Introduction to investment function.
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This document discusses two types of investment: autonomous investment and induced investment. Autonomous investment refers to public investments like infrastructure that do not change with income levels. Induced investment is private investment that is affected by changes in income, consumption, and aggregate demand - as income rises, more investment is made in capital goods to produce more consumer goods. Both types of investment are illustrated with diagrams showing their relationship to income levels.
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Investment function
Investment can be defined and categorized in several ways. It includes the expenditure on real capital formation like new machines, buildings, and inventory. Investment can be autonomous or induced by income, private or public based on ownership, gross or net based on changes in capital stock, ex-ante or ex-post based on objectives, and categorized by propensity to invest. The marginal efficiency of capital and interest rate are key determinants of investment. Government policies aim to promote investment through measures like lowering interest rates, taxes, and increasing spending.
investment function presentation
This document discusses various concepts related to investment in economics. It defines real investment as expenditure that enhances production capacity, such as spending on plant and machinery. It also defines financial investment, induced and autonomous investment, private and public investment, gross and net investment, voluntary and involuntary investment. The document discusses factors that influence investment decisions like the marginal efficiency of capital and interest rates. It outlines different government policies that can be used to encourage investment, such as reducing interest rates, taxes, or using deficit financing. Overall, the document provides an overview of key investment-related terms and concepts in economics.
Liquidity preference theory
Keynes' liquidity preference theory holds that individuals and firms demand to hold cash, or liquidity, for three main motives: transaction, precautionary, and speculative. The transaction motive refers to holding cash for daily transactions, while the precautionary motive involves holding cash as a buffer against unexpected events. The speculative motive refers to holding cash in order to take advantage of anticipated price changes in bonds and securities. Together these three motives determine the overall demand for money, or liquidity preference, in the economy. The interest rate is determined by the interaction of liquidity preference and the fixed money supply. When liquidity preference is very high, so that demand for money vastly exceeds supply even at very low interest rates, monetary policy
Market failure
1. Market failure occurs when the conditions for perfect competition are not met, resulting in inefficient resource allocation. Some causes of market failure include monopoly, externalities, public goods, imperfect information, and non-existent markets.
2. Externalities occur when the actions of one economic unit unintentionally impact another in an uncompensated way, such as pollution from factories. This leads to a divergence between private and social costs/benefits.
3. For goods with public goods characteristics of non-rivalry and non-excludability, like national defense, there is no market mechanism to efficiently allocate resources, as they cannot be priced. This results in underprovision of public goods.
Slutsky theorem
1) Slutsky's theorem states that the total price effect on demand for a good is equal to the sum of the substitution effect and the income effect from a price change.
2) The substitution effect measures how demand changes due to consumers substituting between goods in response to the price change, holding their real income constant.
3) The income effect measures how demand changes in response to the change in purchasing power from the price change, holding utility constant.
4) According to Slutsky's theorem, the total change in demand from a price change can be decomposed into these two separate effects.
IS LM equilibrium
This document discusses the IS-LM model of macroeconomic equilibrium. It provides the following key points:
1. The IS curve and LM curve represent equilibrium in the goods/commodity market and money market respectively, with their intersection representing overall macroeconomic equilibrium.
2. At the equilibrium point, aggregate demand equals aggregate supply in the goods market, and money demand equals money supply.
3. The IS-LM model integrates monetary and fiscal policy and is based on factors like investment demand, consumption, and money demand/supply. Changes to these factors shift the curves and alter the equilibrium level of income.
4. The model is criticized for assuming interest rates are flexible and markets are independent,
The investment function
The document discusses different types of investment. Autonomous investment does not change with income levels and is focused on infrastructure like roads and public projects. Induced investment is impacted by changes in income levels and includes investments in fixed capital and inventories. The key determinants of investment are the marginal efficiency of capital, technological progress, demand forecasts, income levels, population growth, government policy, and political stability. Higher values of these factors will lead to more investment.
Hicks revision of demand theory
Hicks revised demand theory by assuming consumers follow a preference hypothesis where they choose the alternative they prefer most from available options based on their preferences. Hicks presented demand theory using indifference curves to represent scales of preference, abandoning indifference curve analysis. He distinguished between strong ordering, where each item has its own ranking number, and weak ordering, where items are grouped but no internal group ordering exists. Hicks also introduced the direct consistency test and derived the law of demand using the methods of compensating variation and cost difference to decompose total effects into price, income, and substitution effects.
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Investment function
Investment can be defined and categorized in several ways. It includes the expenditure on real capital formation like new machines, buildings, and inventory. Investment can be autonomous or induced by income, private or public based on ownership, gross or net based on changes in capital stock, ex-ante or ex-post based on objectives, and categorized by propensity to invest. The marginal efficiency of capital and interest rate are key determinants of investment. Government policies aim to promote investment through measures like lowering interest rates, taxes, and increasing spending.
investment function presentation
This document discusses various concepts related to investment in economics. It defines real investment as expenditure that enhances production capacity, such as spending on plant and machinery. It also defines financial investment, induced and autonomous investment, private and public investment, gross and net investment, voluntary and involuntary investment. The document discusses factors that influence investment decisions like the marginal efficiency of capital and interest rates. It outlines different government policies that can be used to encourage investment, such as reducing interest rates, taxes, or using deficit financing. Overall, the document provides an overview of key investment-related terms and concepts in economics.
Liquidity preference theory
Keynes' liquidity preference theory holds that individuals and firms demand to hold cash, or liquidity, for three main motives: transaction, precautionary, and speculative. The transaction motive refers to holding cash for daily transactions, while the precautionary motive involves holding cash as a buffer against unexpected events. The speculative motive refers to holding cash in order to take advantage of anticipated price changes in bonds and securities. Together these three motives determine the overall demand for money, or liquidity preference, in the economy. The interest rate is determined by the interaction of liquidity preference and the fixed money supply. When liquidity preference is very high, so that demand for money vastly exceeds supply even at very low interest rates, monetary policy
Market failure
1. Market failure occurs when the conditions for perfect competition are not met, resulting in inefficient resource allocation. Some causes of market failure include monopoly, externalities, public goods, imperfect information, and non-existent markets.
2. Externalities occur when the actions of one economic unit unintentionally impact another in an uncompensated way, such as pollution from factories. This leads to a divergence between private and social costs/benefits.
3. For goods with public goods characteristics of non-rivalry and non-excludability, like national defense, there is no market mechanism to efficiently allocate resources, as they cannot be priced. This results in underprovision of public goods.
Slutsky theorem
1) Slutsky's theorem states that the total price effect on demand for a good is equal to the sum of the substitution effect and the income effect from a price change.
2) The substitution effect measures how demand changes due to consumers substituting between goods in response to the price change, holding their real income constant.
3) The income effect measures how demand changes in response to the change in purchasing power from the price change, holding utility constant.
4) According to Slutsky's theorem, the total change in demand from a price change can be decomposed into these two separate effects.
IS LM equilibrium
This document discusses the IS-LM model of macroeconomic equilibrium. It provides the following key points:
1. The IS curve and LM curve represent equilibrium in the goods/commodity market and money market respectively, with their intersection representing overall macroeconomic equilibrium.
2. At the equilibrium point, aggregate demand equals aggregate supply in the goods market, and money demand equals money supply.
3. The IS-LM model integrates monetary and fiscal policy and is based on factors like investment demand, consumption, and money demand/supply. Changes to these factors shift the curves and alter the equilibrium level of income.
4. The model is criticized for assuming interest rates are flexible and markets are independent,
The investment function
The document discusses different types of investment. Autonomous investment does not change with income levels and is focused on infrastructure like roads and public projects. Induced investment is impacted by changes in income levels and includes investments in fixed capital and inventories. The key determinants of investment are the marginal efficiency of capital, technological progress, demand forecasts, income levels, population growth, government policy, and political stability. Higher values of these factors will lead to more investment.
Hicks revision of demand theory
Hicks revised demand theory by assuming consumers follow a preference hypothesis where they choose the alternative they prefer most from available options based on their preferences. Hicks presented demand theory using indifference curves to represent scales of preference, abandoning indifference curve analysis. He distinguished between strong ordering, where each item has its own ranking number, and weak ordering, where items are grouped but no internal group ordering exists. Hicks also introduced the direct consistency test and derived the law of demand using the methods of compensating variation and cost difference to decompose total effects into price, income, and substitution effects.
Absolute income hypothesis
This document outlines the Absolute Income Hypothesis theory presented by Keynes in 1936. The theory states that as absolute income increases, the proportion of that income spent on consumption decreases. So while consumption increases with more income, the rate of increase declines. Key points include consumption (C) increasing at a decreasing rate as income (Y) rises, the average propensity to consume (APC) decreasing as income rises, and the theory showing consumption-income relationships in both the short run and long run.
marginal efficiency of capital
Marginal efficiency of capital (MEC) refers to the expected rate of profitability of new investment. MEC is calculated based on the amount of expected profit and the cost of the capital asset. It indicates the internal rate of return of an extra unit of capital. Investment decisions are influenced by comparing the MEC to interest rates - investments will be made when MEC is higher than interest rates. Companies use MEC to evaluate investments by comparing the discounted present value of expected income to the price of the capital asset. The document then discusses factors that affect MEC and provides a case study of how Nike used MEC to evaluate an investment decision.
Friedmans theory of demand
Friedman developed a theory of demand for money that asserts it is a function of total wealth, the division of wealth between human and non-human forms, rates of return on various assets, and other influences on tastes and preferences. His demand for money function includes variables like income, asset prices, and interest rates. Empirical studies found the demand for money is stable and more related to permanent income than current income. For underdeveloped countries, demand may be interest-inelastic and influenced more by expected price changes than interest rates due to financial and economic dualism.
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Microeconomics analyzes individual consumer and producer behavior and decision-making. It examines how prices are determined by supply and demand at the individual commodity level. Microeconomics also studies how factors of production like labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship earn rewards in the form of wages, interest, rent, and profit. Additionally, it analyzes how resources can be allocated efficiently to maximize social welfare. Microeconomics uses analytical tools like demand and supply analysis to understand resource allocation, price determination, and policy impacts at the individual level.
Effective demand
Effective demand refers to the total demand for goods and services in an economy, which includes consumption demand and investment demand. According to Keynes, effective demand determines the level of output and employment in an economy. Effective demand is low in capitalist systems because savings increase as income rises, creating a "leakage" out of the system that must be filled by investment in order to maintain output and employment levels. The economy reaches equilibrium at the point where aggregate demand and aggregate supply curves intersect, but this equilibrium may occur at less than full employment if investment is insufficient to make up the gap between income and consumption. The government therefore has an important role in managing aggregate demand to minimize unemployment.
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This document discusses the relationship between investment, national income, and the stock of capital over multiple time periods. It presents a formula to calculate the present value of future returns from a capital asset. It also shows a table illustrating how output, income, capital stock, replacement costs, net investment, and gross investment change over 6 time periods. The capital output ratio and depreciation rate are assumed to remain constant.
Structural Changes in Indian Economy
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The Social welfare function
This document discusses Samuelson's social welfare function approach to welfare economics. It introduces key concepts like Pareto optimality, social indifference curves, utility possibility curves, and the grand utility possibility frontier. The key point is that Samuelson's model finds a unique point of constrained bliss where social welfare is maximized, taking into account both individual utility levels and aggregate production possibilities. This point satisfies efficiency conditions and maximizes the social welfare function subject to resource constraints.
Liquidity Preference Theory
The Liquidity Preference Theory suggests that investors demand higher interest rates for longer term investments because cash is considered the most liquid asset. There are three motives for demanding money: transaction motives for daily needs, precautionary motives for unexpected events, and speculative motives based on interest rate fluctuations. The total demand for money is the sum of these three motives and is determined by income and interest rates. Interest rates are set by the point where the total demand for money equals the fixed money supply as determined by the central bank, with the demand curve sloping downward and the supply curve being vertical.
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The document discusses John Maynard Keynes' concept of the multiplier. It defines the multiplier as measuring how much national income increases as a result of an increase in investment. The size of the multiplier depends on the marginal propensity to consume (MPC), with a higher MPC resulting in a larger multiplier and greater increase in national income from a given increase in investment. The multiplier captures how an initial increase in investment leads to further rounds of consumption and income increases through the MPC.
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Model of endogenous growth the ak model
This document provides an overview of the AK model of endogenous economic growth. It discusses how the AK model addresses limitations of previous exogenous growth models. The key aspects of the AK model are:
- It models economic output as a linear function of capital stock, without diminishing returns to capital.
- This allows for perpetual long-run growth, unlike exogenous models which predict convergence to a steady state.
- The growth rate depends on savings rate and the level of technology, represented by the parameter A. Improvements in A can permanently increase the growth rate.
General equilibrium theory
1. The document discusses general equilibrium theory (GET) and defines general equilibrium as a state where all markets and decision-making units are in simultaneous equilibrium.
2. It presents a simple two-sector general equilibrium model of an economy with two consumers, two goods, and two factors of production. Equations represent consumer demand, factor supply, factor demand, good supply, and market clearing for goods and factors.
3. With the number of equations equal to the number of unknowns, a general equilibrium solution exists in this Walrasian model under certain assumptions. GET provides a framework for understanding the complexity of economic systems through interdependent markets.
NAIRU
This document discusses Phillip's curve and the natural rate of unemployment. It notes that in the short run, there is an inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation depicted by Phillip's curve. However, in the long run Phillip's curve becomes vertical as inflation increases due to rising expectations. The natural rate of unemployment (NAIRU) is the rate below which inflation rises, as workers demand higher wages. The document argues the NAIRU theory suggests governments should not try to lower unemployment through demand policies, as that would only cause inflation. However, the NAIRU concept is criticized for lacking empirical evidence and for being against Keynesian demand management.
Structuralist theory of inflation
This document outlines the structural theory of inflation in less developed countries. It discusses how structural defects and bottlenecks exist in these economies that cause inflation, making the traditional quantity theory of money not applicable. Three main types of bottlenecks are described: agricultural bottlenecks due to issues like land ownership that limit food production growth; government resource constraints that force them to print money to fund infrastructure projects leading to inflation; and foreign exchange bottlenecks from low exports and high import payments causing currency devaluations and price increases. The structural theory argues these bottlenecks must be addressed through balanced investment instead of just monetary or demand-side policies to effectively reduce inflation in less developed economies.
school of Thought in Economics
1. Classical economics focused on laissez-faire policies and free markets while Keynesian economics emphasized government intervention.
2. Key figures in classical economics included Adam Smith and David Ricardo who believed that free markets would naturally lead to full employment without government intervention.
3. Keynesian economics emerged in response to the Great Depression and rejected classical ideas. Keynes argued that markets may not reach full employment on their own and that government could boost demand through spending and taxation policies.
7. consumption function
The document discusses key concepts related to consumption functions, including:
1) Consumption depends mainly on current income but is also influenced by other factors like interest rates and wealth. As income rises, consumption increases at a lower rate due to savings.
2) Average Propensity to Consume (APC) and Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) measure the relationship between consumption and income. APC is the ratio of total consumption to total income, while MPC is the change in consumption over a change in income.
3) Effective demand, the combination of consumption and investment demand, must remain high to maintain employment levels. Investment demand depends on the marginal efficiency of capital (MEC).
Investment
The document discusses the concepts of investment, autonomous investment, and induced investment. It states that real investment refers to additions to physical capital like buildings and equipment that increase national income and employment. Autonomous investment does not depend on income levels and is typically done by governments for infrastructure. Induced investment varies with income levels as higher incomes lead to more consumption requiring more investment in capital goods. The multiplier effect is explained as additional rounds of spending and income increases triggered by any initial investment expenditure.
INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011
INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011International Journal of Technical Research & Application
Investment is defining as asset or item that is
purchased with the hope that it will generate income or
appreciate in the future. In an economic sense, an investment is
the purchase of goods that are not consumed today but are
used in the future to create with. In finance an investment is a
monetary asset purchased with the idea that the asset will
provide income in the future or appreciate and be sold at a
higher price. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the
impact of investment (public and private) on economic growth
in Sudan during the period 1999-2011. Date were collected
from central bureau of statistics. Using these data ordinary
least squares method was applied to the linear form of the
model. The obtained results showed that: investment has
positive impact on economic growth measured by nominal
gross domestic product, real gross domestic product and
growth rate of gross domestic product. This is similar to what
mentioned in economic theory.More Related Content
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Absolute income hypothesis
This document outlines the Absolute Income Hypothesis theory presented by Keynes in 1936. The theory states that as absolute income increases, the proportion of that income spent on consumption decreases. So while consumption increases with more income, the rate of increase declines. Key points include consumption (C) increasing at a decreasing rate as income (Y) rises, the average propensity to consume (APC) decreasing as income rises, and the theory showing consumption-income relationships in both the short run and long run.
marginal efficiency of capital
Marginal efficiency of capital (MEC) refers to the expected rate of profitability of new investment. MEC is calculated based on the amount of expected profit and the cost of the capital asset. It indicates the internal rate of return of an extra unit of capital. Investment decisions are influenced by comparing the MEC to interest rates - investments will be made when MEC is higher than interest rates. Companies use MEC to evaluate investments by comparing the discounted present value of expected income to the price of the capital asset. The document then discusses factors that affect MEC and provides a case study of how Nike used MEC to evaluate an investment decision.
Friedmans theory of demand
Friedman developed a theory of demand for money that asserts it is a function of total wealth, the division of wealth between human and non-human forms, rates of return on various assets, and other influences on tastes and preferences. His demand for money function includes variables like income, asset prices, and interest rates. Empirical studies found the demand for money is stable and more related to permanent income than current income. For underdeveloped countries, demand may be interest-inelastic and influenced more by expected price changes than interest rates due to financial and economic dualism.
General equilibrium : Neo-classical analysis
Neo classical general equilibrium theory which is based on Walrasian theory of general equilibrium 2*2*2 model and Marshallian graphical representation
Bergson social welfare function(1).pptx
The Bergson social welfare function was introduced to provide a scientifically normative study of welfare economics. It defines social welfare as a function of the welfare of each member of the community, depending on factors like their consumption and services. The function establishes a relation between social welfare (W) and the utility levels (U) of each individual (U1, U2, etc.), representing social welfare as an increasing function of individual utilities. It assumes social welfare depends on individual wealth/income and distribution of welfare, and allows for interpersonal comparisons of utility. However, the concept has been criticized for not applying to all governments, being difficult to construct, arbitrary, and not empirically significant or helpful for solving problems.
Wagner's hypothesis and peacock-wiseman hypothesis
This document summarizes Wagner's hypothesis and the Peacock-Wiseman hypothesis about public expenditure. Wagner hypothesized that industrialization leads to increasing state activity and that public expenditure will rise faster than per capita income. The Peacock-Wiseman hypothesis emphasizes time patterns of spending rather than a theory of growth. It involves displacement effects as social disturbances expand the public sector, inspection effects as revenue lags required spending, and concentration effects as central government activity increases with economic growth. The document also lists criticisms of Wagner's hypothesis and defines intensive and extensive increases in state activity.
Microeconomics
Microeconomics analyzes individual consumer and producer behavior and decision-making. It examines how prices are determined by supply and demand at the individual commodity level. Microeconomics also studies how factors of production like labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship earn rewards in the form of wages, interest, rent, and profit. Additionally, it analyzes how resources can be allocated efficiently to maximize social welfare. Microeconomics uses analytical tools like demand and supply analysis to understand resource allocation, price determination, and policy impacts at the individual level.
Effective demand
Effective demand refers to the total demand for goods and services in an economy, which includes consumption demand and investment demand. According to Keynes, effective demand determines the level of output and employment in an economy. Effective demand is low in capitalist systems because savings increase as income rises, creating a "leakage" out of the system that must be filled by investment in order to maintain output and employment levels. The economy reaches equilibrium at the point where aggregate demand and aggregate supply curves intersect, but this equilibrium may occur at less than full employment if investment is insufficient to make up the gap between income and consumption. The government therefore has an important role in managing aggregate demand to minimize unemployment.
Accelerator Theory of Investment
This document discusses the relationship between investment, national income, and the stock of capital over multiple time periods. It presents a formula to calculate the present value of future returns from a capital asset. It also shows a table illustrating how output, income, capital stock, replacement costs, net investment, and gross investment change over 6 time periods. The capital output ratio and depreciation rate are assumed to remain constant.
Structural Changes in Indian Economy
This document summarizes the structural changes in the Indian economy after liberalization. It discusses how the Indian economy transitioned from a predominantly state-run economy to a mixed economy with a larger private sector role after 1991. The key policies driving this transition included liberalization, privatization, and opening the economy to global trade and investment. Liberalization reduced licensing requirements and other regulations, privatization sold state-owned enterprises to private owners, and globalization made the economy more open internationally. These reforms aimed to increase economic growth by enhancing competition and private sector participation in the economy.
The Social welfare function
This document discusses Samuelson's social welfare function approach to welfare economics. It introduces key concepts like Pareto optimality, social indifference curves, utility possibility curves, and the grand utility possibility frontier. The key point is that Samuelson's model finds a unique point of constrained bliss where social welfare is maximized, taking into account both individual utility levels and aggregate production possibilities. This point satisfies efficiency conditions and maximizes the social welfare function subject to resource constraints.
Liquidity Preference Theory
The Liquidity Preference Theory suggests that investors demand higher interest rates for longer term investments because cash is considered the most liquid asset. There are three motives for demanding money: transaction motives for daily needs, precautionary motives for unexpected events, and speculative motives based on interest rate fluctuations. The total demand for money is the sum of these three motives and is determined by income and interest rates. Interest rates are set by the point where the total demand for money equals the fixed money supply as determined by the central bank, with the demand curve sloping downward and the supply curve being vertical.
concept-of-multiplier-
The document discusses John Maynard Keynes' concept of the multiplier. It defines the multiplier as measuring how much national income increases as a result of an increase in investment. The size of the multiplier depends on the marginal propensity to consume (MPC), with a higher MPC resulting in a larger multiplier and greater increase in national income from a given increase in investment. The multiplier captures how an initial increase in investment leads to further rounds of consumption and income increases through the MPC.
The theory of multiplier and acceleration principle chapter 3
The theory of multiplier and acceleration principle chapter 3, functioning of investment multiplier, the process of income generation through multiplier, acceleration principle, limitations of multiplier and acceleration.
Model of endogenous growth the ak model
This document provides an overview of the AK model of endogenous economic growth. It discusses how the AK model addresses limitations of previous exogenous growth models. The key aspects of the AK model are:
- It models economic output as a linear function of capital stock, without diminishing returns to capital.
- This allows for perpetual long-run growth, unlike exogenous models which predict convergence to a steady state.
- The growth rate depends on savings rate and the level of technology, represented by the parameter A. Improvements in A can permanently increase the growth rate.
General equilibrium theory
1. The document discusses general equilibrium theory (GET) and defines general equilibrium as a state where all markets and decision-making units are in simultaneous equilibrium.
2. It presents a simple two-sector general equilibrium model of an economy with two consumers, two goods, and two factors of production. Equations represent consumer demand, factor supply, factor demand, good supply, and market clearing for goods and factors.
3. With the number of equations equal to the number of unknowns, a general equilibrium solution exists in this Walrasian model under certain assumptions. GET provides a framework for understanding the complexity of economic systems through interdependent markets.
NAIRU
This document discusses Phillip's curve and the natural rate of unemployment. It notes that in the short run, there is an inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation depicted by Phillip's curve. However, in the long run Phillip's curve becomes vertical as inflation increases due to rising expectations. The natural rate of unemployment (NAIRU) is the rate below which inflation rises, as workers demand higher wages. The document argues the NAIRU theory suggests governments should not try to lower unemployment through demand policies, as that would only cause inflation. However, the NAIRU concept is criticized for lacking empirical evidence and for being against Keynesian demand management.
Structuralist theory of inflation
This document outlines the structural theory of inflation in less developed countries. It discusses how structural defects and bottlenecks exist in these economies that cause inflation, making the traditional quantity theory of money not applicable. Three main types of bottlenecks are described: agricultural bottlenecks due to issues like land ownership that limit food production growth; government resource constraints that force them to print money to fund infrastructure projects leading to inflation; and foreign exchange bottlenecks from low exports and high import payments causing currency devaluations and price increases. The structural theory argues these bottlenecks must be addressed through balanced investment instead of just monetary or demand-side policies to effectively reduce inflation in less developed economies.
school of Thought in Economics
1. Classical economics focused on laissez-faire policies and free markets while Keynesian economics emphasized government intervention.
2. Key figures in classical economics included Adam Smith and David Ricardo who believed that free markets would naturally lead to full employment without government intervention.
3. Keynesian economics emerged in response to the Great Depression and rejected classical ideas. Keynes argued that markets may not reach full employment on their own and that government could boost demand through spending and taxation policies.
7. consumption function
The document discusses key concepts related to consumption functions, including:
1) Consumption depends mainly on current income but is also influenced by other factors like interest rates and wealth. As income rises, consumption increases at a lower rate due to savings.
2) Average Propensity to Consume (APC) and Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) measure the relationship between consumption and income. APC is the ratio of total consumption to total income, while MPC is the change in consumption over a change in income.
3) Effective demand, the combination of consumption and investment demand, must remain high to maintain employment levels. Investment demand depends on the marginal efficiency of capital (MEC).
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Similar to Introduction to investment function.
Investment
The document discusses the concepts of investment, autonomous investment, and induced investment. It states that real investment refers to additions to physical capital like buildings and equipment that increase national income and employment. Autonomous investment does not depend on income levels and is typically done by governments for infrastructure. Induced investment varies with income levels as higher incomes lead to more consumption requiring more investment in capital goods. The multiplier effect is explained as additional rounds of spending and income increases triggered by any initial investment expenditure.
INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011
INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011International Journal of Technical Research & Application
Investment is defining as asset or item that is
purchased with the hope that it will generate income or
appreciate in the future. In an economic sense, an investment is
the purchase of goods that are not consumed today but are
used in the future to create with. In finance an investment is a
monetary asset purchased with the idea that the asset will
provide income in the future or appreciate and be sold at a
higher price. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the
impact of investment (public and private) on economic growth
in Sudan during the period 1999-2011. Date were collected
from central bureau of statistics. Using these data ordinary
least squares method was applied to the linear form of the
model. The obtained results showed that: investment has
positive impact on economic growth measured by nominal
gross domestic product, real gross domestic product and
growth rate of gross domestic product. This is similar to what
mentioned in economic theory.Investment Function Macro economic aspect related to Investment
The document discusses key concepts from Milton Friedman's permanent income hypothesis and Keynesian economics related to consumption, investment, and the multiplier effect. Specifically, it explains that consumption depends on permanent rather than absolute or transitory income. It also outlines different types of investment, factors that influence the marginal efficiency of capital, and how the multiplier quantifies the effect of initial investment increases on total income through subsequent rounds of spending.
Investment and money
The document defines investment as expenditures on capital goods like machinery, plants, and buildings purchased by firms for production. It also defines gross and net investment. It then describes six macroeconomic roles of investment such as increasing current demand and production capacity. The document classifies investment by sector (firms, households, public) and degree of directness to sales. It also discusses the relationship between interest rates and the investment level/function, as well as autonomous versus induced investment.
Investment and money
The document defines investment as expenditures on capital goods like machinery, plants, and buildings purchased by firms for production. It also defines gross and net investment. It then describes six macroeconomic roles of investment such as increasing current demand and production capacity. The document classifies investment by sector (firms, households, public) and degree of directness to sales. It also discusses the relationship between interest rates and investment, and defines autonomous and induced investment.
Investment and money
The document defines investment as expenditures on capital goods like machinery, plants, and buildings purchased by firms for production. It also defines gross and net investment. It then describes six macroeconomic roles of investment such as increasing current demand and production capacity. The document classifies investment by sector (firms, households, public) and degree of directness to sales. It also discusses the relationship between interest rates and the investment level/function, as well as autonomous versus induced investment.
Investment and money
The document defines investment as expenditures on capital goods like machinery, plants, and buildings purchased by firms for production. It also defines gross and net investment. It then describes six macroeconomic roles of investment such as increasing current demand and production capacity. The document classifies investment by sector (firms, households, public) and degree of directness to sales. It also discusses the relationship between interest rates and the investment level/function as well as autonomous versus induced investment.
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This document summarizes key concepts related to consumption functions, investment functions, and business cycles. It defines consumption and investment functions, explaining factors like disposable income, autonomous consumption, and marginal propensity to consume in consumption functions. It also discusses induced and autonomous investment, the marginal efficiency of capital, and determinants of investment levels. The document then explains concepts like the multiplier, accelerator, phases of the business cycle, and theories of the business cycle like monetary, innovation, and Keynesian theories.
Investment and money
The document defines investment as expenditures on capital goods and the accumulation of machinery, plants, and buildings by firms for production. It discusses gross investment, net investment, the roles of investment in the macroeconomy, and how investment is classified by directness and sector (business, household, public). It also covers the relationship between interest rates and the investment level/function, different types of investment (autonomous, induced), and factors that influence induced investment.
Investment
This document discusses the topic of investment. It defines investment as the production of goods that will be used to produce other goods. Investment is important for economic growth, as it leads to increased productivity and wealth creation over time. The document discusses different types of investment, including business fixed investment, residential investment, and inventory investment. It also examines the key determinants that influence the level of investment in an economy, such as expected returns, interest rates, and business confidence. Monetary policy can also impact investment by making the money supply more or less available. Recessions are often preceded by sharp drops in investment levels.
The crowding out effect of budget deficits on private investment in nigeria
This document discusses a study examining the crowding out effect of budget deficits on private investment in Nigeria. Some key points:
- Nigeria has experienced high and persistent budget deficits for many years, averaging over 10% of GDP from 2009-2012. These deficits are financed through borrowing which reduces the funds available for private investment.
- The study uses an econometric model and tests including OLS and Granger causality to analyze the relationship between private investment, budget deficits, and other variables like external debt, inflation, and exports.
- The results confirm that budget deficits crowd out private investment in Nigeria. A 1% increase in the deficit leads to a 54% decrease in private investment. The study also finds a
PPt Of FDI In Retail Sector Of India
Foreign direct investment (FDI) refers to long term cross-border investment involving foreign management and technology transfer. There are inward, outward, and net FDI flows. India promotes productive FDI to stimulate industrialization. FDI increases capital, technology, employment, and aggregate supply and demand. However, FDI can reduce competition and domestic policy control. India's FDI policy allows up to 100% foreign ownership in some sectors with approval. Restrictive regulations, unclear policies, high tariffs, and limited state autonomy present issues for attracting beneficial long-term FDI to India.
Effects of fiscal policy on private investment and economic growth in kenya
Fiscal policy impacts private investment and economic growth in Kenya through several channels. A study using time series data from 1973 to 2009 found that fiscal policy affects investment, and investment plays a major role in determining economic growth. Specifically, budget deficits, government consumption, taxes, interest rates, foreign capital inflows, and public debt influence the level of private investment. The study recommends reexamining government spending to complement private investment, increasing credit to the private sector, and designing policies to address high public debt and budget deficits.
Role of fiscal policy in economic development of under developed countries
Fiscal policy in underdeveloped countries aims to mobilize resources, accelerate economic growth, encourage socially optimal investment, induce private investment and capital formation, provide employment opportunities, promote economic stability, check inflationary tendencies, increase national income, ensure proper distribution of income and wealth, provide subsidies to support consumption and production among the poor, reallocate resources to more productive sectors, and provide incentives to increase overall production and productivity.
Foreign Direct Investment in India
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in India was introduced in 1991 under the Foreign Exchange Management Act. It has since become a major political issue, with debates around further liberalizing FDI rules. While FDI into India has increased substantially, proposals to allow more foreign ownership in multi-brand retail met resistance from political parties concerned about effects on small retailers. The policy has been delayed and remains a contentious topic in Indian politics and economics.
Essay On Foreign Direct Investment
Foreign direct investment (FDI) plays an important role in the economic development of many countries. The document discusses FDI in India and Bangladesh. It outlines the definition and conceptual framework of FDI. FDI can provide capital, technology, and skills to host countries. However, it also notes some negative consequences, such as economic dependency and job losses in domestic industries. The document examines factors that influence FDI inflows, including infrastructure, incentives, and political stability.
41681421 kotak-mahindra
This document introduces some key concepts about investments including:
1) The reasons for investing include earning returns on idle resources, generating funds for specific goals, and providing for an uncertain future.
2) There are three main types of investments - economic, financial, and general investments.
3) Some important characteristics of investments are potential returns, risk level, safety, and liquidity.
4) There are several important reasons for individuals to invest, such as retirement planning, tax benefits, inflation protection, and income generation.
International Capital Movement
This document is a project report submitted by Mr. Jiten H Menghani, a student at the University of Mumbai, for his M.Com degree. The report is about international capital movements and was guided by Prof. Mrs. Rachana Joshi. It includes an abstract, introduction, types of international capital movements such as foreign direct investment and portfolio investment, and factors influencing capital flows. It also discusses the role, impacts and drawbacks of foreign capital as well as capital flows to developing countries and India.
Inv. Ch-3, M.A PPM.pptx
The document discusses the fundamental approach to security analysis, which involves analyzing the economy, industry, and company. It states that a company's performance depends not only on its own efforts but also on general industry and economic factors. It then outlines various economic factors that affect company performance, including growth rates, inflation, interest rates, government revenue/expenditure, exchange rates, infrastructure, climate, economic/political stability, and techniques for economic forecasting. The sources and types of information needed for security analysis are also listed.
Investment
The document provides an overview of investment, including its history, types, importance, and recent trends in sectors like foreign direct investment (FDI). It defines investment in both finance and economics, outlines the investment process, and discusses investment companies and banking. Key points covered include different types of investments like real estate, stocks, bonds, and currencies; the importance of financial independence and wealth; and methods of FDI like incorporating subsidiaries or acquiring shares in other companies.
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INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011
INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011
Investment Function Macro economic aspect related to Investment
Investment Function Macro economic aspect related to Investment
The crowding out effect of budget deficits on private investment in nigeria
The crowding out effect of budget deficits on private investment in nigeria
Effects of fiscal policy on private investment and economic growth in kenya
Effects of fiscal policy on private investment and economic growth in kenya
Role of fiscal policy in economic development of under developed countries
Role of fiscal policy in economic development of under developed countries
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快速制作美国迈阿密大学牛津分校毕业证文凭证书英文原版一模一样
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留信网认证的作用:
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2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
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一比一原版(GWU,GW毕业证)加利福尼亚大学|尔湾分校毕业证如何办理
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Independent Study - College of Wooster Research (2023-2024)
"Does Foreign Direct Investment Negatively Affect Preservation of Culture in the Global South? Case Studies in Thailand and Cambodia."
Do elements of globalization, such as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), negatively affect the ability of countries in the Global South to preserve their culture? This research aims to answer this question by employing a cross-sectional comparative case study analysis utilizing methods of difference. Thailand and Cambodia are compared as they are in the same region and have a similar culture. The metric of difference between Thailand and Cambodia is their ability to preserve their culture. This ability is operationalized by their respective attitudes towards FDI; Thailand imposes stringent regulations and limitations on FDI while Cambodia does not hesitate to accept most FDI and imposes fewer limitations. The evidence from this study suggests that FDI from globally influential countries with high gross domestic products (GDPs) (e.g. China, U.S.) challenges the ability of countries with lower GDPs (e.g. Cambodia) to protect their culture. Furthermore, the ability, or lack thereof, of the receiving countries to protect their culture is amplified by the existence and implementation of restrictive FDI policies imposed by their governments.
My study abroad in Bali, Indonesia, inspired this research topic as I noticed how globalization is changing the culture of its people. I learned their language and way of life which helped me understand the beauty and importance of cultural preservation. I believe we could all benefit from learning new perspectives as they could help us ideate solutions to contemporary issues and empathize with others.
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本公司拥有海外各大学样板无数，能完美还原。
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留信网认证的作用:
1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
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7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
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Seminar on gender diversity spillovers through ownership networks at FAME|GRAPE. Presenting novel research. Studies in economics and management using econometrics methods.
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Introduction to investment function.
- 1. Presentation What is investment ? Type of investment
- 3. Types of investments 1. Autonomous investment 2. Induced investment
- 4. Autonomous Investment Autonomous investment means investment which does not change with the changes in the income level and is therefore independent of income. This autonomous investment includes expenditure on building, dams, roads, canals, schools, hospitals, etc. Since investment on these projects is generally associated with public policy, autonomous investment is regarded as public investment. This autonomous investment depends more on population growth and technical progress than on the level of income.
- 5. Cont… Autonomous investment can be represented diagrammatically as in the figure given below. This means that whatever the level of income investment remains the same.
- 6. Induced investment Induced investment is that investment which is affected by the changes in the level of income. The greater the level of income, the larger will be the consumption of the community. In order to produce more consumer goods, more investment has to be made in capital goods, so that greater output of consumer goods become possible. This induced investment is undertaken both in fixed capital assets and in inventories. The essence of induced investment is that greater income and therefore greater aggregate demand affects the level of investment in the economy.
- 7. Cont… Induced investment can be presented diagrammatically as in the figure given below. The figure shows that as income increases investment also increases and as income decreases investment also decreases.
- 8. Thank You