of the XVII century
overseas doctors used considerable
privileges in the Moscow state.
Preparation of Russian doctors at that
time had craft character: the pupil was
trained for a number of years at one or
several doctors, then some years served
in a regiment as the doctor assistant.
Sometimes the Aptekarskiy order
appointed testing (examination) then
made in a rank of the Russian doctor gave
out a set of surgical tools.

25.  The first public Doctor school in Russia was
open in 1654 at the Aptekarskiy prikaz.
Accepted in it was children of strelets, clergy
and servicemen. Training included collecting
herbs, work in a drugstore and to practice in
the shelf. Besides, pupils studied anatomy,
pharmacy, Latin, diagnostics of diseases and
ways of their treatment.
 As textbooks herbariums and medical books,
and also «doctorskie skazki» (stories of
diseases) served. During hostilities
bonesetting schools functioned. Teaching was
conducted at a bed of the patient — in Russia
there was no that scholasticism which
dominated at that time in Western Europe.

26.  The Aptekarskiy prikaz made high demands to
pupils of Doctor school. Accepted for study
promised: «... to anybody the evils not to make
and not to drink and any theft not to steal...»
 Training lasted 5-7 years. The doctor assistants
attached to overseas experts, studied from 3 to
12 years. In different years the number of pupils
fluctuated from 10 to 40. The first release of
Doctor school in view of big shortage of
regimental doctors took place ahead of schedule
in 1658. The school irregularly functioned. In 50
years it prepared about 100 Russian doctors.
Their most part served in regiments. Systematic
preparation of medical shots in Russia began in
the XVIII century.

27. Questions
1. How was Russian healers called?
2. How did they get the knowledge of medical
profession?
3. Which medications were used in traditional Russian
medicine?
4. Where was situated the first Christian hospital in
Russia?
5. How were the first medical books in Russia called?
6. What was considered as remarkable means of
doctoring?
7. Who were prototypes of heroes of «The story about
Peter and Fevronia of Murom»?
8. What measures were taken to fight epidemics?
9. What problems were solved by the foundation of
Aptekarskiy prikaz?