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1. FUNDAMENTALS OF
COMPUTERS
(CHAPTER-1)
INSTRUCTOR NAME: SHADAB AHMAD
[INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING]
ECEG-2033
2ND YEAR ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
SAMARA UNIVERSITY

2. AFTER GOING THROUGH THIS CHAPTER YOU
WILL BE ABLE TO DEFINE:
 Introduction of computer
 Evolution
 Computer Architecture Basics
 Hardware and Software
 Representation of numbers in computer
 Binary arithmetic

3. INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTER
What is computer?
Let us begin with the word ‘compute’. It means ‘to
calculate’. We all are familiar with calculations in our
day to day life. We apply mathematical operations
manually, like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. But, these types of manual calculation take
much longer time and less accuracy. So human being
explored with the idea to develop a machine which can
perform this type of arithmetic calculation with faster and
full accuracy. Both factors brought us to the innovation
of a new device called ‘computer’ .Therefore the word
‘computer’ came from ‘calculate’.
“Computer is an electronic device which processes
information based upon the instructions provided,
and generates the desired output”.

4. WHY WE USE COMPUTERS
 Store and process large amount of information with
high speed and accuracy;
 Transmit information across continents via
communication channels;
 Perform complex mathematical and logical operations;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with high speed and
reliability.

5. APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
 Commercial or business applications;
 Scientific – engineering and research applications;
 Shopping from Home;
 Weather and Environment forecasting;
 Transportation (earth, air and water transports);
 Medical and Health Care

6. HISTORY OF COMPUTER
 History of computer could be traced back to the effort of
man to count large numbers.
 This process of counting large numbers generated various
systems of numeration like Babylonian system of
numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system
of numeration and Indian system of numeration.
 Out of these the Indian system of numeration has been
accepted universally. It was the basis of modern decimal
system of numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
 You will be surprised to know that the computer does not
understand the decimal system and uses binary system.

7. EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER
1. Calculating Machines:
 The first calculating device called
ABACUS was developed by the
Egyptian and Chinese people.
The word ABACUS means
calculating board. It consisted of
sticks in horizontal positions.
Horizontal bars represent units,
tens, hundreds, etc.
2. Napier’s bones
 English mathematician John
Napier built a mechanical device
for the purpose of multiplication in
1617 AD. The device was known
as Napier’s bones.

8. 3. Slide Rule
 This machine could
perform operations like
addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
4. Leibniz’s Multiplication and
Dividing Machine
 Gottfried Leibniz built
around a mechanical
device that could both
multiply and divide.

9. 5. Babbage’s Analytical Engine
 It was called difference engine. Later
on Charles Babbage developed a
general-purpose calculating machine
called analytical engine.
 “You should know that Charles
Babbage is called the father of
modern computer”.
6. Modern Electronic Calculator
 The electronic calculator used in
1960’s was run with electron tubes,
which was quite bulky.
 Later it was replaced with transistors
and as a result the size of calculators
became too small. The modern
electronic calculator can compute all
kinds of mathematical computations
and mathematical functions.
 It can also be used to store some
data permanently.

10. COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE BASICS
1. Analog computers
Analog computers operate by measuring.
They deal with continues variable. They can’t
calculate directly with numbers, rather, they
operate by measuring physical magnitude
such as pressure, temperature, voltage,
current and etc.
Examples: Thermometer, voltmeter.
2. Digital computers
Unlike the analog computers, digital
computers operate by counting rather than
measuring. Deal with discrete variables (0’s
and 1’s). They operate directly upon numbers
(digits) that represent numbers, letters, or
other special symbols. They have very high
accuracy and speed than analog.
Examples: Desk & pocket computers;
general purpose computers.

11. 3.Hybrid computers
It is a device formed from
the best futures of analog
and digital computers.
It processes the
information by collecting
input data with analog
method, converts it into
digital quantities, process
the digital values and
provide the output in
analog form.
Example:
Patient monitoring system
in hospitals (ECG
computers).

12. HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
The Computer Hardware
 The Hardware is the physical (visible and tangible) part of
the Computer that you can see and touch.
 It includes electronic devices, which have the potential for
performing the task of solving problems. It is the general
term for the physical machines or devices that carry out the
activities of capturing, processing, storing and
communicating data and information.

13. THE COMPUTER HARDWARE IS DIVIDED INTO THE FOLLOWING
CATEGORIES:
1. INPUT DEVICES
2. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
3. OUTPUT DEVICES

14. The Computer Software
 The software is a series of instructions that tell the hardware what
to do and how to do it. Software (Program) makes the interface
between the user and the electronic components of the computer.
It facilitates communication between a human being and a
machine (the computer).
 Computer software is divided into two broad categories:
1. Systems Software: operating system are: MS-DOS, MS-Windows,
and UNIX/LINUX
2. Application Software: MS-Office, CAD, Computer games

15. MEMORY DESCRIPTION

16. REPRESENTATION OF NUMBER SYSTEMS
1. Binary Number System (0’s and 1’s)
2. Octal Number System (0 to 7)
3. Decimal Number System (0 to 9)
4. Hexadecimal Number System (0 to 9 and A to F)

17. CONVERSION ONE NUMBER SYSTEM
TO OTHERS
 Binary to decimal conversion
 Decimal to Binary conversion
 Octal and Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
 Conversion among Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal

18. SOME NUMERICAL
1. Convert 1000 0101 from binary to decimal.
2. Convert 42 from octal to binary.
3. Convert 1110 0110 1001 1110 from base 2 to
base 16.
4. Convert 63FF from base 16 to base 2.