"Interactions of organisms in ecosystem"
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Populations of different species interact ecologically in communities. Ecological interactions like competition, predation, and mutualism can affect species' distributions, abundances, and evolution. These interactions include competition for limited resources, one species feeding on another, mutually beneficial relationships, and cases where one species benefits while the other is not affected.
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Behavioral Ecology
Discuss about the behavior of organisms towards other organisms and the environment. Includes resource assessment, animal communication, foraging behavior and optimality in individuals, maintenance of sex ratio, and sexual selection.
Animal behavior and social relationships
Animal behavior can be innate or learned. Innate behaviors are inherited through genes and do not depend on learning, such as puppies chewing or bees flying. Learned behaviors are influenced by experience. Animals exhibit various behaviors for survival purposes, such as finding food, marking territories, defensive actions, courtship, parenting, and adapting to seasonal changes. Many animals are social and interact in groups, communicating through sounds, touch, chemicals, and visual signals to find food, warn of danger, identify others, and find mates. While living in groups provides some benefits like safety in numbers, it also presents challenges around competition, food scarcity, and disease spread.
Factors affecting variation and evolutionary pathways
1) Mutations, gene flow, and recombination increase genetic variation in populations by introducing new alleles.
2) Natural selection and genetic drift decrease variation by eliminating less adapted alleles or reducing population size.
3) Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species evolve similar traits due to common environmental pressures. Divergent evolution happens when related species evolve different traits in different environments, possibly leading to speciation. Vestigial structures provide evidence of evolution from ancestral forms.
Weathering
Mechanical and chemical weathering break down rocks into smaller pieces. Mechanical weathering causes physical disintegration through processes like frost wedging, plant roots, and temperature changes without altering the rock's chemical composition. Chemical weathering alters rocks through chemical reactions with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acids. Water is the main agent of chemical weathering, dissolving minerals and rocks through hydrolysis and hydration. Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid, which breaks down minerals like limestone. Oxidation also contributes to chemical weathering.
Theories of evolution
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time through his three theories: the Theory of Need, the Theory of Use and Disuse, and the Theory of Acquired Characteristics. He believed giraffes developed longer necks to reach tall trees and passed these traits to offspring. However, Charles Darwin later suggested natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, where traits that aid survival, like longer giraffe necks, are selected for and passed on, while less fit traits die out. Darwin observed variations in beak structures among Galapagos finches related to food availability.
Intraspecific variation
Intraspecific variation refers to differences that occur within a species. Variation can be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include differences in alleles that cause phenotypic variations like eye color. Environmental factors influence phenotypes as well, such as how temperature affects the fur color of Himalayan rabbits. Often variation is a combination of both genetic and environmental influences, such as how genetics and nutrition interact to determine a person's height. Genetic variation within and between populations can be measured to understand intraspecific variation.
Adaptation
Some animals have special adaptations that help them survive and get their needs like food and water. The giraffe has a long neck to reach high leaves, polar bears have thick fur to stay warm, camels store food and water in humps, elephants use their trunks to drink water, some birds have long beaks to find food in soil, and turtles are protected by their shells. These adaptations help different animals live in their environments.
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Behavioral Ecology
Discuss about the behavior of organisms towards other organisms and the environment. Includes resource assessment, animal communication, foraging behavior and optimality in individuals, maintenance of sex ratio, and sexual selection.
Animal behavior and social relationships
Animal behavior can be innate or learned. Innate behaviors are inherited through genes and do not depend on learning, such as puppies chewing or bees flying. Learned behaviors are influenced by experience. Animals exhibit various behaviors for survival purposes, such as finding food, marking territories, defensive actions, courtship, parenting, and adapting to seasonal changes. Many animals are social and interact in groups, communicating through sounds, touch, chemicals, and visual signals to find food, warn of danger, identify others, and find mates. While living in groups provides some benefits like safety in numbers, it also presents challenges around competition, food scarcity, and disease spread.
Factors affecting variation and evolutionary pathways
1) Mutations, gene flow, and recombination increase genetic variation in populations by introducing new alleles.
2) Natural selection and genetic drift decrease variation by eliminating less adapted alleles or reducing population size.
3) Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species evolve similar traits due to common environmental pressures. Divergent evolution happens when related species evolve different traits in different environments, possibly leading to speciation. Vestigial structures provide evidence of evolution from ancestral forms.
Weathering
Mechanical and chemical weathering break down rocks into smaller pieces. Mechanical weathering causes physical disintegration through processes like frost wedging, plant roots, and temperature changes without altering the rock's chemical composition. Chemical weathering alters rocks through chemical reactions with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acids. Water is the main agent of chemical weathering, dissolving minerals and rocks through hydrolysis and hydration. Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid, which breaks down minerals like limestone. Oxidation also contributes to chemical weathering.
Theories of evolution
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time through his three theories: the Theory of Need, the Theory of Use and Disuse, and the Theory of Acquired Characteristics. He believed giraffes developed longer necks to reach tall trees and passed these traits to offspring. However, Charles Darwin later suggested natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, where traits that aid survival, like longer giraffe necks, are selected for and passed on, while less fit traits die out. Darwin observed variations in beak structures among Galapagos finches related to food availability.
Intraspecific variation
Intraspecific variation refers to differences that occur within a species. Variation can be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include differences in alleles that cause phenotypic variations like eye color. Environmental factors influence phenotypes as well, such as how temperature affects the fur color of Himalayan rabbits. Often variation is a combination of both genetic and environmental influences, such as how genetics and nutrition interact to determine a person's height. Genetic variation within and between populations can be measured to understand intraspecific variation.
Adaptation
Some animals have special adaptations that help them survive and get their needs like food and water. The giraffe has a long neck to reach high leaves, polar bears have thick fur to stay warm, camels store food and water in humps, elephants use their trunks to drink water, some birds have long beaks to find food in soil, and turtles are protected by their shells. These adaptations help different animals live in their environments.
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Weathering of Rocks
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptx
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
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"Interactions of organisms in ecosystem"
- 1. Population – group of individuals of the same species living in the same area, potentially interacting Community – group of populations of different species living in the same area, potentially interacting What are some ecological interactions?
- 2. Why are ecological interactions important? Interactions can affect distribution and abundance. Interactions can influence evolution. Think about how the following interactions can affect distribution, abundance, and evolution.
- 3. Types of ecological interactions competition predation parasitism mutualism commensalism symbiosis
- 5. Competition – two species share a requirement for a limited resource reduces fitness of one or both species
- 6. Predation – one species feeds on another enhances fitness of predator but reduces fitness of prey herbivory is a form of predation
- 7. Parasitism – one species feeds on another enhances fitness of parasite but reduces fitness of host
- 8. Mutualism – two species provide resources or services to each other enhances fitness of both species
- 9. Commensalism – one species receives a benefit from another species enhances fitness of one species; no effect on fitness of the other species
- 10. Symbiosis – two species live together can include parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
- 11. Organizing ecological interactions effect on species 1 + + effect on species 2 mutualism 0 0 - commensalism predation herbivory parasitism commensalism - predation herbivory parasitism competition competition competition