Computer
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, produce information (output), and store the information for future use.
“A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information is needed, processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and finally returns the results to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large quantities of data at very high speed, but a computer cannot think. A computer makes decisions based on simple comparisons such as one number being larger than another. Although the computer can help solve a tremendous variety of problems, it is simply a machine. It cannot solve problems on its own”.
Characteristics / Features of computer
1: High speed: Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than human beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
2. Accuracy : Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.
3. Storage : Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.
4. Automation : Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically ( which increases the productivity).
5. Diligence : Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy without getting tired.
6. Versatility : Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
7. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing costs.
1st generation of computers (Based on Vacuum tubes)
2nd generation of computers (Based on Transistors)
3rd generation of computers (Based on Integrated circuits ICs)
4th generation of computers (Based on Microprocessors)
5th generation of computers (Based on Artificial Intelligence)
1st generation of computers (Based on Vacuum tubes)
2nd generation of computers (Based on Transistors)
3rd generation of computers (Based on Integrated circuits ICs)
4th generation of computers (Based on Microprocessors)
5th generation of computers (Based on Artificial Intelligence)
Introduction to computing, Analog Computers, Hybrid computers, TYPES OF COMPUTER, Parts of the Computer ,
Software, Hardware, data, Users, Input and output devices,
computer is a calculating machine which is used to perform arithmetic and logical operation at a high speed.
A computer is an electronic device that can accept, store and process information to produce the required result.
Therefore, we can define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can be
anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex,
weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments, etc.,
of a country.
Computer is a device that can solve any mathematical operation and it
operates on information or data.
Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can (i) accept data
(ii) store data, (iii) process data as desired, (iv) retrieve the stored data
as and when required and (v) print the result in desired format.
Introduction to computing, Analog Computers, Hybrid computers, TYPES OF COMPUTER, Parts of the Computer ,
Software, Hardware, data, Users, Input and output devices,
computer is a calculating machine which is used to perform arithmetic and logical operation at a high speed.
A computer is an electronic device that can accept, store and process information to produce the required result.
Therefore, we can define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can be
anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex,
weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments, etc.,
of a country.
Computer is a device that can solve any mathematical operation and it
operates on information or data.
Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can (i) accept data
(ii) store data, (iii) process data as desired, (iv) retrieve the stored data
as and when required and (v) print the result in desired format.
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS AND ICT FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORTS SCIENCE , NS...RAJKIRAN A.K
This is a presentation for the physical education students studying in BPE ( Integrated Bachelor of Physical education ) BPEd(Bachelor of Physical education) MPEd(Master of Physical education) , MSc coaching , Diploma at various colleges affiliated under University of Calicut , This presentation Covers almost all the topics in their syllabus ,
Computer – Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components that can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are the following −
Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.
Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.
Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
Internal components − RAM,CPU, motherboard, etc.
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES OF COMPUTER Input Devices A device that can be used to insert data into a computer system is called as input device. It allows people to supply information to computers without any input devices, a computer would only be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, Examples of input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and Light pen, joysticks, Touch-screen, OMR, OBR,OCR. Keyboard Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting the data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing some additional functions. Keyboard is of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is also available for Windows and Internet. Mouse Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is present at the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Q: What is Technology?
Ans: To convert the knowledge of science into a device or machine is ĐĂůůĞĚ͞dechnology͟.
OR
To invent a device or machine with the help of study of science is called ͞dechnology͘͟
1) COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY:
Computer is an electronic device use
to perform arithmetic and logical operations it accepts data as input process or manipulates the data and give out put which also called information it also has a stored program concept feature so it can save any type of information. It purpose is to speed up problem solving and increase productivity. A computer system is a combination of hardware and software.
2) COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY:
Communication technology also called telecommunications technology consists of electromagnetic devices and systems for communicating over long distances. For example: Telephone, radio, broadcast television, and cable T.V etc.
3) INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY:
When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is Information Technology, or ͞ŝŶĨŽƚĞĐŚ͘͟/ŶĨŽƌŵĂƚŝŽŶdĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐLJ;/dͿŝƐĂŐĞŶĞƌĂůƚĞƌŵƚŚĂƚĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƐany technology that helps to produce, manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information. IT merges computing with high-speed
Communications links carrying data, sound, and video. Examples of information technology include personal computers but also new forms of telephones, televisions, appliances, and various handheld devices.
4) TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE:
Technology Convergence describes the combining of several industries through various devices that exchange data in the format used by computers. The industries are computers, communications, consumer electronics, entertainment, and mass media. Convergence has led to electronic products that perform multiple functions, such as TVs with internet access, cell phones that are also digital cameras etc.
The computer itself the hardware cannot do anything. The ingredient that enables a computer to perform a specific task is software, which consists of electronic instructions. These instructions tell the machine’s physical components what to do; without them, a computer could not do anything at all.
System Software:
The program directly related to the hardware of the computer and which perform the fundamental task are termed as system software.
Several programs may be included in system software but the following are essential for any computer.
Language Translators
A Particular translator is required to execute any high-level language program.
Each language has a different language translator, while the function of each translator is to convert the high-level program into machine code.
These translators are categorized into the following groups.
Interpreter:
These translators translate only one instruction at a time and execute it. After execution, the translation is erased from memory and the next instruction is loaded for translation. Therefore translation is required again if the program is executed again.
It is a limitation of interpreters that it forgets translation after the execution of the instruction.
A GWBASIC interpreter is required to run GWBASIC programs.
Each programming language has its separate interpreter if it is designed.
Compiler
These translators are used to translate the entire program at once and store their translated program on disk.
The original program is called “Source Program” while its translated program is called “Object Program”.
These translators can not execute an object program.
The object program has to go through some other stages to be able to execute.
Assembler
The assemblers are language translators for low-level symbolic language programs.
Assemblers can translate a source program into an object program.
An assembler translates one source instruction into exactly one machine code.
The linking process is required on the object program to be able to execute it.
Each low-level symbolic language has its assembler.
A typical programming task can be divided into two phases:
Problem-solving phase: produce an ordered sequence of steps that describe the solution of the problem this sequence of steps is called an algorithm.
Implementation phase: implement the program in some programming language.
Every algorithm must satisfy the following criteria:
Input. Zero or more quantities are externally supplied.
Output. At least one quantity is produced.
Definiteness. Each instruction must be clear and unambiguous(Unique meaning).
Finiteness. An algorithm terminates in a finite number of steps.
Effectiveness. Every instruction must be basic enough to be carried out than, means not so complex.
An algorithm is a finite set of steps defining the solution of a particular problem.
What is the difference between an algorithm and a program?
a program is an implementation of an algorithm to be run on a specific computer and operating system.
an algorithm is more abstract – it does not deal with machine-specific details – think of it as a method to solve a problem.
What is a good algorithm?
Efficient algorithms are good, we generally measure the efficiency of an algorithm based on:
Time: the algorithm should take minimum time to execute.
Space: the algorithm should use less memory.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALGORITHM AND PSEUDOCODE?
An algorithm is a well-defined sequence of steps that provides a solution for a given problem, while pseudocode is one of the methods that can be used to represent an algorithm.
While algorithms can be written in natural language, pseudocode is written in a format that is closely related to high-level programming language structures.
But pseudocode does not use specific programming language syntax and therefore could be understood by programmers who are familiar with different programming languages. Additionally, transforming an algorithm presented in pseudocode to programming code could be much easier than converting an algorithm written in natural language.
But pseudocode does not use specific programming language syntax and therefore could be understood by programmers who are familiar with different programming languages.
Additionally, transforming an algorithm presented in pseudocode to programming code could be much easier than converting an algorithm written in natural language.
C is mother language of all programming language.
It is a system programming language. It is a procedure-oriented programming language. It is also called mid-level programming language.
C evolved from a language called B, written by Ken Thompson at Bell Labs in 1970. Ken used B to write one of the first implementations of UNIX. B in turn was a descendant of the language BCPL (developed at Cambridge (UK) in 1967), with most of its instructions removed.
So many instructions were removed in going from BCPL to B, that Dennis Ritchie of Bell Labs put some back in (in 1972), and called the language C.
The famous book The C Programming Language was written by Kernighan and Ritchie in 1978, and was the definitive reference book on C for almost a decade.
The original C was still too limiting, and not standardized, and so in 1983, an ANSI committee was established to formalize the language definition.
It has taken until now (ten years later) for the ANSI ( American National Standard Institute) standard to become well accepted and almost universally supported by compilers.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp Network
Introduction to computer
1. ICS-XI-HBISE COMPUTER SCIENCE
SYEDA FARZANA SHAH (BS-IT, MBA-HRM) 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COMPUTER......................................................................................................................................................1
CHARACTERISTICS / FEATURES OF COMPUTER ................................................................................................1
COMPUTER DATA PROCESSING .......................................................................................................................2
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS: ...............................................................................................................................3
GENERATION OF COMPUTER:..........................................................................................................................4
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO TYPE OF DATA HANDLED..............................................................................5
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE......................................................................................................5
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SIZE..............................................................................................................6
COMPUTER SOFTWARE: ..................................................................................................................................7
SYSTEM SOFTWARE:........................................................................................................................................7
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES..........................................................................................................................9
DATA COMMUNICATIONS / DATA PROCESSING BITS: ...................................................................................11
TYPES OF NETWORKS ....................................................................................................................................11
Chapter One
Introduction to Computer
Computer
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that
can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, produce information (output), and store
the information for future use.
“A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information is needed,
processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and finally returns the results
to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large quantities of data at very high speed, but a computer
cannot think. A computer makes decisions based on simple comparisons such as one number being larger
than another. Although the computer can help solve a tremendous variety of problems, it is simply a
machine. It cannot solve problems on its own”.
Characteristics / Features of computer
1: High speed: Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than human beings.
They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
2. Accuracy : Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.
3. Storage : Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any instruction stored in
the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.
4. Automation : Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically ( which increases the
productivity).
5. Diligence : Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy without getting
tired.
6. Versatility : Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
7. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing costs.
2. ICS-XI-HBISE COMPUTER SCIENCE
SYEDA FARZANA SHAH (BS-IT, MBA-HRM) 2
Limitations of computers:
1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the instructions are not
clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
2. Computers cannot think.
3. Computers cannot learn by experience.
Computer Data Processing
Data: It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols.
Information: It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner.
Data is any collection of numbers, characters or other symbols that has been coded into a
format that can be input into a computer and processed.
Data on its own has no meaning, or context.
It is only after processing by a computer that data takes on a context and becomes
information.
There are many types of data
All data ends up being stored as a series of numbers inside the computer.
Data can be input to the computer by the user in many different ways.
The main types of data that can be input into a computer and processed are numeric, text,
dates, graphics and sound.
Input (Data):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the collection of letters,
numbers, images etc.
Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the computer
system.
Output (Information):
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called as Result. We
can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.
3. ICS-XI-HBISE COMPUTER SCIENCE
SYEDA FARZANA SHAH (BS-IT, MBA-HRM) 3
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS: Since civilizations began, many of the advances made by science
and technology have depended upon the ability to process large amounts of data and perform complex
mathematical calculations. For thousands of years, mathematicians, scientists and businessmen have
searched for computing machines that could perform calculations and analyze data quickly and
efficiently. One such device was the abacus.
The abacus was an important counting machine in ancient Babylon, China, and throughout
Europe where it was used until the late middle ages. It was followed by a series of improvements in
mechanical counting machines that led up to the development of accurate mechanical adding
machines in the 1930’s. These machines used a complicated assortment of gears and levers to
perform the calculations but they were far to slow to be of much use to scientists. Also, a machine
capable of making simple decisions such as which number is larger was needed. A machine capable
of making decisions is called a computer.
The first computer like machine was the Mark I developed by a team from IBM and Harvard
University. It used mechanical telephone relays to store information and it processed data entered
on punch cards. This machine was not a true computer since it could not make decisions.
Dark Ages of Computer:
Middle Age of Computer:
4. ICS-XI-HBISE COMPUTER SCIENCE
SYEDA FARZANA SHAH (BS-IT, MBA-HRM) 4
Modern Ages of computer:
Generation of computer:
First Generation (1940-56):
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes & machine language was used for giving the
instructions. These computer were large in size & their programming was difficult task. The electricity
consumption was very high. Some computers of this generation are ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC &
UNIVAC-1.
Second Generation (1956-63):
In 2nd
generation computers, vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors. They required only 1/10 of power
required by tubes. This generation computers generated less heat & were reliable. The first operating
system developed in this generation.
The Third Generation (1964-71):
The 3rd
generation computers replaced transistors with Integrated circuit known as chip. From Small scale
integrated circuits which had 10 transistors per chip, technology developed to MSI circuits with 100
transistors per chip. These computers were smaller, faster & more reliable. High level languages invented
in this generation.
5. ICS-XI-HBISE COMPUTER SCIENCE
SYEDA FARZANA SHAH (BS-IT, MBA-HRM) 5
The fourth Generation (1972- 1990):
LSI & VLSI were used in this generation. As a result microprocessors came into existence. The computers
using this technology known to be Micro Computers. High capacity hard disk were invented. There is great
development in data communication.
The Fifth Generation (Present & Beyond):
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there
are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing
and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and
molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come.
Classification of Computers
Classification According To Type of Data Handled
Analog computers
The term analog is taken from the word analogous which means similar. Analog computers are used to
measure continuous quantities. Analog computers are commonly used for scientific and engineering
problems, particularly in chemical industries, electric power plants, and petroleum refineries.
Examples of analog computers
Thermometer is an example of analog computer.
It measures continuous variable (changeable) values.
When we say that temperature raised from 22 C to 23 C. IS it the change direct? No. because in
between 22 and 23 there is a value 22.5, 22.25, 22.125 and so on.
Traditional automatic watches are also example of analog computers
Digital Computers
Digital computers are computers that specialize in counting. Unlike the analog computer which receives
data in a continuous form, the digital computer handles values that are in a discrete (separate or distinct
0 form. Usually when we talk about computers they are digital computers (Desktop, laptop, notepad etc).
Hybrid Computers
Hybrid means the combination of two things.
Hybrid computers are the combination digital and analog.
They have ability to measure continuous quantities like analog computers and represent the values
of measurements in digital form.
Example of Hybrid Computers
Digital petrol pumps are the example of hybrid computers.
They measure physical quantity and represent its values in digital form.
Classification According to Purpose
Special Purpose Computers and 2) General Purpose Computers
6. ICS-XI-HBISE COMPUTER SCIENCE
SYEDA FARZANA SHAH (BS-IT, MBA-HRM) 6
1. Special Purpose Computers: These are developed with a specific purpose. Some of the
areas where these computers are being used are – soil testing, drip irrigation, medical
scanning, traffic signals, spacecraft, rocket technology etc.,
2. General Purpose Computers: These are developed to meet the requirements of several
areas such as simulation, solving mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database.
Classification According To Size
a) Super Computers b) Mainframe Computers c) Mini Computers d) Micro Computers
a) Super Computers: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions
per second. These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds which are at least
10 times faster than other computers. These are used for large scale numerical problems in scientific
and engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather forecasting etc. The first super computer
was developed in U.S.A. by CRAY computers.
b) Mainframe Computers: The large size computers including all peripherals and attached equipment
are termed as “Macro” and “Mainframe” computers.
A mainframe computer might support thousands of users, such as worldwide airline reservation
system. The mainframe used heavily in all kinds of business organization. They support a large
number of terminals for use by a variety of users simultaneously, but they are expensive and large in
size.
c) Mini Computers: A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of
simultaneously. It is a medium sized computer with moderate cost, available indigenously and used
for large volume applications. These computers are also found in laboratories for all types of
scientific and engineering work.
d) Micro Computers: A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Micro
computers are also referred as ―personal computers (PC). These are self-contained units and usually
developed for use by one person at a time but can be linked to very large systems. They are cheap,
easy to use even at homes and can be read for variety of applications from small to medium range.
Types of Micro Computer
Desktop Models
Laptop Computers.
Network Computers.
Hand held personal computers of all types.
Table 1: Types of Computers
Type Physical Size Processing
Speed*
Number of Users
Microcomputer
or
Personal
Computer (PC)
Fits in hand, on lap, or
on desktop
Up to 400 MIPS One stand-alone or many may
access it through a network
Minicomputer Small cabinet; may fill
a small room with
accompanying
Up to 1000 MIPS Up to several hundred
7. ICS-XI-HBISE COMPUTER SCIENCE
SYEDA FARZANA SHAH (BS-IT, MBA-HRM) 7
peripherals
Mainframe Computer requires a
partial room; may
occupy several rooms
with accompanying
peripherals
Up to several
thousand MIPS
Hundreds to thousands
Supercomputer Entire room of
equipment
Up to 10,000
MIPS
Hundreds to thousands
COMPUTER SOFTWARE:
Program: Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task.
The computer itself the hardware cannot do anything. The ingredient that enables a computer to perform a
specific task is software, which consists of electronic instructions. These instructions tell the machine’s
physical components what to do; without them, a computer could not do anything at all.
Software, simply are the computer programs. The instructions given to the computer in the form of a program
is called Software. Software is the set of programs, which are used for different purposes. All the programs
used in computer to perform specific task is called Software.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE:
System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual hardware
components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the system see it as a functional
unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to
disk, or rendering text onto a display. The program directly related to the hardware of computer and which
perform the fundamental task are termed as system software. A number of programs may be included in
system software but following are essential for any computer.
Language Translators/ processors
A Particular translator is required to execute any high level language program.
Each language has a different language translator, while the function of each translator is to convert high
level program into machine code.
Linkers
• These software manage different parts of any object program for a particular computer.
They create a link between the parts of program according to the specified memory.
• The linkers depend on the hardware of the computer.
• It is necessary for linking to know about the type of microprocessor, installed
amount of memory and other available resources of computer hardware. If a linker knows
all about hardware than it can create the best link for any object program.
Utilities
The main objective of utility programs is to give ease of work to the operator and increase the overall
efficiency of computer.
• Debuggers, defragmenters, memory mangers and virus detectors are utility programs.
Operating Systems
All the computer programs which are used to control and manage hardware and provide interface to
user to communicate with machine is called OS.
8. ICS-XI-HBISE COMPUTER SCIENCE
SYEDA FARZANA SHAH (BS-IT, MBA-HRM) 8
The Operating System tells the computer how to interact with user and how to use devices such as disk
drives, keyboard, and monitor.
Because operating system is necessary for controlling the computer’s most basic functions, it continues to
run until the computer is turned off.
DOS, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Unix/Linux, MAC/OS X etc.
The components / Functions of operating system are:
• Process management
• Memory management
• Secondary storage management
• Input/output management
• Command interpreter
• Time sharing/ scheduling for tasks.
• Provide Security and integrity.
Types of Operating System Environment:
• Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time
applications. Example of Use: e.g. control of nuclear power plants, oil refining, chemical processing and
traffic control systems, air
• Single User Systems: Provides a platform for only one user at a time. They are popularly associated with
Desk Top operating system which run on standalone systems where no user accounts are required.
Example: DOS.
• Multi User Systems: Provides regulated access for a number of users by maintaining a database of
known users. Refers to computer systems that support two or more simultaneous users. Another term for
multi-user is time sharing. Ex: All mainframes are multi-user systems. Example: Unix
• Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to run at a
time, the system is grouped under the single-tasking system category, while in case the operating system
allows for execution of multiple tasks at a time, it is classified as a multitasking operating system.
• Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent computers
and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. Distributed
computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation,
they make a distributed system.
Commonly used operating system
UNIX: Pronounced yoo-niks, a popular multi-user, multitasking operating system developed at Bell Labs in
the early 1970s. UNIX was one of the first operating systems to be written in a high-level programming
language, namely C. This meant that it could be installed on virtually any computer for which a C compiler
existed.
LINUX: Pronounced lee-nucks or lih-nucks. A freely-distributable open source operating system that runs
on a number of hardware platforms. The Linux kernel was developed mainly by Linus Torvalds and it is
based on Unix. Because it’s free, and because it runs on many platforms, including PCs and Macintoshes,
Linux has become an extremely popular alternative to proprietary operating systems.
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Windows: Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical interface operating systems developed, marketed, and
sold by Microsoft. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985
as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft
Windows came to dominate the world’s personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking
Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984.The most recent client version of Windows is Windows 10; the
most recent server version is Windows Server 2008 R2.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE:
Application software may consist of a single program, such as an image viewer; a small collection of
programs (often called a software package) that work closely together to accomplish a task, such as a
spreadsheet or text processing system; a larger collection (often called a software suite) of related but
independent programs and packages that have a common user interface or shared data format, such as
Microsoft Office, which consists of closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.; or a
software system, such as a database management system, which is a collection of fundamental programs that
may provide some service to a variety of other independent applications.
• Programs that help to accomplish specific task are referred application software.
• There are two types of application software. General and Special application softwares.
• Application software tells the computer how to accomplish tasks the user requires, such as creating
a document or editing a graphic image.
• Some important kinds of application software are:
Word processing programs Spreadsheet software
Database management Presentation programs
Graphics programs Networking software
Web design tools and browsers Internet applications
Communications programs Utilities
Entertainment and education Multimedia authoring
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
The Evolution of Programming Languages
To build programs, people use languages that are similar to human language. The results are translated into machine
code, which computers understand. Programming languages fall into three broad categories:
• Machine languages
• Assembly languages
• Higher-level languages
Machine languages Or First Generation Language 1GL:
First-generation languages are the most basic type of computer languages, consisting of strings of numbers
(0s, 1s) the computer's hardware can use.
• Different types of hardware use different machine code.
• For example, IBM computers use different machine language than Apple computers.
Assembly Languages Or Second Generation Language 2GL:
• Assembly languages (second-generation languages) are only somewhat easier to work with than machine
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languages.
• To create programs in assembly language, developers use cryptic English-like phrases to represent strings of
numbers. The code is then translated into object code, using a translator called an assembler.
Higher-Level Languages
Higher-level languages are more powerful than assembly language and allow the programmer to work in a more
English-like environment. Higher-level programming languages are divided into three "generations," each more
powerful than the last:
• Third-generation languages
• Fourth-generation languages
• Fifth-generation languages
Third-Generation Languages
• Third-generation languages (3GLs) are the first to use true English-like phrasing, making them easier to use
than previous languages.
• 3GLs are portable; meaning the object code created for one type of system can be translated for use on a
different type of system.
The following languages are 3GLs:
• FORTAN C
• COBOL C++
• BASIC Java
• Pascal ActiveX
Fourth-Generation Languages
• Fourth-generation languages (4GLs) are even easier to use than 3GLs.
• 4GLs may use a text-based environment (like a 3GL) or may allow the programmer to work in a visual
environment, using graphical tools known as object oriented programming. It also provide database
development concepts and tools.
The following languages are 4GLs:
• Visual Basic (VB)
• Oracle Database, SQL, FoxPro
• Authoring environments
Fifth-Generation Languages
• Fifth-generation languages (5GLs) are an issue of debate in the programming community – some programmers
cannot agree that they even exist.
• These high-level languages would use artificial intelligence to create software, making 5GLs extremely
difficult to develop.
LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS:
1. Interpreter
• These translators translate only one instruction at a time and execute it.
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• After execution the translation is erased from memory and next instruction is loaded for translation.
• Therefore translation is required again if the program is executed again.
• It is a limitation of interpreters that it forgets translation after execution of instruction.
• A GWBASIC interpreter is required to run GWBASIC programs.
• Each programming language has its separate interpreter, if it is designed.
2. Compiler
• These translators are used to translate entire program at once and store their translated program on disk.
• The original program is called “Source Program” while its translated program is called “Object Program”.
• These translators cannot execute object program.
• The object program has to go through some other stages to be able to execute.
• Eg : C- Language
3. Assembler
• The assemblers are language translators for low level symbolic language programs.
• Assemblers can translates source program into object program.
• An assembler translates one source instruction into exact one machine code.
• The linking process is required on the object program to be able to execute it.
• Each low level symbolic language has its own assembler.
• Eg : Language
Data Communications / Data processing Bits:
Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source and a receiver. The
source transmits the data and the receiver receives it. The actual generation of the information is not
part of Data Communications nor is the resulting action of the information at the receiver. Data
Communication is interested in the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of
the data during the transfer process.
MODEM (Modulator / Demodulator)
A modem is a modulator/demodulator. It converts digital signals from a computer to analog signals
so they can be sent over a telephone line. The receiving computer will normally have a modem which
will convert the analog signals back to digital signals.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
LANs
LANs (local area networks) are networks that connect computers and resources together in a building
or buildings close together.
Local Area Networks - a system of computers that share resources such as hard-drives, printers, data,
CPU power, fax/modem, applications, etc... They usually have distributed processing - means that
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there is many desktop computers distributed around the network and that there is no central processor
machine (mainframe). Can be campus wide like a college or university.
MANs
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) are networks that connect LANs together within a city.
Metropolitan Area Networks: a system of LANs connected through out a city or metropolitan. MANs
are used to connect to other LANs. A MAN has to have the requirement of using a telecommunication
media such as Voice Channels or Data Channels. Branch offices are connected to head offices
through MANs. Examples of companies that use MANs are universities and colleges, grocery chains
and banks.
WAN
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect LANs together between cities.
Wide Area Networks: a network system connecting cities, countries, continents together.
TransCanada Pipeline has a WAN that stretches from Alberta to Boston. It goes from Alberta to
Ontario then through the States and ends up in Boston. The maintenance and control of the network
resides in Calgary. WANs are connected together using one of the telecommunications media.