Integrating ict as an integral teaching and learning tool into pre

Integrating ICT as an integral teaching and
learning tool into pre-service teacher training
courses
Carole Steketee
The University of Notre Dame Australia
Even though a wide cross-section of society today has accepted Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) as an entrenched characteristic of its culture,
education has been slow to adopt it as an integral tool within the classroom (Cuban,
2001; Elliott, 2004). Many reasons for this lethargy have been purported in the
literature, ranging from inadequate professional development opportunities for
teachers, to negative teacher attitudes towards technology. Similarly, an assortment of
solutions to these dilemmas has been proposed. One in particular has been the push to
integrate ICT into teacher education programs. Exposure to ICT during their training
is expected to increase graduating teachers' willingness to integrate it into their own
classroom curricula. While studies into this phenomenon have reported some degree
of success, findings have been largely inconclusive (Brush, Igoe, Brinkerhoff,
Glazewski, Ku & Smith, 2001; Albion, 2003). Nevertheless, these collective findings
are useful in informing similar contexts. For example, the College of Education at The
University of Notre Dame, Australia (UNDA) has reviewed these findings in an effort
to better understand, and potentially change, ICT implementation across its own
teacher training programs.
The UNDA review and its conclusions are presented in this paper, together with the
definition and discussion of approaches to ICT integration adopted by various teacher
training institutions. Furthermore, the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches
are explored and subsequently used as a springboard for the proposal of an
implementation framework that has the potential to facilitate the authentic and
sustained application of ICT within K-12 classrooms.
A review of the literature
Following the systematic review of relevant education databases, numerous papers
were examined for their insight into the current (2000 - 2004) use of ICT in teacher
training courses. In an effort to describe and synthesise the key findings, an annotated
bibliography was carried out on all relevant papers.
In reviewing these annotations, it became evident that the use of ICT within teacher
training programs around the world is being approached in a number of different

ways, all with varying degrees of success. These approaches were subsequently
described, refined and merged into four primary approaches as follows.
1. ICT skills development approach
2. ICT pedagogy approach
3. Subject-specific approach
4. Practice driven approach
Each of these approaches is discussed in this paper, along with their relative strengths
and weaknesses. Other issues to emerge from these papers (which could not be
classified as an approach as such) are also discussed as related challenges.
ICT skills development approach
Governments and education systems around the world recognise the need for students
to be skilled, creative and confident users of a wide range of information and
communication technologies (Brush et al, 2001; Charalambous & Karagiorgi, 2002;
Delargey, 2003; Lim, Hung, Wong & Hu, 2004; McNair & Galanouli, 2002; Rees,
2002; Richards, nd; Voogt, Gorokavatschke & Pourcheva, 2000; Zhiting & Hanbing,
2002). ICT is evolving into a literacy in its own right alongside reading, writing and
arithmetic (KCTR-CH Group, 2000). Students must master this literacy if they are to
succeed within, and contribute to, a 'technology-savvy' future workforce
(Wheelwright, 1999). Furthermore, given the potential that ICTs have to foster higher
order learning outcomes (Steketee, Herrington & Oliver, 2001; Jonassen, 2002), it
becomes imperative that students are exposed to these new learning environments.
Teacher education courses have acknowledged their role in helping students achieve
this outcome. By training pre-service teachers to use ICTs, it is hoped that they will
transfer this knowledge and skills to their classrooms. In this regard, many institutions
have written an ICT skills unit into their course structure. These units aim to increase
student ICT competencies and generally offer the basics such as word processing,
database and spreadsheet manipulation as well as email and Internet use (Brush et al,
2001).
While pre-service teachers today are more skilled ICT users than their predecessors
(Richards, nd; Albion, 2003), it is a mistake to assume that they have developed
sufficient skills outside their teacher education courses. Although there is greater
access to computers at home today (PISA in Elliott, 2004), access is not synonymous
with competency and basic skills need to be developed, reinforced and used as the

foundation for the development of more sophisticated ones. As such, these skills units
are justified in teacher education courses.
ICT pedagogy approach
However, while the need to upskill students is important, skill alone is not enough to
encourage students to confidently integrate ICT into their classroom programs (Wang,
2002). For example, in response to a government mandate that teachers integrate ICT
into their teaching, teacher education institutions across China added ICT skills units
into their programs (Zhiting & Hanbing, 2002.). The intention of this approach was
such that teachers skilled in ICT would confidently integrate it into their classroom
practices. However, based on a similar mandate in Canada, Rees (2002) found that an
'add on' approach does little to encourage students to transfer ICT skills into practice
during their internships.
[Simply forcing] a teacher to integrate technology into the classroom is an exercise in
futility ... What is needed is a shift in thinking so teachers will come to view
technology as an effective tool to use throughout the course of planning, delivering
and assessing instruction, not something that must be used to meet a government-
mandated technology standard (Polonoli, 2001, p.35).
Other findings suggest that skills units encourage students to perceive ICT as a set of
discrete skills that, in effect, facilitate a faster, glossier approach to existing models of
teaching (McNair & Galanouli, 2002). Noss and Pachler (1999) concur and state that
stand alone skills units simply amount to "doing more quickly, reliably and
interactively what has always been done in [traditional teaching models] (p.200)." In
short, this skills oriented model essentially supplements traditional expository patterns
of classroom activity and does little to cultivate the use of ICT as higher order
thinking and learning tools.
In response to these findings, others have implemented a pedagogical oriented unit in
addition to a skills one (Willis & Sujo de Montes, 2002; Brown, 2002; Zhiting &
Hanbing, 2002; Delargey, 2002; McNair & Galanouli, 2002). The obje ctive of these
pedagogical units is to show students how ICT can be integrated as teaching and
learning tools across the curriculum. Drawing on the principles of constructivism, pre-
service teachers design lessons and activities that centre around the use of ICT tools
that will foster the attainment of genuine learning outcomes.
This is currently the approach adopted by the College of Education at UNDA.
Students are required to complete two compulsory ICT units within their first two
years; one skill-related, the other emphasising the integration of ICT in the
curriculum.

This approach is useful to the extent that the skills unit enhances ICT literacy skills
and the pedagogy unit allows students to further develop and maintain these skills in
the context of designing classroom based resources. Students who have undergone
this type of training have reported significant changes in their understandings
associated with effective implementation strategies, as well as their self-efficacy as to
their ICT competencies (Willis & Sujo de Montes, 2002).
Once again, however, this understanding has not been transferred in any notable way
to the classroom context. In a sense, pre-service teachers perceive these stand alone
ICT units to be isolated from and tacked onto the primary curriculum and, as such,
make little attempt to thread it into their own instruction. While it is imperative that
pre-service teachers are taught about ICT, as well as the pedagogical implications of
implementation, it seems that this approach is not providing a clear enough picture of
the benefits to emerge when learning with ICT.
Subject-specific approach
This dilemma has been at the root of attempts to give pre-service teachers first hand
experiences about what a computer based learning environment represents, and how
they can access ICT to solve problems and think in deeper, more meaningful ways
(Voogt et al., 2000; Brush et al, 2001; McNair & Galanouli, 2002; Richards, nd;
Couros, 2004; Dawson, Forster & Reid, 2003). Based on the belief that teachers (pre-
service and practising) are more likely to use technology in their classroom only after
personally experiencing the power of technology as an effective tool themselves
(Rees, 2002), integration models have been adopted whereby ICT is embedded into
specific subject area units (eg, Mathematics, Science, English, Society and
Environment etc).
By modelling effective implementation skills in the context of genuine subject areas at
university, lecturers are not only exposing students to new and innovative ways of
learning, but are providing them with a practical understanding of what learning and
teaching with ICT looks and feels like. In this way, ICT is not an 'add on', but an
integral tool that is accessed by teachers and students across a wide range of the
curricula.
A recent audit of the extent to which ICT is embedded within Learning Area Subject
(LAS) units at UNDA revealed that technology is primarily used as a research tool by
students beyond normal classroom activity, and other than using PowerPoint to
present information to students, lecturers do not actively engage students in the use of
ICT as a thinking and learning tool in the classroom.

While this subject specific integration approach has been recognised as an essential
component of any teacher education program, and will be considered in future
reviews of UNDA's LAS units, pre-service teachers who have undergone this type of
training are still hesitant to implement ICT into their practicum for a range of reasons
(McNair & Galanouli, 2002).
Practice driven approach
In many instances, pre-service teachers are not actively encouraged, or expected to
integrate ICT into their programs while on teaching practice. As part of their ICT
pedagogy unit, students at UNDA are encouraged to design ICT resources for their
practicum experiences, but this is not compulsory. In light of the contention that pre-
service teachers often adopt traditional classroom practices that they themselves were
exposed to during their own schooling (Willis & Sujo de Montes, 2002), it can be
argued that unless ICT integration is explicitly tied into practicum preparation (and
perhaps even assessed) then they will remain uncommitted and reluctant users.
In this regard, some teacher education courses have sought to embed ICT into
students' practicum experiences. Based on a solid relationship between subject
specific lecturers, tutor teachers, and ICT lecturers, pre-service teachers are
encouraged and supported to design classroom programs that centre on computer
based instruction and learning. Expectations in these field experiences often differ to
the traditional models of practicum. For example, in a study conducted by Brush et al
(2001), practicum experiences were assessed on the pre-service teacher's ability to
embed ICT as an instructional and learning tool into their classrooms. This was
evident in a portfolio that documented their mastery of ICT skills and integration
practices.
Similarly, Graduate Diploma students at the University of Wollongong were required
to design and maintain electronic portfolios throughout their course (Brown, 2002).
While resources were generally designed during laboratory based or subject specific
units on campus, it was for the purpose of implementing them into the classroom
while on teaching practice. Based on the concept that the pre-service teacher is a
learner, manager, designer and researcher (a concept developed throughout the
course), pre-service teachers were expected to research their practicum school's ICT
facilities, design ICT activities with their tutor teacher, manage those activities in the
classroom, then evaluate their effectiveness in terms of student learning.
McNair & Galanouli (2002) also adopted a portfolio approach to ICT use during
practicum. By requiring pre-service teachers to keep a reflective portfolio on their
experiences of integrating ICT into the classroom, it was hoped that the analytical

properties of this approach would help them understand the powerful place ICT has in
the teaching and learning cycle.
[T]he potential for ICT to enhance teaching and learning cannot be realised unless
student teachers think analytically about their teaching. Such analytical thinking
should include the effectiveness of ICT to provide new, more efficient and flexible
ways of teaching and learning (p. 183).
In this regard, the portfolios are both process and product oriented. The process of
reflecting on experiences that go beyond the actual presentational and communicative
attributes of ICT will hopefully encourage teachers to explore ways in which these
tools can actually promote higher order learning in the classroom (McNair &
Galanouli, 2002). The rich resources within the portfolios constitute a product that
students can maintain and modify for later use.
This subject linked practicum agenda has been successful to the extent that pre-service
teachers are motivated to design ICT experiences for authentic learning purposes and
for a genuine audience. In doing so, they are encouraged to consider the quality of the
content of their resources, as opposed to their ICT skills. There is also a need to
consider pedagogical and practical issues if their lessons are to be implemented
effectively. Zhiting & Hanbing (2002) calls this experience a 'hands-on, minds-on' one
where pre-service teachers learn by doing.
Perceptions of teaching and ICT
However, this approach is not free from problems and unless there is a strong
relationship between faculty wide lecturers, tutor teachers and pre-service teachers,
and a genuine commitment by all parties to implement a computer-based learning
environment, there is little chance of success. For example, irrespective of the pre-
service teacher's willingness to use ICT, their tutor teacher's perception of, and
confidence with, technology will impact heavily on actual application (McNair &
Galanouli, 2002).
While studies exist into the relationship between perceptions of ICT and subsequent
use, Wang (20 02) suggests that a teacher's broader perception of education is perhaps
a more useful indication of his or her ability (and even desire) to integrate technology
into the classroom. In light of the fact that "teaching with computers requires a shift
from ... traditional teaching practices" (Wang, 2002, p.2), teachers who hold teacher
centred beliefs of teaching and learning will be less likely to view technology as an
integral learning tool.

Given that the average age of teachers in Australia is 46, and that, as Becker (1991)
contends, their perceptions of education are a product of their own traditional
schooling, it can be inferred that, at present, teacher centred approaches are more
prevalent than student centred ones. Because pre-service teachers tend to mimic the
practices and beliefs of their tutor teachers, even those who are motivated to use ICT
on practicum will be less inclined to do so if this approach is not generally promoted
by the teacher.
Furthermore, because most practising teachers would have had little or no exposure to
computers in their own education (Albion, 2003), their ICT skills are possibly still
developing. In relation to this, McNair & Galanouli (2002, p.191) note "Where
[lecturers and tutor teachers] are in a skills-developing situation themselves, the role
of ICT in teaching is likely to remain at the level of presenting old teaching in new
ways". Once again, this does not positively impact upon the pre-service teacher's
attempts to integrate ICT during teaching practice as a tool for students to learn and
think with - as a resource that mediates and supports the learning process.
If computers are to be used in this way, then teachers need to confront their
perceptions about the nature of learning, the role of the student and, in particular, the
role of the teacher (Niederhauser, Salem & Fields, 1999). While such conceptual
changes can be addressed through professional development opportunities for
practising teachers, it is also necessary to help pre-service teachers develop a clear
vision of their roles as teachers (Wang, 2002). Because pre-service teachers'
perceptions of education are also shaped by their schooling, it is imperative that they
are encouraged to articulate these beliefs and engage in experiences that will
encourage them to adopt views whereby teachers guide student learning, and
computers are identified as powerful tools that support the learning process.
ICT implementation frameworks
This review has been useful to the extent that it has exposed a range of different
approaches to ICT integration into teacher education courses and the varying levels of
success these approaches have achieved. The integration models, where pre-service
teachers access a range of ICT applications in the context of their subject area units,
have been more successful than the stand alone ICT units. When ICT is 'added on' to
the curriculum, students have difficulty in making the connections between ICT skills
and ICT as a learning tool. Furthermore, when ICT training is tied to the students'
practicum experiences, they are better equipped to integrate it into their own
classroom programs.
Although some of these studies do discuss constructivism as being integral to
effective pedagogy within ICT environments, there is a distinct lack of exploration

into how constructivist principles actually guide the roles of the teachers and the
students and the nature of the instructional design in general. Constructivist learning
environments have been widely accepted as the most conducive to computer-based
learning (Cole & Engeström, 1993; Evans, 1998; Jonassen, 2002; Jonassen & Reeves,
1996; Lajoie, 1993). If, as Wang (2002) suggests, teachers who work in technology-
rich classrooms are unable to teach in traditional, transmissionist ways, then they must
be guided in their efforts to identify constructivist pedagogies that actually work.
While Brown's (2002) description of the teacher's multifaceted role (learner, manager,
designer and researcher) is useful, it stops short of exploring the numerous other
factors that contribute to effective ICT learning environments. This is problematic
given that the whole configuration of events, activities, contents and interpersonal
processes within classrooms are important determinants in the success and failure of
ICT learning environments (Salomon, 1993).
In this regard, the Distributed Learning Environment (DLE) framework is helpful as it
provides a comprehensive and practical guide for teachers wishing to implement
computers as powerful learning tools in their classrooms (Steketee, Herrington &
Oliver, 1999). The DLE is based on a social constructivist perspective of learning
where discourse and collaboration is highly valued, and students are encouraged to
distribute their learning between social, physical, symbolic and intellectual resources
found within the learning environment. When learning is distributed, cognition is not
solely an individual pursuit, but rather is shared amongst resources found within the
learning environment (Pea, 1993). A type of communal partnership is developed
within which students, together with other students and resources, construct new
knowledge and understandings.
Even though learning is inherently a social construct (Vygotsky, 1978), and the idea
that learning is facilitated by cognitive resources is far from new (Nickerson, 1993),
collaborative and distributed learning in the classroom is not a natural phenomenon.
The traditional expository and individualistic nature of classroom practice is well
established and continues to influence new generations of teachers (Willis & Sujo de
Montes, 2002). As such, if pre-service teachers are to be encouraged to distribute their
thinking and learning, a DLE needs to be explicitly engineered and implemented.
For this to occur, a complex combination of appropriate teaching context
characteristics and student characteristics need to be in place to allow the
necessaryprocess characteristics to transpire (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Characteristics of a distributed learning environment
The teaching context characteristics comprise a wide range of complex phenomena. It
requires teachers to confront their perceptions of the role of the teacher in the
classroom and to adopt the belief that teaching is the facilitation of understanding.
Through the careful orchestration of tasks, curricula, teaching and assessment
methods teachers effectively show students how to participate in distribution through
the processes of collaboration, using resources and thinking strategically. Together,
these factors convey messages to students about the type of learning that is desired
and rewarded, which impacts upon student characteristics.
Student characteristics relate to students' perceptions of the learning environment and
their roles within it. These perceptions influence the students' commitments to the
distributive learning methods, as well as their acceptance of the responsibility they
have for their own learning and the learning of others. Consequently, these
perceptions affect the way students approach their learning, that is, the processes they
adopt.
Process characteristics refer to students' use of resources as they endeavour to learn
something. Resources typically available within the classroom environment can be
categorised as social, physical, symbolic and the individual's intellect. While it is
possible for individuals to pursue learning tasks drawing on perhaps only one resource
(eg, their prior knowledge), the premise of this framework is that cognition is most
powerful when it is distributed across a variety of resources. In fact, while these
resources are operable on their own, their full potential is most likely to be achieved
when used in conjunction with other resources. In this regard, Steketee, Herrington
and Oliver (2001) argue that the full potential of the computer is achieved when used
in conjunction with the indiv idual's intellectual resources, social resources, symbolic
resources and other physical resources as they function together within a distributed
learning environment.
Conclusions
This framework presents a useful starting point for the identification of a rigorous ICT
implementation plan. While the approaches identified in this review all have their

respective merits, each is potentially useless without a sound and practical
understanding of how computers can be implemented as learning tools. Based on
contemporary learning theory, the DLE operationalises the conceptual changes that
Wang (2002) argues must occur in the classroom if the computer is to transform
teaching and learning.
However, given the socio-cultural nature of this framework, it is imperative that its
implementation be seen as a gradual, progressive one. Lim et al. (2004) describe their
implementation of an online learning environment as an evolution within which the
stakeholders gradually adopt an alternative perspective of teaching and learning. They
write
[W]e need to recognise that in any introduction of new ... approaches and
technologies, the most difficult obstacle to overcome for both students and tutors is a
paradigm shift. The existing paradigm may serve as a filter, preventing the institution
from experimenting with approaches that are contrary to prevailing wisdom. Hence,
there is a need to gradually create a scaffolding structure where the changes are
incrementally felt and the existing ways of doing things are addressed (2004).
It has been proposed that this 'gradual' approach be adopted by UNDA where the DLE
will facilitate the implementation of various features from all four approaches. By
virtue of its principle position within the framework (see Figure 1), it can be inferred
that teaching context characteristics are paramount within a DLE. The fundamental
nature of the variables which prevail within this component, will directly and
indirectly impact upon the course of events within the other components. For this
reason, any implementation of a DLE must be supported by a rigorous PD program
for staff, as well as general ICT skills development.
In conclusion, pre-service teachers have a significant role to play in the sustained and
authentic application of ICT in schools. It is imperative, therefore, that due
consideration be given to the nature of programs they are exposed to in their teacher-
training courses. This review has highlighted a number of existing approaches that
have been successful to some degree. In principle, each approach is providing a
necessary building block in the development of competent and confident teachers in a
technology-rich world. What is lacking, however, is a practical understanding of
learning environments that are most conducive to the implementation of ICT as
powerful learning tools. The DLE offers this practical guide and paves the way for the
transformations in teaching and learning that learning technologies have been
promising for many years.
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Willis, E.M. & Sujo de Montes, L. (2002). Does requiring a technology course in
preservice teacher education affect student teachers' technology use in the
classroom? Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 18(3).
Zhiting, Z. & Hanbing, Y. (2002). ICT and pre-service teacher education: Towards an
integrated approach. Report of the 7th UNESCO-ACEID International Conference on
Education, 11-14 December, Bangkok. Retrieved July 2004
from http://www2.unescobkk.org/ips/ebooks/documents/aceidconf7/ICTPreservice.pdf
Author: Dr Carole Steketee is a senior lecturer at the University of Notre Dame Australia and currently
coordinates the Graduate Diploma of Education. She is also responsible for delivering ICT units to all
cohorts of pre-service teachers. Her PhD focused on the extent to which technology can enhance learning
when implemented effectively. Email address csteketee@nd.edu.au
Please cite as: Steketee, C. (2005). Integrating ICT as an integral teaching and learning tool into pre-
service teacher training courses. Issues In Educational Research, 15(1), 101-113.
http://www.iier.org.au/iier15/steketee.html
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