The document discusses the international monetary system and different exchange rate systems. It begins by describing freely floating and managed float systems where market forces primarily determine exchange rates. It then outlines target zone arrangements, fixed rate systems, and the current hybrid system used by major and smaller currencies. The document also provides a historical overview of international monetary systems including the gold standard, Bretton Woods system, and European Monetary System.
Gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard unit of currency is a fixed quantity of gold or is kept at the value of a fixed quantity of gold.
Gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard unit of currency is a fixed quantity of gold or is kept at the value of a fixed quantity of gold.
The slides contain discussion on the global capital market as well as international lending. It also identifies the different bond markets at well as current data on international lending.
Financial Markets, Financial Institutions, Interest Rates. asset demand and determination of asset prices, role of information in financial markets, causes and consequences of financial crises.
egional economic integration
,
levels of economic integration
,
free trade area b) customs union c) common marke
,
the political case for regional integration
,
the economic case for regional integration
,
mercosur
,
regional economic integration in europe
,
evolution of the european union
,
impediments to integration
,
the case against regional integration
,
the andean community
,
classroom performance system
,
the north american free trade agreement
,
asia-pacific economic cooperation
,
regional economic integration elsewhere
,
regional trade blocs in africa
,
political structure of the european union
,
enlargement of the european union
,
the single european act
,
the establishment of the euro
,
central american common market and caricom
The slides contain discussion on the global capital market as well as international lending. It also identifies the different bond markets at well as current data on international lending.
Financial Markets, Financial Institutions, Interest Rates. asset demand and determination of asset prices, role of information in financial markets, causes and consequences of financial crises.
egional economic integration
,
levels of economic integration
,
free trade area b) customs union c) common marke
,
the political case for regional integration
,
the economic case for regional integration
,
mercosur
,
regional economic integration in europe
,
evolution of the european union
,
impediments to integration
,
the case against regional integration
,
the andean community
,
classroom performance system
,
the north american free trade agreement
,
asia-pacific economic cooperation
,
regional economic integration elsewhere
,
regional trade blocs in africa
,
political structure of the european union
,
enlargement of the european union
,
the single european act
,
the establishment of the euro
,
central american common market and caricom
Ch 3. International Monetary System I. Alternative .docxarnit1
Ch 3. International Monetary System
I. Alternative exchange rate systems
II. A brief history of the international monetary
system
III. The European Monetary System and Monetary Union
IV. Emerging market currency crises
*
International Monetary Systems
Introduction:
1. Before 1971 (the Bretton Woods system), the international monetary system was mainly a relatively fixed exchange rate system (relative to the US dollar)
2. The current international monetary system is a system of rapidly fluctuating exchange rates (hybrid system)
3. The purpose of this chapter is to understand: what the international monetary system is and how the choice of system affects currency value.
*
International Monetary Systems
The international monetary system is the set of polices, institutions, practices, regulations, and mechanisms that determine the rate at which one currency is exchanged for another.
There are five market mechanisms: (1) free float, (2) managed float, (3) target-zone arrangement, (4) fixed-rate system, and (5) the current hybrid system.
*
International Monetary Systems
I. Part I: Five market mechanisms
A. Freely Floating (“Clean Float”)
1. Market forces of supply and demand determine
exchange rates.
2. Forces are influenced by:
a. price levels
b. interest rates
c. economic growth
3. Rates fluctuate randomly over time when new
information arrives → economic uncertainty
*
Alternative Exchange Rate Systems
B. Managed Float (“Dirty Float”)
1. Market forces set rates unless excess volatility occurs
2. Then, central bank determines exchange rate
Types of managed float:
- smoothing out daily fluctuation, if volatility exceeds certain threshold
- “leaning against the wind” : prevent abrupt short- and medium-term fluctuations
- “unofficial pegging”: there is no publicly announced government commitment to a given exchange rate level
*
Alternative Exchange Rate Systems
C. Target-Zone Arrangement
1. Rate Determination
a. Market forces constrained to upper and lower range of exchange rates
b. Members to the arrangement adjust their national
economic policies to maintain target exchange rates
c. the precursor to the euro, European Monetary
System, is one of the systems
*
Alternative Exchange Rate Systems
D. Fixed Exchange Rate System (e.g., BW system)
1. Rate determination
a. Governments are committed to maintain target
rates.
b. If rates threatened, central banks buy/sell currency.
c. Monetary policies are coordinated or subordinated.
The problem is: monetary policy may be inconsistent with desirable goals on interest rate, economic growth and unemployment (domestic economic development)
*
Alternative Exchange Rate Systems
E. Current System - a hybrid system
a. Major currencies: use freely-floating meth ...
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
how can I sell my pi coins for cash in a pi APPDOT TECH
You can't sell your pi coins in the pi network app. because it is not listed yet on any exchange.
The only way you can sell is by trading your pi coins with an investor (a person looking forward to hold massive amounts of pi coins before mainnet launch) .
You don't need to meet the investor directly all the trades are done with a pi vendor/merchant (a person that buys the pi coins from miners and resell it to investors)
I Will leave The telegram contact of my personal pi vendor, if you are finding a legitimate one.
@Pi_vendor_247
#pi network
#pi coins
#money
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview.pptxmarketing367770
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview
If you're dreaming of owning a home in California's rural or suburban areas, a USDA loan might be the perfect solution. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) offers these loans to help low-to-moderate-income individuals and families achieve homeownership.
Key Features of USDA Loans:
Zero Down Payment: USDA loans require no down payment, making homeownership more accessible.
Competitive Interest Rates: These loans often come with lower interest rates compared to conventional loans.
Flexible Credit Requirements: USDA loans have more lenient credit score requirements, helping those with less-than-perfect credit.
Guaranteed Loan Program: The USDA guarantees a portion of the loan, reducing risk for lenders and expanding borrowing options.
Eligibility Criteria:
Location: The property must be located in a USDA-designated rural or suburban area. Many areas in California qualify.
Income Limits: Applicants must meet income guidelines, which vary by region and household size.
Primary Residence: The home must be used as the borrower's primary residence.
Application Process:
Find a USDA-Approved Lender: Not all lenders offer USDA loans, so it's essential to choose one approved by the USDA.
Pre-Qualification: Determine your eligibility and the amount you can borrow.
Property Search: Look for properties in eligible rural or suburban areas.
Loan Application: Submit your application, including financial and personal information.
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USDA loans are an excellent option for those looking to buy a home in California's rural and suburban areas. With no down payment and flexible requirements, these loans make homeownership more attainable for many families. Explore your eligibility today and take the first step toward owning your dream home.
Empowering the Unbanked: The Vital Role of NBFCs in Promoting Financial Inclu...Vighnesh Shashtri
In India, financial inclusion remains a critical challenge, with a significant portion of the population still unbanked. Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) have emerged as key players in bridging this gap by providing financial services to those often overlooked by traditional banking institutions. This article delves into how NBFCs are fostering financial inclusion and empowering the unbanked.
US Economic Outlook - Being Decided - M Capital Group August 2021.pdfpchutichetpong
The U.S. economy is continuing its impressive recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and not slowing down despite re-occurring bumps. The U.S. savings rate reached its highest ever recorded level at 34% in April 2020 and Americans seem ready to spend. The sectors that had been hurt the most by the pandemic specifically reduced consumer spending, like retail, leisure, hospitality, and travel, are now experiencing massive growth in revenue and job openings.
Could this growth lead to a “Roaring Twenties”? As quickly as the U.S. economy contracted, experiencing a 9.1% drop in economic output relative to the business cycle in Q2 2020, the largest in recorded history, it has rebounded beyond expectations. This surprising growth seems to be fueled by the U.S. government’s aggressive fiscal and monetary policies, and an increase in consumer spending as mobility restrictions are lifted. Unemployment rates between June 2020 and June 2021 decreased by 5.2%, while the demand for labor is increasing, coupled with increasing wages to incentivize Americans to rejoin the labor force. Schools and businesses are expected to fully reopen soon. In parallel, vaccination rates across the country and the world continue to rise, with full vaccination rates of 50% and 14.8% respectively.
However, it is not completely smooth sailing from here. According to M Capital Group, the main risks that threaten the continued growth of the U.S. economy are inflation, unsettled trade relations, and another wave of Covid-19 mutations that could shut down the world again. Have we learned from the past year of COVID-19 and adapted our economy accordingly?
“In order for the U.S. economy to continue growing, whether there is another wave or not, the U.S. needs to focus on diversifying supply chains, supporting business investment, and maintaining consumer spending,” says Grace Feeley, a research analyst at M Capital Group.
While the economic indicators are positive, the risks are coming closer to manifesting and threatening such growth. The new variants spreading throughout the world, Delta, Lambda, and Gamma, are vaccine-resistant and muddy the predictions made about the economy and health of the country. These variants bring back the feeling of uncertainty that has wreaked havoc not only on the stock market but the mindset of people around the world. MCG provides unique insight on how to mitigate these risks to possibly ensure a bright economic future.
Turin Startup Ecosystem 2024 - Ricerca sulle Startup e il Sistema dell'Innov...Quotidiano Piemontese
Turin Startup Ecosystem 2024
Una ricerca de il Club degli Investitori, in collaborazione con ToTeM Torino Tech Map e con il supporto della ESCP Business School e di Growth Capital
what is the future of Pi Network currency.DOT TECH
The future of the Pi cryptocurrency is uncertain, and its success will depend on several factors. Pi is a relatively new cryptocurrency that aims to be user-friendly and accessible to a wide audience. Here are a few key considerations for its future:
Message: @Pi_vendor_247 on telegram if u want to sell PI COINS.
1. Mainnet Launch: As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, Pi was still in the testnet phase. Its success will depend on a successful transition to a mainnet, where actual transactions can take place.
2. User Adoption: Pi's success will be closely tied to user adoption. The more users who join the network and actively participate, the stronger the ecosystem can become.
3. Utility and Use Cases: For a cryptocurrency to thrive, it must offer utility and practical use cases. The Pi team has talked about various applications, including peer-to-peer transactions, smart contracts, and more. The development and implementation of these features will be essential.
4. Regulatory Environment: The regulatory environment for cryptocurrencies is evolving globally. How Pi navigates and complies with regulations in various jurisdictions will significantly impact its future.
5. Technology Development: The Pi network must continue to develop and improve its technology, security, and scalability to compete with established cryptocurrencies.
6. Community Engagement: The Pi community plays a critical role in its future. Engaged users can help build trust and grow the network.
7. Monetization and Sustainability: The Pi team's monetization strategy, such as fees, partnerships, or other revenue sources, will affect its long-term sustainability.
It's essential to approach Pi or any new cryptocurrency with caution and conduct due diligence. Cryptocurrency investments involve risks, and potential rewards can be uncertain. The success and future of Pi will depend on the collective efforts of its team, community, and the broader cryptocurrency market dynamics. It's advisable to stay updated on Pi's development and follow any updates from the official Pi Network website or announcements from the team.
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how to sell pi coins effectively (from 50 - 100k pi)DOT TECH
Anywhere in the world, including Africa, America, and Europe, you can sell Pi Network Coins online and receive cash through online payment options.
Pi has not yet been launched on any exchange because we are currently using the confined Mainnet. The planned launch date for Pi is June 28, 2026.
Reselling to investors who want to hold until the mainnet launch in 2026 is currently the sole way to sell.
Consequently, right now. All you need to do is select the right pi network provider.
Who is a pi merchant?
An individual who buys coins from miners on the pi network and resells them to investors hoping to hang onto them until the mainnet is launched is known as a pi merchant.
debuts.
I'll provide you the Telegram username
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins at high rate quickly.DOT TECH
Where can I sell my pi coins at a high rate.
Pi is not launched yet on any exchange. But one can easily sell his or her pi coins to investors who want to hold pi till mainnet launch.
This means crypto whales want to hold pi. And you can get a good rate for selling pi to them. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor below.
A vendor is someone who buys from a miner and resell it to a holder or crypto whale.
Here is the telegram contact of my vendor:
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins in South Korea profitably.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network coins in South Korea or any other country, by finding a verified pi merchant
What is a verified pi merchant?
Since pi network is not launched yet on any exchange, the only way you can sell pi coins is by selling to a verified pi merchant, and this is because pi network is not launched yet on any exchange and no pre-sale or ico offerings Is done on pi.
Since there is no pre-sale, the only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners. So a pi merchant facilitates these transactions by acting as a bridge for both transactions.
How can i find a pi vendor/merchant?
Well for those who haven't traded with a pi merchant or who don't already have one. I will leave the telegram id of my personal pi merchant who i trade pi with.
Tele gram: @Pi_vendor_247
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2. 2
Objective
Understand
(a) what the international monetary system is and
(b) how the choice of system affects currency value.
also
(c) provide a historical background of the international monetary system
We will describe how exchange rates are determined under five different
mechanisms--free float, managed float, fixed-rate system, target-zone system and
the current hybrid system.
3. 3
PART I. ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS
A. Freely Floating (Clean Float)
1. Market forces of supply
and demand determine
rates.
2. Forces influenced by
a. price levels
b. interest rates
c. economic growth
3. Rates fluctuate over time
randomly (participants will react to new information).
4. 4
PART I. ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS – Free Float
0.785
0.79
0.795
0.8
0.805
0.81
0.815
0.82
0.825
0.83
0.835
0 10 20 30 40
Price
of
US
dollar
Price of US dollar in terms of Euro is plotted below
- September 1st to October 22nd 2004.
5. 5
PART I. ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS – Free Float
EUR/USD - Sep012003 to Oct222004
0.76
0.78
0.8
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.9
0.92
0.94
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Volatility of EUR/USD exchange rate is
much lower now than before as indicated by
standard errors.
6. 6
PART I. ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS – Free Float
USD/DM 5-minute rates for November 25th 1996.
USD/DM
0.719
0.72
0.721
0.722
0.723
0.724
0.725
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Variance of EUR/USD exchange rate is 0.0018
7. 7
ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS
B. Managed Float (Dirty Float) – It is difficult to resist
to intervene in the market to reduce the economic uncertainty associated with a clean
float. An brupt change can negatively impact the export industry (ıf appreciation) or
lead to higher inflation (depreciation).
1. Market forces set rates unless
excess volatility occurs.
2. Then, central bank determines
rate.
8. 8
ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS
Three categories of intervention
(1) Smoothing out daily fluctuations
intervene to preserve an orderly pattern of exchange rate changes. For
example, Brazilian Peso is allowed to depreciate monthly by about 0.6 percent
against the dollar.
(2) Leaning against the wind
designed to prevent short and medium term fluctuations brought about by
temporary random events. It delays the impacts. Determination of temporary or
fundamental effects.
(3) Unofficial pegging
Involves resisting any fundamental upward or downward exchange rate
movements –
9. 9
ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS
C. Target-Zone Arrangement
Countries adjust their national economic policies to maintain their exchange rates
within a specific margin around agreed-upon, fixed exchange rates.
1. Rate Determination
a. Market forces constrained
to upper and lower range of rates.
b. Members to the arrangement adjust their
national economic policies to maintain target.
10. 10
ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS
D. Fixed Rate System
1. Rate determination
a. Government maintains target
rates.
b. If rates are threatened, central
banks buy/sell currency.
c. Monetary policies coordinated – all
have the same inflation rate. No control over monetary policy.
11. 11
ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS
2. Some Government Controls – the most drastic
occurs when all foreign exchange earnings must be
surrendered to the central bank:
a. On global portfolio investments.
b. Ceilings on direct foreign direct insurance.
c. Import restrictions.
d. Imposition of taxes and limitations on
foreign-owned bank deposits.
e. Limitations on prepayments for imports.
12. 12
ALTERNATIVE EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEMS
E. Current System
1. A hybrid system
a. Major currencies: use
freely-floating method
b. Others move in and out
of various fixed-rate systems.
13. 13
PART II. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
I. THE USE OF GOLD
A. Desirable properties – durable, storable,
portable, easily recognized, divisible and easily
standardized.
B. In short run: High production costs limit
short-run changes.
C. In long run: Commodity money insures
stability.
14. 14
PART II. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
The Gold Standard involved a commitment to fix the
prices of their domestic currencies in terms of a
specified amount of gold. They are willing to buy or
sell gold to anyone at that price.
For example, Great Britain maintained a fixed price of gold at 4.2474 per ounce. The
US maintained the price of gold at $20.67 per ounce. Hence, dollar-pound exchange
rate can easily determined as:
($20.67 per ounce of gold)/(pound 4.2474 per ounce of gold)=$4.8665 per one pound
15. 15
PART II. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
Fiat money is nonconvertible paper money backed only
by faith that the monetary authorities will not cheat by
issuing more money (100% profit margin). By contrast,
the net profit margin on issuing more money under gold
standard is zero.
Under the classical gold standard, disturbances in Price
Levels would be wholly or partly offset by automatic
balance of payments adjustment mechanism called the
price- specie*-flow mechanism.
* specie refers to gold coins
16. 16
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
a. Price-specie-flow mechanism
had automatic adjustments :
1.) When a balance of payments
surplus led to a gold inflow;
2.) Gold inflow led to higher prices which
reduced surplus;
3.) Gold outflow led to lower prices and
increased surplus.
17. 17
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
II. The Classical Gold Standard
(1821-1914)
- Major currencies on gold standard.
Characterized by: free international trade, stable
exchange rates and prices, rapid economic growth, free
flow of labor and capital across borders and world peace.
18. 18
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
III. The Gold Exchange Standard (1925-1944)
Gold standard broke down during WWI
A. Only U.S. and Britain allowed to
hold gold reserves.
B. Other countries could hold both
gold, dollars or pound reserves.
19. 19
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
C. Currencies devalued in 1931
- “beggar-thy-neighbor” devaluations - led to
trade wars.
D. Bretton Woods Conference
- called in order to avoid future protectionist and
destructive economic policies
- created two new institutions: IMF and World Bank.
- IMF was created to promote monetary stability.
- WB to lend money to countries so that they can build their infrastructure
20. 20
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
Role of IMF evolve over time.
- oversees exchange rate policies
- advises developing countries how to turn their economies around
It has become lender of last resort which creates a moral hazard problem.
IMF bailouts causes (a) governments persist with bad policies and (b)
investors to underestimate the risks
In theory, IMF makes short term loans conditional on the borrower’s
implementation of policy changes. Conditionality has little credibility.
21. 21
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
V. The Bretton Woods System (1946-1971)
1. U.S.$ was key currency;
valued at $1 - 1/35 oz. of gold.
2. All currencies linked to that price in
a fixed rate system.
22. 22
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
3. Exchange rates allowed to fluctuate by 1%
above or below initially set rates.
Fixed exchange rates were maintained by official intervention in the foreign exchange
market.
Withot price stability, balance of payment deficits was the result.
Experienced foreign exchange crisis as governments were reluctant to adjust their
economic policies.
B. Collapse, 1971
1. Causes:
a. U.S. high inflation rate (by
printing money)
b. U.S.$ depreciated sharply.
23. 23
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
V. Post-Bretton Woods System (1971-Present)
A. Smithsonian Agreement, 1971
US$ devalued to 1/38 oz. of gold.
By 1973: World on a freely
floating exchange rate system.
24. 24
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
NEER - USD
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time
NEER
January 1973
NEER: Nominal Effective Exchange Rate
25. 25
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM
Volatility is calculated as the rolling standart deviation over the past 24 months
using NEER
Volatility
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time
Volatility
January 1973
26. 26
PART III.
THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM
I. INTRODUCTION
A. The European Monetary System (EMS) –
goal was to foster monetary stability in the European
Community
1. A target-zone method (1979)
2. Close macroeconomic policy
coordination required.
27. 27
THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM
B. EMS Objective:
to provide exchange rate stability to all
members by holding exchange rates within
specified limits.
28. 28
THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM
C. European Currency Unit (ECU)
A “cocktail” of European currencies (composite
currency) with specified weights as the unit of account.
1. Exchange rate mechanism (ERM)
each member determines mutually agreed
upon central cross rate for its currency.
29. 29
THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM
National currency weights to the ECU value
Currency 13.03.1979-
16.09.1984
17.09.1984-
21.09.1989
21.09.1989-
31.12.1998
BEF 9.64% 8.57% 8.183%
DEM 32.98% 32.08% 31.955%
DKK 3.06% 2.69% 2.653%
ESP - - 4.138%
FRF 19.83% 19.06% 20.316%
GBP 13.34% 14.98% 12.452%
GRD - 1.31% 0.437%
IEP 1.15% 1.20% 1.086%
ITL 9.49% 9.98% 7.840%
LUF - - 0.322%
NLG 10.51% 10.13% 9.98%
PTE - - 0.695%
30. 30
THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM
2. Member Pledge:
To keep within 15% margin above or below the
central rate.
D. EMS ups and downs
1. Foreign exchange interventions failed due to lack of
support by coordinated monetary policies.
31. 31
THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM
2. Currency Crisis of Sept. 1992 –
Bundesbank’s decision to tighten the monetary policy (high R); high cost of
intervention by other countries (R was 500% in Sweden)
a. System broke down
b. Britain and Italy forced to
withdraw from EMS.
G. Failure of the EMS
members allowed political priorities
to dominate exchange rate policies.
EMS has succeeded to lower inflation in Europe.
32. 32
THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM
H. Maastricht Treaty
1. Called for Monetary Union by 1999
(moved to 2002).
2. Established a single currency: the euro
3. Calls for creation of a single central EU
bank.
4. Adopts tough fiscal standards.
33. 33
THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM
I. Costs / Benefits of A Single Currency
A. Benefits
1. Reduces cost of doing business (e.g. Philips
saves a $300 million a year from a single currency transactions cost; easier
corporate planning, pricing and invoicing).
2. Reduces exchange rate risk
B. Costs
1. Lack of national monetary flexibility.
It can also impose high costs if wages and prices are inflexible.
- What happens if demand for French goods fall sharply?
34. 34
Emerging Market Currency Crisis
Currency crisis tend to be contagious. Two major
contagion channels.
(1) Trade links: can sperad from one nation to another through trade. For example,
when Argentina is in crisis, it imports less from Brazil.
(2) Financial System: Trouble in one market as a wake-up call for similar
countries. Investors seek to exit these similar countries. For example, Asian currency
crisis in 1997. Financial contagion can also occur if investors start selling their assests
in other countries to cover their losses.
35. 35
Emerging Market Currency Crisis
Sources:
(1) Moral Hazard - IMF
(2) Fundamental policy conflict among policy objectives
36. 36
Emerging Market Currency Crisis
Possible ways to avoid currency crisis
(1) Currency controls
(2) Freely floating currency
(3) Permanently fixed exchange rate (money supply adjusts to the
balance of payments)
37. 37
Official Currency Conversion rates
Country Currency Currency Units per euro
Austria schilling 13.7603
Belgium franc 40.3399
Finland markka 5.94573
France franc 6.55957
Germany mark 1.95583
Greece drachma 340.75
Ireland punt 0.787564
Italy lira 1936.27
Luxembourg franc 40.3399
Netherlands guilder 2.20371
Portugal escudo 200.482
Spain peseta 166.386
Currency units per euro