Ijciet 10 01_175-2-3

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International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET)
Volume 10, Issue 01, January 2019, pp. 1893–1902, Article ID: IJCIET_10_01_175
Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=10&IType=1
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316
©IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed
STRENGTH AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES
OF CONCRETE USING METAKAOLIN AS A
SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL: REVIEW OF
LITERATURES
Ayobami BUSARI, Joseph AKINMUSURU
Department of Civil Engineering, Covenant University,
Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
Bamidele DAHUNSI
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The demand and use of concrete have led to a lot of research in improving its
strength, durability, life cycle, temperature effect and many more. Improving the
strength and durability of concrete is very paramount in the construction of basic
infrastructure in a bid to make it sustainable. The choice of metakaolin as a
supplementary material in improving the mechanical strength and durability of
concrete is espoused in this review. This was done in a bid to reduce the cost of
cement being one of the most expensive component of concrete production and to also
improve sustainability in the construction industry. The review revealed that the use of
metakaolin in the production of concrete showed an improved mechanical strength.
Literatures revealed that up to 10%-20% increase in mechanical strength is recorded
with the use of metakaolin in concrete production. Additionally, the durability
properties of concrete with metakaolin also improved. However, the review revealed
that incorporating metakaolin in concrete production reduced the workability of
concrete and increased the heat of hydration. The result of this review showed that the
use of metakaolin reduced the cost of producing concrete. Based on the uniqueness of
the material, it is recommended for use in countries where it is abundant in a bid to
promote sustainability in concrete technology, improve mechanical strength and
reduce cost.
Key words: Metakaolin, Self-compacting Concrete, Kaolin, Metakaolin, Mechanical
Strength.
Cite this Article: Ayobami BUSARI, Joseph AKINMUSURU, Bamidele DAHUNSI,
Strength and Durability Properties of Concrete Using Metakaolin as a Sustainable
Material: Review of Literatures, International Journal of Civil Engineering and
Technology (IJCIET) 10(1), 2019, pp. 1893–1902.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=10&IType=1

Strength and Durability Properties of Concrete Using Metakaolin as a Sustainable Material:
Review of Literatures
MOTIVATION
There is a need to make concrete affordable in under-developed and developing nations of the
world. This is because concrete is one of the most utilized material in the construction of basic
infrastructure. This can be can be achieved by reducing the cost of cement which is one of the
most expensive component of concrete production. In a bid to achieve this in line with
sustainable development goal the choice of metakaolin was espoused.
Metakaolin is a naturally occurring material with wide abundance. The unique quality of
metakaolin is that it is neither the by-product of an industrial process and it is not entirely
natural.
The uniqueness and the availability of the material as a sustainable alternative for cement
spurred the review.
1. INTRODUCTION
Globally, concrete is one of the significant available composite materials used in the
construction of basic infrastructure. It is used in most construction works like roads, medium
and high rise structures, dams and many more [1] Recent research no longer views concrete as
a three-member entity. The use of supplementary cementitious material has been incorporated
into concrete production. These include minerals such as (metakaolin), industrial waste (Slag,
silica fume, coal ash etc.), and agricultural waste (Palm oil fuel ash, cassava peel ash, cocoa
pod ash etc.). The cutting-edge utilization of metakaolin goes back to 1962 when it was
utilized to supplement Portland cement amid the development of the Jupia Dam in Brazil [2].
Metakaolin is a supplementary mineral material used in concrete production, majorly as a
partial replacement for cement because of its Pozollanic properties. This reflects in the
physical properties of the material (Table 2).
Table 2.1 Physical characteristic of conventional pozzolans
Class F
fly ash
Class
C
fly ash
Ground
slag
Silica
fume
Calcined
clay
Calcined
shale
Metakaolin
SiO2, % 52 35 35 90 58 50 53
Al2O3, % 23 18 12 0.4 29 20 43
Fe2O3, % 11 6 1 0.4 4 8 0.5
CaO, % 5 21 40 1.6 1 8 0.1
SO3, % 0.8 4.1 9 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.1
Na2O, % 1 5.8 0.3 0.5 0.2 — 0.05
K2O, % 2 0.7 0.4 2.2 2 — 0.4
Total Na
eq. alk, %
2.2 6.3 0.6 1.9 1.5 — 0.3
Loss on
ignition,
%
2.8 0.5 1 3 1.5 3 0.7
Blaine
fineness,
m2
/kg
420 420 400 20,000 990 730 19,000
Relative
density
2.38 2.65 2.94 2.4 2.5 2.63 2.5
Source: ACI 232 (2000)

Ayobami BUSARI, Joseph AKINMUSURU, Bamidele DAHUNSI
It is derived from the de-hydroxylation of Kaolinitic clay [4]. The word kaolin was
derived from the Chinese language ―Kao-lings‖ which means ‗high ridges‘ and is the location
of the mountains that produced the earlier metakaolin shipped to Europe [5].
2. DE-HYDROXYLATION OF KAOLIN
The thermal activation of Kaolinitic clay occurs at 600ºC to 750ºC a process termed de-
hydroxylation.
Studies show that kaolin is stable under normal and standard temperatures, but when
heated to temperatures of 650-900 degree Celsius, it is broken down in such a way that the
alumina and silica layers change, producing metakaolin. [6] The de-hydroxylation process
makes metakaolin an amorphous pozzolan which makes it a suitable supplementary
cementitious material. Ambroise et al. showed that the calcination temperature had a direct
impact on the reactivity of the metakaolin. The same author asserted that the optimum
temperature for the calcination process is 700 degree Celsius, below that temperature, it will
result in a less reactive constituent. However, for temperatures above 8500
C it will result in
recrystallization and reduced reactivity. Studies by [6] revealed that the calcining rate affects
the reactivity of metakaolin.
De-hydroxylation is a reaction of decomposition of kaolinite crystals to a partially
disordered structure. The author asserted that at about 1000
-2000
C dihydroxylation
temperature, clay minerals lose most of their adsorbed water. The temperature at which kaolin
loses water by de-hydroxylation is in the range 5000
-8000
C [7]. The thermal activation of the
kaolinitic clay is also referred to as calcining. However, [5] opined that the de-hydroxylation
process at 600-7500
temperature for about 90 minutes produces metakaolin.
ASTM standard described metakaolin as a natural pozzolan a special type of pozzolan
because it is not a waste from industries like slag and it is produced under a controlled
environment for supplementing cement applications. [5] Metakaolin is modified to modify its
look, eliminate impurities and control particle dimension to maintain high purity while
reducing cement consumption [8-9]. Figure 1 shows the chemical composition of metakaolin.
Figure 2.1 Illustrative diagram showing the heating process of kaolin into metakaolin.
Source: DTA AND TGA Of Ball Clay and Kaolin, 1998.

2.1. Metakaolin as a Supplementary Cementitious Material in concrete
production.
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) materials react chemically with hydrating
cement due to their pozzolanic properties to form a modified paste microstructure examples
are silica fumes, rice husk ash, fly ash, metakaolin e.t.c [10].
Research showed that metakaolin was first used in 1962 for the construction of the Jupia
dam in Brazil, since then it has been available for commercial purchase [5]. The same author
asserts that the particle size is smaller than cement but often bigger than fly ash or silica fume.
The particle is around one-half to five microns in diameter. The physical assessment showed
that it is whitish in color, this may vary base on the source as some could be greyish white.
The predominant whitish colour makes construction aesthetically appealing [11 and 5].
The processing of metakaolin when controlled makes it very consistent and its pozollanic
behavior stable The pozzolanic properties of metakaolin causes a chemical reaction of the
active components with calcium hydroxide (portlandite) during concrete production due to
cement hydration [12 and 11]. To establish this Pozollanic properties, Kaolinitic clay are de-
hydroxylated
Unique Attributes of Metakaolin in Concrete Production
The unique quality of metakaolin is that it is neither the by-product of an industrial
process and it is not entirely natural. Some of the unique properties of metakaolin in concrete
production are as stated by follows according to [10]:
 The use of metakaolin aid the concrete surface finishing. It reduces the amount of cement in
the formation of concrete, especially in concrete with high requirements for water resistance.
 Strength properties are improved.
 The setting time of the concrete is increased
 The compressive strength of concrete increases by 20 % with metakaolin addition.
 Reduction in the cost of formwork, based on the reduction in the cross-sectional area.
 Sustainable concrete production is enhanced
 Metakaolin increases resistance to chemical attack and prevention of Alkali-Silica Reaction.
 Metakaolin offers high abrasion resistance concrete based on its strength properties. It is
second to Diamond in hardness on Mho Scale.
 Metakaolin reduces the heat of hydration leading to better shrinkage and cracks control.
2.2. Overview of the Impact of Metakaolin on the Setting Time, Workability and
Pozzolanic Reactiveness of Concrete
In 2000, [8] worked on the impact of silica fume, metakaolin, fly ash and slag on the setting
time of high-quality concrete. The effect of these material has shown an improvement in the
mechanical properties up to 10%-15%.
The incorporation of metakaolin improved the compressive strength, enhanced the sulfate
resistance of concrete and decreased permeability [13] Research of [14] noted increased in the
heat of hydration while adding metakaolin. The researchers noticed that heat of hydration
increased for metakaolin concrete when added up to 10% by weight of cement. Moreover, the
choice of metakaolin in concrete production increases the quantity of water required for
workability thereby making the use of water- reducing admixtures important [15 and 16].

Additionally, [17] examined metakaolin and Pounded Fuel Ash (PFA) mortars for heat
caused by hydration. The result of the experimental research showed that addition of 5-15%
metakaolin increased the heat of hydration. This may be as a result of the combined impact of
Portland cement mortar with metakaolin. The comparative assessment of the use of Pounded
Fuel Ash (PFA) and metakaolin in concrete production showed that the use of reduced the
heat of hydration as compared with metakaolin alone.
Research had also been carried out on the workability of concrete with metakaolin by
[18]. The result showed that metakaolin in concrete reduced the workability property of fresh
concrete. The research showed that to improve workability in all aspects, high range water
reducing admixtures were required. The admixture helped in the de-flocculation of the
metakaolin in the concrete samples used. This is because the addition of HRWRA in concrete
with metakaolin was fundamental for better workability this was also buttressed by [19].
In 2001, [20] examined the rate of pozzolanic response of metakaolin in high-
performance-concrete. Hydration advances in metakaolin high-performance concrete with age
were also considered.
2.3. Strength and Durability Properties of Metakaolin Based Concrete
The research of [21] studied the mechanical, durability, hydraulic and thermal properties of
concrete incorporating metakaolin. The result showed improved strength, and it followed a
similar trend with [22, 23, 24, 25 and9]
Additionally, [26] determined the effect of Metakaolin and Fly ash on strength and
durability of concrete, which proved to be an excellent supplementary material for concrete
production as it improved the durability properties of the concrete. Additionally, [27] showed
that the strength properties of concrete also improved with the use of metakaolin in high
performance reinforced concrete columns for structural application.
[28] Reported the synergistic effect of the use of fly ash, iron oxide, and metakaolin as
supplementary cementitious material in various proportion. The outcome indicated that the
use of these additives serves as a good replacement for cement in concrete. Moreover, the
combined effect of rice husk ash and metakaolin was studied on the strength of concrete and
the water absorption rate; it also proved to be a good replacement for cement. Research by
[29] on the use of metakaolin improved the compressive, split tensile and flexural strength of
concrete by 14.2%, 7.9%, and 9.3 % respectively. This followed a similar trend with the result
of [30 and 15].
[31] Revealed that the huge pores in the pastes diminish with increment in metakaolin
content. In 1996, Wild et al. exhibited the mechanical properties of super plasticized concrete
with the presence of metakaolin. Enhanced sulfate resistance in concrete with metakaolin was
concentrated on by [32]. [33] Introduced the utility of metakaolin as miniaturized scale filler
in the generation of high-performance mortars. [34] Concentrated on the chemical stability of
metakaolin based cement composites.
In 2012, [35] worked on the impact of metakaolin and silica fume on concrete properties.
Seven concretes samples were developed using a water/cement proportion of 0.35 with
percentage replacement of MK and SF of 0, 5, 10 and 15%. The study showed that regarding
workability, metakaolin was better than silica fume. Also, free drying shrinkage could be
minimized with the consolidation of metakaolin and silica fume together.
The effect of metakaolin on the hardened properties of concrete was examined by
Luccourd in 2003. Cement was replaced with 5-20% of metakaolin. The durability test was
conducted by a method of chloride dissemination tests and sulfate drenching. The review

revealed that 10-15% replacement of cement with metakaolin is ideal for workability above
this percentage the fresh concrete may not be workable.
A study by [20] related the mechanical and sturdiness properties of superior metakaolin
and silica fume concretes to their microstructure qualities. The author revealed that
metakaolin concrete has unrivaled quality improvement and comparable chloride
imperviousness to silica fume concrete.
However, [36] and [37] assessed the statistical relationship between mechanical properties
and age of metakaolin based concrete. The result showed a similar trend with the
experimental result. Interestingly, few works have been carried out on the use of metakaolin
for pavement purpose as most of the literature reviewed applied the experimental results for
structural use. [38] and [32] worked on the shrinkage resistance of metakaolin in concrete
production.
Based on the attributes and the significant effect of metakaolin on the mechanical and
durability properties of concrete, the various literature showed that incorporating metakaolin
as SCM in concrete production provide a synergistic effect in improving the strength of
concrete in the hardened state.
2.4. Durability Properties of Metakaolin Based Concrete
2.4.1. Sulfate Resistance
Another part of durability which metakaolin as cement auxiliary influences is imperviousness
when in sulfate solutions. This is maybe the most well-known and across the board form of
attack chemically affecting concrete. Sulfates normally exist in groundwater, particularly
when high extents of the earth are available in the ground, or in the region of factory wastes,
for example, mine tailings and rubble fills. Sulfates are a noteworthy constituent of seawater
and might be available in water because of air contamination. Dangerous wastes and sewage
may likewise contain a huge amount of sulfate. Sulfate attack is an unpredictable occurrence
that may include splitting and extension of concrete, and also softening and crumbling of the
cement mix [39]. Given its capacity to refine the pore structure and enhance concrete strength,
MK appears to be good at advancing sulfate resistance. Nonetheless, metakaolin is chemically
not quite the same as former SCMs due to its great alumina quantity.
[40] Assessed 18 concrete mixes along with a single control blend to contrast metakaolin
to fly ash and silica fume. Cement mix set up with replacement levels running from 7.5% to
23% and at w/cms of 0.30. Its resistance to chemicals was resolved as per [41].
The durability test involves the use of chemicals from different acids such as (acidic,
hydrochloric, and nitric) and a blend of magnesium sulfate and sodium sulfate. The
discoveries were very conflicting, however, for the most part, demonstrated, silica fume
blends have the low chemical resistance and fly ash had the best. However, MK blends fell in
the middle comparing the other two materials. The researchers discovered chemical
imperviousness as the quantity of the SCM replacement increased.
2.4.2. Overview of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) in metakaolin concrete
The alkali in cement along with the silica in some aggregate results in an alkali-silica reaction.
Chert is a typical example of silica which is contained in aggregates. These materials include
diverse reactivity with alkali relying upon their strain.
SCMs like MK, have been appeared to diminish the impacts of ASR, too. Optional
reactions including SCM improves densification in the concrete microstructure, decreasing
penetrability and constraining the amount of water. Also, when SCMs are utilized as a
fractional auxiliary in OPC mix, their impact helps reduce the OPC impact, thereby lowering

the quantity of alkali in the mix structure in this manner improving the calcium dissolvability
while advancing the development of non-growing balm substitute for swelling N(K)- S-H.
[13] Analyzed a metakaolin from USA water-prepared to expel scums. Concrete crystals
had both active coarse aggregates, active soil, OPC, and 0-15% supplementary cementitious
material. Three Type I cements with fluctuating alkali substance was utilized. Comparative
mortar bars were made. Using the specification in [41] concrete crystals experienced the two-
year assessment endorsed by the Canadian standard For mixes containing aggregate with
OPC, metakaolin of 15% was adequate to reduce alkali-silica reaction extension to the
standards (0.04% for concrete, 0.10% for mortar); for concrete crystals containing the
Sudbury aggregate, a greywacke-argillite rock, 10% replacement with MK was adequate. The
dearth of literature exists on the durability performance of metakaolin in concrete where
portland limestone cement is used.
Research on the chloride attack of metakaolin based concrete is investigated by based on
the research the addition of metakaolin to concrete improves the chloride diffusion of concrete
[42, 43, 44, 45, 46 and 47].
3. CONCLUSIONS
The review assessed the use of metakaolin a naturally abundant material in concrete
production. This was done with special focus on the strength and durability properties in a bid
to establish its sustainability as a partial replacement for cement. It choice as a supplementary
cementitious material is to reduce the cost of concrete production and improve strength. It can
be concluded from the research that:
 The choice of metakaolin in concrete reduced the workability and may involve the use of
workability enhancing admixtures. This calls for special attention when it is used in
construction where workability is required like self-compacting concrete
 The use of metakaolin improved the mechanical properties of concrete when added at about
10-25 %.
 The Heat of hydration is improved when metakaolin is added to concrete
 Addition of metakaolin improve the durability of concrete when used with ordinary Portland
cement. However, the death of literature is available when incorporating Portland limestone
cement.
3.1. Recommendation
 Future research should focus on using metakaolin in concrete with other types of cement aside
the ordinary Portland cement.
 Addition of metakaolin to concrete reduced concrete workability, so the need for other
sustainable material to improve concrete rheology should be looked at.
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