The document discusses the immune system and its main components. The immune system is made up of special organs, cells, and chemicals that fight infection from microbes. The main parts of the immune system are white blood cells, antibodies, the lymphatic system, and organs like the thymus, bone marrow, and spleen. White blood cells constantly patrol the body as the "soldiers" of the immune system. Antibodies mark microbes and toxins as foreign. The lymphatic system manages fluid levels through lymph nodes and vessels. Lymphocytes develop in the thymus, bone marrow, and spleen.
The Immune system treat with pathogens HaloMuhamad1
The information abut work of lines of our immune system and responses for infection of pathogens and defined the work of types of WBCs and act of self attack or syndrome of immune system
The Immune system treat with pathogens HaloMuhamad1
The information abut work of lines of our immune system and responses for infection of pathogens and defined the work of types of WBCs and act of self attack or syndrome of immune system
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
4. Immune system
Immune system – records microbial entry
Main parts are
WBC
Antibodies
Lymphatic system
Thymus, Bone marrow, Spleen
5. Immune system – Main
Characters
White Blood Cells
Bone marrow
Soldiers of the body
Constant Patrol
Antibodies
Microbes/Toxins
Antigens
Mark microbes / toxin as foreign.
6. Immune system – Main characters
Lymphatic system
Network of delicate tubes
Manage fluid level
Lymph nodes & lymph vessels
Lymphocytes
Thymes
Bone marrow
Spleen
7. Immune system and Microbial
Infection
First Line of
Defense
First Line of
Defense
Second Line
of Defense
Third Line of
Defense
01 03
02
8. About the Disease
Mars is a cold
place. The
planet is full
of iron oxide
dust
Mars
Is a gas giant
and the
biggest
planet in the
Solar
Jupiter
It’s a gas giant,
composed
mostly of
hydrogen
and helium
Saturn
9.
10.
11.
12.
13. About the Disease
Mars is a cold
place. The
planet is full
of iron oxide
dust
Mars
Is a gas giant
and the
biggest
planet in the
Solar
Jupiter
It’s a gas giant,
composed
mostly of
hydrogen
and helium
Saturn
Every day we’re exposed to millions of microscopic germs – bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites. Our immune system protects us from them so that we don’t get sick.
But sometimes a germ (or pathogen) is able to get into our system – through a cut, from breathing in droplets from someone’s cough, or if our immune system has become weakened.
When this happens, our body launches an attack
Our immune system is essential for our survival. Without an immune system, our bodies would be open to attack from bacteria, viruses, parasites, and more. It is our immune system that keeps us healthy as we drift through a sea of pathogens.
Crucially, it can distinguish our tissue from foreign tissue — self from non-self. Dead and faulty cells are also recognized and cleared away by the immune system.
The immune system keeps a record of every microbe it has ever defeated, in types of white blood cells (B- and T-lymphocytes) known as memory cells. This means it can recognize and destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the body again, before it can multiply and make you feel sick.
Some infections, like the flu and the common cold, have to be fought many times because so many different viruses or strains of the same type of virus can cause these illnesses. Catching a cold or flu from one virus does not give you immunity against the others.
If the immune system encounters a pathogen, for instance, a bacterium, virus, or parasite, it mounts a so-called immune response. Later, we will explain how this works, but first, we will introduce some of the main characters in the immune system.
White blood cells are the key players in your immune system. They are made in your bone marrow and are part of the lymphatic system.
White blood cells move through blood and tissue throughout your body, looking for foreign invaders (microbes) such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. When they find them, they launch an immune attack.
White blood cells include lymphocytes (such as B-cells, T-cells and natural killer cells), and many other types of immune cells.
A white blood cell (yellow), attacking anthrax bacteria (orange).
Antibodies
Antibodies help the body to fight microbes or the toxins (poisons) they produce. They do this by recognizing substances called antigens on the surface of the microbe, or in the chemicals they produce, which mark the microbe or toxin as being foreign. The antibodies then mark these antigens for destruction. There are many cells, proteins and chemicals involved in this attack.
The lymphatic system is a network of delicate tubes throughout the body. The main roles of the lymphatic system are to:
manage the fluid levels in the body
react to bacteria
deal with cell products that otherwise would result in disease or disorders
absorb some of the fats in our diet from the intestine.
The lymphatic system is made up of:
lymph nodes (also called lymph glands) -- which trap microbes
lymph vessels -- tubes that carry lymph, the colourless fluid that bathes your body's tissues and contains infection-fighting white blood cells
lymphocytes).
Lymphocytes help the body to remember previous invaders and recognize them if they come back to attack again.
The spleen is a blood-filtering organ that removes microbes and destroys old or damaged red blood cells. It sits in the upper left of the abdomen.
Thymus — a gland between the lungs and just below the neck. The thymus produces the white blood cells called T-lymphocytes.
Bone marrow — found in the center of the bones, it also produces red blood cells.
Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside your bones. It produces the red blood cells our bodies need to carry oxygen, the white blood cells we use to fight infection, and the platelets we need to help our blood clot.
Lymphocytes begin their life in bone marrow. Some stay in the marrow and develop into B lymphocytes (B cells),
Our immune system protects us from them so that we don’t get sick.
But sometimes a germ (or pathogen) is able to get into our system – through a cut, from breathing in droplets from someone’s cough, or if our immune system has become weakened.
When this happens, our body launches an attack.
It starts with the white blood cells (or leukocytes). They’re our germ fighting cells. They patrol the body looking for foreign bodies like viruses.
Every day we’re exposed to millions of microscopic germs – bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites.
But sometimes a germ (or pathogen) is able to get into our system – through a cut, from breathing in droplets from someone’s cough, or if our immune system has become weakened.
The innate response begins immediately and can identify and destroy invaders quickly.
This innate immunity includes the external barriers of our body
The first line of defense against pathogens — such as the skin and mucous membranes of the throat and gut.
This response is more general and non-specific. If the pathogen manages to dodge the innate immune system, adaptive or acquired immunity kicks in.
skin - a waterproof barrier that secretes oil with bacteria-killing properties
other defenses - body fluids like skin oil, saliva and tears contain anti-bacterial enzymes that help reduce the risk of infection. The constant flushing of the urinary tract and the bowel also helps.
lungs - mucous in the lungs (phlegm) traps foreign particles, and small hairs (cilia) wave the mucous upwards so it can be coughed out
digestive tract - the mucous lining contains antibodies, and the acid in the stomach can kill most microbes
two innate immune responses are triggered, phagocytosis and inflammatory responses.
They all play important roles in the immune system.
These cells surround and absorb pathogens and break them down, effectively eating them. There are several types, including:
Mast cells — they have many jobs, including helping to heal wounds and defend against pathogens.
Neutrophils — these are the most common type of phagocyte and tend to attack bacteria.
Monocytes — these are the largest type and have several roles.
Macrophages — these patrol for pathogens and also remove dead and dying cells.
Phagocytes are hungry little buggers that eat pathogens for breakfast.
They do this by surrounding the cell and absorbing it.
When they do this they receive information from the proteins on the surface of the pathogen.
These proteins are called antigens (or antibody generators). Phagocytes then send this info to the lymphocytes.
The complement system is another vital component of the immune system. It works with the innate and adaptive responses. It is a cascade of proteins that alter or fragment later proteins, in specific sequences.
The cascade triggers many actions including recruiting inflammatory cells, attracting phagocytes to the area and marking pathogens for phagocytosis, damaging the plasma membrane of a pathogen leading to its death and removing neutralized antigen-antibody complexes from the body.
The signaling molecules that are used by cells of the immune system to communicate with each other are known as cytokines
An antigen is a bacterium, fungus, virus, toxin, or foreign body.
But it can also be one of our own cells that is faulty or dead.
Initially, a range of cell types works together to recognize the antigen as an invader.
Helper T cells (Th cells) — they coordinate the immune response. Some communicate with other cells, and some stimulate B cells to produce more antibodies. Others attract more T cells or cell-eating phagocytes.
Killer T cells (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) — as the name suggests, these T cells attack other cells. They are particularly useful for fighting viruses. They work by recognizing small parts of the virus on the outside of infected cells and destroy the infected cells.