This paper will examine the wheel loader as a system with two parallel energy conversion systems that show a complex interaction with each other and with the power source. Using a systematic design approach, several principle design solutions for hybridization can be found.
Furthermore, the human operator with his/her control actions needs to be considered as part of the total system. This paper will therefore also connect to results from ongoing and previous research into operator workload and operability.
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-51999
http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/IMECE2009-10458
Alternative system solutions for wheel loaders and other construction equipmentReno Filla
- Holistic approach to wheel loaders as complex energy conversion systems
- Possible Reduction of fuel consumption by 50% through use of hybrid technology
- Considerations of customer segment and business case
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-43948
Evaluating the efficiency of wheel loader bucket designs and bucket filling s...Reno Filla
In this paper we outline how optimising bucket design and bucket filling is connected to improving the total energy efficiency of a wheel loader. Results from our work with particle simulations are shown and it is discussed that, while ideally such simulations should be coupled to models of the machine, operator and the work environment, it is nonetheless possible to simulate stand-alone and utilise simple performance indicators to compare different bucket designs and different bucket filling strategies in a reasonably fair manner. Suitable and less suitable performance indicators are derived and discussed in detail.
Optimizing the trajectory of a wheel loader working in short loading cyclesReno Filla
A study into alternative trajectories for wheel loaders working in short loading cycles has been conducted, examining other patterns than the traditional V- or Y-cycle. Depending on workplace setup and target function of the optimisation other trajectories can indeed prove beneficial. The results of this study can be used in operator models for offline simulations as well as for operator assistance or even in controllers for autonomous machines or energy management systems for non-conventional machines like hybrids.
Simulating Operability of Wheel Loaders: Operator Models and Quantification o...Reno Filla
In this paper make the case that operability needs to be considered early on in the development of wheel loaders, alongside such established design targets as productivity and energy efficiency. We summarise research that shows how proper operator models can introduce a “human element” into dynamic simulations, providing more relevant answers with respect to operator-influenced complete-machine properties such as productivity and energy efficiency. We then show two ways of also drawing conclusions on the operability of wheel loaders by analysing either measurement data from physical tests or simulation results.
Using Dynamic Simulation in the Development of Construction MachineryReno Filla
As in the car industry for quite some time, dynamic simulation of complete vehicles is being practiced more and more in the development of off-road machinery. However, specific questions arise due not only to company structure and size, but especially to the type of product. Tightly coupled, non-linear subsystems of different domains make prediction and optimisation of the complete system's dynamic behaviour a challenge. Furthermore, the demand for versatile machines leads to sometimes contradictory target requirements and can turn the design process into a hunt for the least painful compromise. This can be avoided by profound system knowledge, assisted by simulation-driven product development. This paper gives an overview of joint research into this issue by Volvo Wheel Loaders and Linköping University on that matter, lists the results of a related literature review and introduces the term "operability". Rather than giving detailed answers, the problem space for ongoing and future research is examined and possible solutions are sketched.
http://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0305036
A Methodology for Modeling the Influence of Construction Machinery Operators ...Reno Filla
This paper is concerned with modeling the actions of a human operator of construction machinery and integrating this operator model into a large, complex simulation model of the complete machine and its environment. Because human operators to a large degree affect how the machine is run, adaptive operator models are a necessity when the simulation goal is quantification and optimization of productivity and energy efficiency. Interview studies and test series have been performed to determine how professionals operate wheel loaders. Two models using different approaches were realized and integrated into a multi-domain model for dynamic simulation. The results are satisfactory and the methodology is easily usable for other, similar situations.
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-51998
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02809-0_65
Alternative system solutions for wheel loaders and other construction equipmentReno Filla
- Holistic approach to wheel loaders as complex energy conversion systems
- Possible Reduction of fuel consumption by 50% through use of hybrid technology
- Considerations of customer segment and business case
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-43948
Evaluating the efficiency of wheel loader bucket designs and bucket filling s...Reno Filla
In this paper we outline how optimising bucket design and bucket filling is connected to improving the total energy efficiency of a wheel loader. Results from our work with particle simulations are shown and it is discussed that, while ideally such simulations should be coupled to models of the machine, operator and the work environment, it is nonetheless possible to simulate stand-alone and utilise simple performance indicators to compare different bucket designs and different bucket filling strategies in a reasonably fair manner. Suitable and less suitable performance indicators are derived and discussed in detail.
Optimizing the trajectory of a wheel loader working in short loading cyclesReno Filla
A study into alternative trajectories for wheel loaders working in short loading cycles has been conducted, examining other patterns than the traditional V- or Y-cycle. Depending on workplace setup and target function of the optimisation other trajectories can indeed prove beneficial. The results of this study can be used in operator models for offline simulations as well as for operator assistance or even in controllers for autonomous machines or energy management systems for non-conventional machines like hybrids.
Simulating Operability of Wheel Loaders: Operator Models and Quantification o...Reno Filla
In this paper make the case that operability needs to be considered early on in the development of wheel loaders, alongside such established design targets as productivity and energy efficiency. We summarise research that shows how proper operator models can introduce a “human element” into dynamic simulations, providing more relevant answers with respect to operator-influenced complete-machine properties such as productivity and energy efficiency. We then show two ways of also drawing conclusions on the operability of wheel loaders by analysing either measurement data from physical tests or simulation results.
Using Dynamic Simulation in the Development of Construction MachineryReno Filla
As in the car industry for quite some time, dynamic simulation of complete vehicles is being practiced more and more in the development of off-road machinery. However, specific questions arise due not only to company structure and size, but especially to the type of product. Tightly coupled, non-linear subsystems of different domains make prediction and optimisation of the complete system's dynamic behaviour a challenge. Furthermore, the demand for versatile machines leads to sometimes contradictory target requirements and can turn the design process into a hunt for the least painful compromise. This can be avoided by profound system knowledge, assisted by simulation-driven product development. This paper gives an overview of joint research into this issue by Volvo Wheel Loaders and Linköping University on that matter, lists the results of a related literature review and introduces the term "operability". Rather than giving detailed answers, the problem space for ongoing and future research is examined and possible solutions are sketched.
http://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0305036
A Methodology for Modeling the Influence of Construction Machinery Operators ...Reno Filla
This paper is concerned with modeling the actions of a human operator of construction machinery and integrating this operator model into a large, complex simulation model of the complete machine and its environment. Because human operators to a large degree affect how the machine is run, adaptive operator models are a necessity when the simulation goal is quantification and optimization of productivity and energy efficiency. Interview studies and test series have been performed to determine how professionals operate wheel loaders. Two models using different approaches were realized and integrated into a multi-domain model for dynamic simulation. The results are satisfactory and the methodology is easily usable for other, similar situations.
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-51998
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02809-0_65
A study to compare trajectory generation algorithms for automatic bucket fill...Reno Filla
In this paper we study how automatic bucket filling can be realised in wheel loaders. Based on observations of how experienced operators use their machines in bucket applications, four algorithms for parametric generation of bucket trajectories are investigated. The algorithms have been developed and tuned using a simplistic static integration-based approach.
The Discrete Element Method is used to validate the predictive capability of the aforementioned algorithms. Results and limitations of the simplistic approach in comparison to the numerical results, as well as specific simulation-related challenges and findings are reported and discussed.
Investigation on Chassis Dynamometer with Capability to Test Regenerative Bra...IJPEDS-IAES
An investigation-based approach to a bidirectional power flow method for
testing regenerative braking function on a chassis dynamometer is presented.
The requirements and specifications for capability to test regenerative
braking function of Electric Vehicle (EV) emulated by using a bidirectional
chassis dynamometer are discussed. The dynamometer emulates road load
conditions during testing, and regenerative braking is able to test their
function while the vehicle is in deceleration condition. Performances of
power requirement are illustrated and translated into sequence diagram. It is
shown that the proposed topology is particularly advantageous in generating
and regenerating power for energy consumption. The overview of
conventional chassis dynamometer and the proposed chassis dynamometer is
compared to investigate the parameter in the development of regenerative
braking test.
8HP70 Automatic Transmission- Basic Design Analysis and Modular Hybrid Design...IJMERJOURNAL
ABSTRACT:Hybrid vehicles offer a huge potential for fuel consumption improvement when compared with conventional vehicle power trains. However, the sales volumes of the hybrid vehicles form a very small percentage of the total volume. In the light of uncertain future volume developments, series-parallel hybrid offers the advantage of modular design aspects, which is one of the key criteria for cost reduction and the re-use of parts. This paper analyses the modular hybrid design compatibility of 8HP70, one the most common automatic gearbox in the automotive industry. The paper first analyzes the basic design of the transmission and then provides different parallel hybrid configuration options that the transmission can be used with.
Multi-level inverters (MLIs), have gained popularity in the last few years as a result of their low total harmonic distortions (THD) as well as their output waveform which is of high quality. The converter which considers more appropriate for applications of photovoltaic (PV)beyond the varying MLIs arrangementsis the Cascaded H-Bridge-(CHB) (MLI), meanwhile each PV panel may be served as an independent DC supply for any CHB unit. Through the use of MATLAB/Simulink, the efficiency of symmetrical single phase MLI in terms of the number of switches, harmonic content in addition to the stresses of voltage through theswitches that exist at photovoltaic cell by means of input source is enhanced; varying parameters like output current, voltage and power, and THD at 5-level 7-level and 9-level Cascaded MLI are observed. In this paper, attention is paid to a multi-level topologies which is flexible and based on cascaded MLI intended for PV grids connected system. An observation of the output voltage becomes closer to the sine wave as the levels increase, while the increase in the levels of Cascaded Multilevel Inverter causes the total harmonic distortion to decrease.
Dynamic Simulation of Construction Machinery: Towards an Operator ModelReno Filla
In dynamic simulation of complete wheel loaders, one interesting aspect, specific for the working task, is the momentary power distribution between drive train and hydraulics, which is balanced by the operator.
This paper presents the initial results to a simulation model of a human operator. Rather than letting the operator model follow a predefined path with control inputs at given points, it follows a collection of general rules that together describe the machine's working cycle in a generic way. The advantage of this is that the working task description and the operator model itself are independent of the machine's technical parameters. Complete sub-system characteristics can thus be changed without compromising the relevance and validity of the simulation. Ultimately, this can be used to assess a machine's total performance, fuel efficiency and operability already in the concept phase of the product development process.
http://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0503087
This paper presents a novel converter configuration with fewer for switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive. The proposed novel converter insists for less number of switches compared to conventional asymmetrical type of converter configuration for switched reluctance motor. Switch count reduction in converter reduces the losses, volume of heat sink, and number of gate drive circuits and thereby the performance of the system. Closed loop speed control of switched reluctance motor fed from proposed novel converter topology was presented in this paper. Performance of closed loop operation is compared to open loop system. Further the proposed converter for SRMT is evaluated with loaded condition and comparative analysis of no-load and loaded SRM is presented. The model presented is developed and the results are analyzed using MATLAB/SIMULINK software. Closed loop performance of proposed novel converter fed switched reluctance motor drive is verified at fixed speed and variable speed conditions.
Selecting representative working cycles from large measurement data setsReno Filla
A tool has been developed that selects one representative cycle, or a set of cycles, from large measurement data sets based on a specified set of repetitive signals, possibly weighed in their importance. Three different computation methods have been developed and tested, all preserving physical correctness. These approaches are described in detail and compared in the paper.
A study to compare trajectory generation algorithms for automatic bucket fill...Reno Filla
In this paper we study how automatic bucket filling can be realised in wheel loaders. Based on observations of how experienced operators use their machines in bucket applications, four algorithms for parametric generation of bucket trajectories are investigated. The algorithms have been developed and tuned using a simplistic static integration-based approach.
The Discrete Element Method is used to validate the predictive capability of the aforementioned algorithms. Results and limitations of the simplistic approach in comparison to the numerical results, as well as specific simulation-related challenges and findings are reported and discussed.
Investigation on Chassis Dynamometer with Capability to Test Regenerative Bra...IJPEDS-IAES
An investigation-based approach to a bidirectional power flow method for
testing regenerative braking function on a chassis dynamometer is presented.
The requirements and specifications for capability to test regenerative
braking function of Electric Vehicle (EV) emulated by using a bidirectional
chassis dynamometer are discussed. The dynamometer emulates road load
conditions during testing, and regenerative braking is able to test their
function while the vehicle is in deceleration condition. Performances of
power requirement are illustrated and translated into sequence diagram. It is
shown that the proposed topology is particularly advantageous in generating
and regenerating power for energy consumption. The overview of
conventional chassis dynamometer and the proposed chassis dynamometer is
compared to investigate the parameter in the development of regenerative
braking test.
8HP70 Automatic Transmission- Basic Design Analysis and Modular Hybrid Design...IJMERJOURNAL
ABSTRACT:Hybrid vehicles offer a huge potential for fuel consumption improvement when compared with conventional vehicle power trains. However, the sales volumes of the hybrid vehicles form a very small percentage of the total volume. In the light of uncertain future volume developments, series-parallel hybrid offers the advantage of modular design aspects, which is one of the key criteria for cost reduction and the re-use of parts. This paper analyses the modular hybrid design compatibility of 8HP70, one the most common automatic gearbox in the automotive industry. The paper first analyzes the basic design of the transmission and then provides different parallel hybrid configuration options that the transmission can be used with.
Multi-level inverters (MLIs), have gained popularity in the last few years as a result of their low total harmonic distortions (THD) as well as their output waveform which is of high quality. The converter which considers more appropriate for applications of photovoltaic (PV)beyond the varying MLIs arrangementsis the Cascaded H-Bridge-(CHB) (MLI), meanwhile each PV panel may be served as an independent DC supply for any CHB unit. Through the use of MATLAB/Simulink, the efficiency of symmetrical single phase MLI in terms of the number of switches, harmonic content in addition to the stresses of voltage through theswitches that exist at photovoltaic cell by means of input source is enhanced; varying parameters like output current, voltage and power, and THD at 5-level 7-level and 9-level Cascaded MLI are observed. In this paper, attention is paid to a multi-level topologies which is flexible and based on cascaded MLI intended for PV grids connected system. An observation of the output voltage becomes closer to the sine wave as the levels increase, while the increase in the levels of Cascaded Multilevel Inverter causes the total harmonic distortion to decrease.
Dynamic Simulation of Construction Machinery: Towards an Operator ModelReno Filla
In dynamic simulation of complete wheel loaders, one interesting aspect, specific for the working task, is the momentary power distribution between drive train and hydraulics, which is balanced by the operator.
This paper presents the initial results to a simulation model of a human operator. Rather than letting the operator model follow a predefined path with control inputs at given points, it follows a collection of general rules that together describe the machine's working cycle in a generic way. The advantage of this is that the working task description and the operator model itself are independent of the machine's technical parameters. Complete sub-system characteristics can thus be changed without compromising the relevance and validity of the simulation. Ultimately, this can be used to assess a machine's total performance, fuel efficiency and operability already in the concept phase of the product development process.
http://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0503087
This paper presents a novel converter configuration with fewer for switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive. The proposed novel converter insists for less number of switches compared to conventional asymmetrical type of converter configuration for switched reluctance motor. Switch count reduction in converter reduces the losses, volume of heat sink, and number of gate drive circuits and thereby the performance of the system. Closed loop speed control of switched reluctance motor fed from proposed novel converter topology was presented in this paper. Performance of closed loop operation is compared to open loop system. Further the proposed converter for SRMT is evaluated with loaded condition and comparative analysis of no-load and loaded SRM is presented. The model presented is developed and the results are analyzed using MATLAB/SIMULINK software. Closed loop performance of proposed novel converter fed switched reluctance motor drive is verified at fixed speed and variable speed conditions.
Selecting representative working cycles from large measurement data setsReno Filla
A tool has been developed that selects one representative cycle, or a set of cycles, from large measurement data sets based on a specified set of repetitive signals, possibly weighed in their importance. Three different computation methods have been developed and tested, all preserving physical correctness. These approaches are described in detail and compared in the paper.
Hybrid Power Systems for Construction MachineryReno Filla
The search for energy efficient solutions goes on also for construction equipment, and hybrids are everyone’s topic. In the case of a wheel loader, drive train and hydraulics are both equally powerful and compete for the limited engine torque. There is a large theoretic potential for the increase of energy efficiency, but to leverage this, a holistic approach is needed. This presentation will examine the wheel loader as a system with drive train and hydraulics as two parallel energy conversion systems that show a complex interaction with each other and the power source. Using a systematic design approach, several principle design solutions for hybridization can be found.
Furthermore, the human operator with his/her control actions needs to be considered as part of the total system. Properties such as productivity, energy efficiency, and operability are all not only dependent on inherent machine properties and working place conditions, but also on how the operator uses the machine. In the case of a wheel loader, the momentary power distribution to drive train and hydraulics is specific for the working task at hand and is controlled by the operator, who ultimately balances the complete system and actively adapts to both the machine, the task at hand, and the working place.
For the joint IQPC Conferences "Automation & Connectivity for Mobile Machinery" and "HMI for Mobile Machinery", for which I also had the honor to serve as the conference chairman.
On Increasing Fuel Efficiency by Operator Assistance Systems in a Wheel LoaderReno Filla
The main focus of this paper is to estimate the potential increase in fuel efficiency and productivity by means of an operator assistant system, in a wheel loader working in a bucket application in a production chain. This is done based on an empirical study. A line of argument is presented on how to go from the empirical study to theoretical optimal control of a wheel loader. A suggestion of the human-machine-interaction is also presented. Fuel efficiency (ton/l) increases of 20-40% and productivity (ton/h) increases of 40-80% are expected.
Electromobility and Construction MachineryReno Filla
The search for energy efficient solutions goes on also for construction machinery, and hybrids are a given topic. This seminar looks at related research and pre-development at Volvo Construction Equipment and focuses on wheel loaders. In these machines, drive train and hydraulics are both equally powerful and compete for the limited engine torque. There is a large theoretic potential for the increase of energy efficiency, but to leverage this, a holistic approach is needed. The wheel loader is examined as a system with drive train and hydraulics as two parallel energy conversion systems that show a complex interaction with each other and the power source. Using a systematic design approach, several principle design solutions for hybridization can be found and are discussed.
Anläggningsmaskiner: Hydrauliksystem i multidomäna miljöerReno Filla
I hjullastare och liknande maskiner konkurrerar arbetshydrauliken och drivlinan om dieselmotorns vridmoment. Balansen mellan dessa tre system präglas av en hög dynamik, vilket är en avgörande skillnad mot vad som är fallet i person- och lastbilar. Bedömning av hur väl denna balans kan upprätthållas och kontrolleras är huvudpunkten i förarens subjektiva bedömning av en maskins körbarhet.
I artikeln diskuteras möjligheter till en objektiv kvantifiering av körbarhet. En mätmetod presenteras samt nya sätt att visualisera denna så viktiga balans mellan maskinens delsystem.
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-13371
KING DOWNING (Racial Profiling Victim) - ACLUVogelDenise
KING DOWNING (Racial Profiling Victim) - ACLU
Person Vogel Denise Newsome used as a sounding board in considering submitting Complaint to the United States Congress.
Provides information as to the REASONS why the FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION, JUDICIAL COMPLAINTS and CONGRESSIONAL COMPLAINTS Filed by Vogel Denise Newsome are being OBSTRUCTED from being PROSECUTED!
Garretson Resolution Group appears to be FRONTING Firm for United States President Barack Obama and Legal Counsel/Advisor (Baker Donelson Bearman Caldwell & Berkowitz) which has submitted a SLAPP Complaint to OneWebHosting.com in efforts of PREVENTING the PUBLIC/WORLD from knowing of its and President Barack Obama's ROLE in CONSPIRACIES leveled against Vogel Denise Newsome in EXPOSING the TRUTH behind the 911 DOMESTIC TERRORIST ATTACKS, COLLAPSE OF THE WORLD ECONOMY, EMPLOYMENT violations and other crimes of United States Government Officials. Information that United States President Barack Obama, The Garretson Resolution Group, Baker Donelson Bearman Caldwell & Berkowitz, and United States Congress, etc. do NOT want the PUBLIC/WORLD to see. Information of PUBLIC Interest!
BAKER DONELSON - Attorney Layoffs The SINKING OF A TERRORIST REGIME (SWAHILI)VogelDenise
17 USC § 107 (LIMITATIONS On EXCLUSIVE Rights - FAIR USE) - For Educational and Information Purposes
PUBLIC TAARIFA: kueneza neno - - kusaidia kuanguka kwa MAREKANI 'udikteta kigaidi SERIKALI serikali!
Tafadhali kujiunga katika kuunganisha ya CONTRACTS, kujiondoa BIASHARA na FEDHA kutoka Makampuni kigaidi Sheria kama Baker Donelson Bearman Caldwell & Berkowitz. . .
SINKING ya BAKER DONELSON BEARMAN CALDWELL & BERKOWITZ SHIP ni muda muafaka!
Yanaungana pamoja kuchukua chini Hii kigaidi udikteta Serikali Mastermind!
BAKER DONELSON - Attorney Layoffs The SINKING OF A TERRORIST REGIME (BENGALI)VogelDenise
17 USC § 107 (LIMITATIONS On EXCLUSIVE Rights - FAIR USE) - For Educational and Information Purposes
প্রকাশ্য প্রজ্ঞাপন: বিস্তার শব্দ - - সহায়তা যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের স্বৈরতন্ত্র টেররিস্ট সরকার শাসন পতন সমর্থন!
কনট্র্যাকটস pulling, বেকার Donelson Bearman মধ্যে Caldwell & Berkowitz যেমন টেররিস্ট আইন থেকে ব্যবসা এবং আর্থিক অবস্থা প্রত্যাহার মধ্যে যোগদান করুন. . .
BAKER DONELSON BEARMAN CALDWELL & BERKOWITZ জাহাজের ডুবন্ত দীর্ঘ বিলম্বিত!
একসাথে ঐক্যবদ্ধ নামাতে এই সন্ত্রাসী স্বৈরতন্ত্র সরকার মাস্টারমাইন্ড!
2016 ANNUAL UPDATE REPORT FROM COMMUNITY ACTIVIST VOGEL DENISE NEWSOMEVogelDenise
17 USC § 107 (LIMITATIONS On EXCLUSIVE Rights - FAIR USE)
It is being reported that MORE. . .MORE. . .and MORE People who have gotten caught up in the DISTRACTIONS of the United States’ DESPOTISM Government Regime’s MOCKING of the 2016 Election Process, that Citizens are WANTING OTHER OPTIONS to the Democrat’s Candidate (Hillary Clinton) and the Republican’s Candidate (Donald Trump)!
GOOD NEWS! Just as the American Revolution was FOUGHT for FREEDOM and INDEPENDENCE from Great Britain’s OPPRESSIVE DESPOTISM Government Regime, REVOLUTIONARY ACTION is AVAILABLE to Citizens of the United States OF AMERICA that have had ENOUGH to the United States’ DESPOTISM Government Regime!
GET OFF OF THE SIDELINES and TAKE ACTION! QUIT COMPLAINING and PROVIDE SOLUTIONS!
Hybrid vehicle drivetrains- My published manuscript in International Research...ZelieusNamirian
Here is an overview of my research paper "A comprehensive overview of hybrid vehicle drivetrains", It contains an overview of Energy Management systems(EMS), Hybrid Vehicle types based on its drivetrains- Series, Parallel, Power Split (Series/parallel) and degrees of hybridization with some final notes.
Enhancing the Efficiency of a Torque Converter Clutch (TCC)Sharon Lin
Using a computational simulation, we can create analytical data based on the inputs given by a commercially available vehicle, determining the overall efficiency of different models of engines without needing any physical models.
Hydrostatic Continuous Variable Power Transmission Drive for Two wheelers usi...ijsrd.com
Power transmission is an extremely important factor for the automotive industry today. In vehicles, the power transmission system is the major source of energy losses. This is an intentionally compact review for a module addressing basic Fluid Mechanics for incompressible fluids within the context of Applied Energy Systems. Rather than attempting to cover Fluid Mechanics in a very broad and general way, two practical areas are selected in the use of fluids, hydrostatic power transmission systems and the flow of fluids through pipes and fittings. Thus readers are prepared for applying the same and similar principles to a much broader range of practical applications in the future. The present review work relates to a rotary pump and motor transmission system, which permits a change in ratio between the speed of the driver and driven shafts from direct drive to neutral position. This transmission, which may be adopted for many uses, such as vehicles and machine tools, is endowed with the utmost ease of operation even under load, is of a simple and rugged construction and offers safety of operation even after an extended use.
In support of removal of periodic calibration of Flight RecordersReno Filla
This is not a Position Paper on Periodic Pressure Altitude Calibration of FR.
This is a paper on why the above is not needed.
This document will not contain a technical discussion of if, how, why and when the accuracy of pressure sensors in Flight Recorders possibly deviates and whether it then varies with absolute altitude, calendar age, frequency of use or some other variable.
We will not present statistical evidence for either occurrence or non-occurrence of "drifting" of pressure readings. Nobody has these data anyway.
What we will do in this document is to deliberate why we in our sport measure altitude to begin with and what the “good enough” level of accuracy is. From there we will examine how this can be achieved in FAI's legal framework and address possible needs for adjustment of the Sporting Code, if necessary at all.
Spoiler alert: the conclusion will be that unlike regularly visiting a dentist, periodically having to calibrate the pressure sensor in your Flight Recorder is not actually good for you. It is at best an expensive nuisance and if we can get by without this recurring hassle then we all are off for the better.
Brave new electric world: will hydraulics survive and who needs hydraulics anyway? A provocation delivered by an unsentimental system integrator. A real engineer doesn't "love" or "hate" but makes balanced and well-considered technology decisions based on performance, efficiency, application, quality, robustness, cost, etc.
Reflections on Research (and a Fractal Perspective on Systems Engineering)Reno Filla
This round-kick presentation for the 2022 LINK-SIC workshop (https://liu.se/en/article/link-sic-workshop-2022) spans the arc from research and predevelopment to knowledge in general (vs belief and opinion), systems engineering and the ongoing specialization/fragmentation of engineering , uncertainty, the climate-change related challenges ahead - and more.
Report to IEA on ERS, specifically about Scania's experiences and insights from various pilot projects and field trials with the E-Highway system from Siemens Mobility. In the end of the presentation some reflections on how to dimension an ERS ("E-Road") are shared.
Presentation for graduate students: Zoom in to learn the basics and refine your knowledge, then zoom out for perspective and to make connections. Then repeat until convergence. Which you might attain until the next disruption. ;-)
Der Diplom-Ingenieur Reno Filla ist verheiratet und hat ein Kind. Nach seinem Abschluss 1998 an unserer Hochschule ging er zu Volvo nach Schweden, wo er bis heute mit seiner Familie lebt. Seine Freizeit verbringt er gerne mit Segelfliegen. Über seine Zeit des Studiums und sein Werdegang nach dem Studium berichtet er uns in diesem Interview.
https://www.hs-magdeburg.de/hochschule/einrichtungen/alumni-management/interviews.html
Keynote presentation held at the 15th Scandinavian International Conference on Fluid Power 2017 in Linköping, Sweden
It covers the topics energy efficiency, electromobility, operator assistance, automation, connectivity and site solutions.
Towards Finding the Optimal Bucket Filling Strategy through SimulationReno Filla
The purpose of earth-moving equipment like wheel loaders is to engage with the ground or other material. It is therefore obvious that the bucket filling phase must be included when studying optimal machine control over a complete working cycle because total productivity and efficiency of the machine are to a large extent determined by it. This paper reports and discusses the results of research into how to utilize Discrete Element Method simulations in combination with Optimal Control to find the optimal bucket filling strategy and what has been learned regarding preparing and conducting both simulations of bucket filling and physical testing for verification. This paper also discloses which bucket filling strategy appears to be optimal, based on the results so far – and why we cannot be completely certain.
Towards Finding the Optimal Bucket Filling Strategy through SimulationReno Filla
The purpose of earth-moving equipment like wheel loaders is to engage with the ground or other material. It is therefore obvious that the bucket filling phase must be included when studying optimal machine control over a complete working cycle because total productivity and efficiency of the machine are to a large extent determined by it. This paper reports and discusses the results of research into how to utilize Discrete Element Method simulations in combination with Optimal Control to find the optimal bucket filling strategy and what has been learned regarding preparing and conducting both simulations of bucket filling and physical testing for verification. This paper also discloses which bucket filling strategy appears to be optimal, based on the results so far – and why we cannot be completely certain.
Gliding Contest Scoring: current and proposal 8.1.4 for the 2016 IGC plenaryReno Filla
This is a supporting presentation to explain how scoring currently works (visualizing the official equations in a rearranged way) and what the effect of Dutch proposal 8.1.4 will be
Fuel efficiency in construction equipment – optimize the machine as one systemReno Filla
In order to further optimize the fuel efficiency and productivity of construction equipment, 3 main potentials have been identified:
• job site optimization
• machine use optimization
• machine optimization
The focus of this paper is the machine optimization on the example of a wheel loader.
Optimizing losses in individual components must be done, but it will not be a game changer for fuel efficiency improvement. Three areas for promising improvement potentials:
• Optimizing the systems interactions
• Decoupling of systems
• Reduction of losses
One example is shown for a total machine optimization approach: the “Reverse by Braking” function is using the machine operating brakes to slow down the machine during power shuttle instead of using the engine power.
Decoupling of systems requires continuously variable transmission (CVT) functionality for the driveline. This can be achieved with hydraulic or electric CVTs. Two examples for decoupling systems are shown: the Volvo hydrostatic powersplit CVT prototype and a series hybrid wheel loader.
Further future potentials are explored, while the driveline and hydraulic technology are the enablers for drastic improvements: electrified site, plug in hybrid, alternative fuels, and new machine concepts.
Classification of physiological signals for wheel loader operators using Mult...Reno Filla
Sensor signal fusion is becoming increasingly important in many areas including medical diagnosis and classification. Today, clinicians/experts often do the diagnosis of stress, sleepiness and tiredness on the basis of information collected from several physiological sensor signals. Since there are large individual variations when analyzing the sensor measurements and systems with single sensor, they could easily be vulnerable to uncertain noises/interferences in such domain; multiple sensors could provide more robust and reliable decision. Therefore, this paper presents a classification approach i.e. Multivariate Multiscale Entropy Analysis–Case-Based Reasoning (MMSE–CBR) that classifies physiological parameters of wheel loader operators by combining CBR approach with a data level fusion method named Multivariate Multiscale Entropy (MMSE). The MMSE algorithm supports complexity analysis of multivariate biological recordings by aggregating several sensor measurements e.g., Inter-beat-Interval (IBI) and Heart Rate (HR) from Electrocardiogram (ECG), Finger Temperature (FT), Skin Conductance (SC) and Respiration Rate (RR). Here, MMSE has been applied to extract features to formulate a case by fusing a number of physiological signals and the CBR approach is applied to classify the cases by retrieving most similar cases from the case library. Finally, the proposed approach i.e. MMSE–CBR has been evaluated with the data from professional drivers at Volvo Construction Equipment, Sweden. The results demonstrate that the proposed system that fuses information at data level could classify ‘stressed’ and ‘healthy’ subjects 83.33% correctly compare to an expert’s classification. Furthermore, with another data set the achieved accuracy (83.3%) indicates that it could also classify two different conditions ‘adapt’ (training) and ‘sharp’ (real-life driving) for the wheel loader operators. Thus, the new approach of MMSE–CBR could support in classification of operators and may be of interest to researchers developing systems based on information collected from different sensor sources.
Mental State Monitoring System for the Professional Drivers Based on Heart Ra...Reno Filla
The consequences of tiredness, drowsiness, stress and lack of concentration caused by a variety of different factors such as illness, sleep depletion, drugs and alcohol is a serious problem in traffic and when operating industrial equipment. This is especially important for professional drivers since both expensive equipment and lives may be at stake, e.g. in mining, construction and personal transportation, reduced concentration, stress or tiredness are known to be the cause of many accidents. A system which recognizes the state of the driver and e.g. suggests breaks when stress level is too high or driver is too tired would enable large savings and reduces accident. Today different sensors enable clinician to determine a driver’s status with high accuracy. The aim of the paper is to develop an intelligent system that can monitor drivers’ stress depending on psychological and behavioral conditions/status using heart rate variability. An experienced clinician is able to diagnose a person’s stress level based on sensor readings. Here, we propose a solution using case-based reasoning to diagnose individual driver’s stress. During calibration a number of individual parameters are established. The system also considers the feedback from the driver’s on how well the test was performed The validation of the approach is based on close collaboration with experts and measurements from 18 driver’s from Volvo Construction Equipment are used as reference.
http://www.mrtc.mdh.se/index.php?choice=publications&id=3046
Representative Testing of Emissions and Fuel Consumption of Working Machines ...Reno Filla
Out of necessity, emission and fuel consumption test cycles are a simplified representation of the real-life use of a vehicle or component that is assumed to be most common. In reality, variations are introduced by both the driver and the environment – and to a lesser degree also by the vehicle itself through performance deviations because of tolerances in the components’ characteristics. However, since such simplified test cycles exist and are accepted (or even required by law), OEMs tend to use them also in product development to benchmark their products against the competition, and to make decisions on how to optimize design.
While this approach might give acceptable results for on-road vehicles, it fails to capture reality in the case of versatile working machines. Here, the variety of possible applications cannot be covered by one common application but rather demands a mix of several cycles. This has a large impact on the setup and evaluation of physical and virtual testing of working machines, especially those with alternative power systems like hybrids, which will be discussed in the paper.
Attempts to simplify the complexity of real-life applications are made in some testing standards and standard proposals, but they over-simplify with the result of prescribing a common cycle that is not representative and which therefore, however tempting, cannot be used for any meaningful benchmarking of emissions and fuel consumption.
http://papers.sae.org/2012-01-1946
A Case Study on Quantifying the Workload of Working Machine Operators by Mean...Reno Filla
In this study of eighteen wheel loader operators, test-driving a machine in three different traction force settings, we examine if a workload index derived from psychophysiological measurements of heart rate, finger temperature, skin conductance, respiration rate and end-tidal CO2-concentration in exhaled air can be easily used to assess operator workload in sufficient detail to use it as a complement to traditional subjective evaluations in machine testing, either of real machines or in a human-in-the-loop simulator. In a longer perspective, such measurements are expected to play a role in a workload-adaptive operator assistance system.
However, the findings do not give support for this vision. Instead they indicate that other types of measurements than what have been used in our study should be employed if ease of use for practitioners such as test engineers is in focus, but also that other factors than just machine operability must be considered to have a great influence on the operator workload.
Study of a method for assessing operability of working machines in physical a...Reno Filla
In this study of eighteen wheel loader operators, test-driving a machine in three different traction force settings, we found strong support for the hypothesis that the operator’s control commands can be used to assess the machine’s operability, at least in form of ease of bucket filling.
The methods chosen to derive the control effort worked well and were computationally efficient.
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-70392
An Event-driven Operator Model for Dynamic Simulation of Construction MachineryReno Filla
Prediction and optimisation of a wheel loader's dynamic behaviour is a challenge due to tightly coupled, non-linear subsystems of different technical domains. Furthermore, a simulation regarding performance, efficiency, and operability cannot be limited to the machine itself, but has to include operator, environment, and work task. This paper presents some results of our approach to an event-driven simulation model of a human operator. Describing the task and the operator model independently of the machine's technical parameters, gives the possibility to change whole sub-system characteristics without compromising the relevance and validity of the simulation.
http://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0506033
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Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
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Transcript: Selling digital books in 2024: Insights from industry leaders - T...BookNet Canada
The publishing industry has been selling digital audiobooks and ebooks for over a decade and has found its groove. What’s changed? What has stayed the same? Where do we go from here? Join a group of leading sales peers from across the industry for a conversation about the lessons learned since the popularization of digital books, best practices, digital book supply chain management, and more.
Link to video recording: https://bnctechforum.ca/sessions/selling-digital-books-in-2024-insights-from-industry-leaders/
Presented by BookNet Canada on May 28, 2024, with support from the Department of Canadian Heritage.
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This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
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Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
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During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
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Bob Boule
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State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
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Hybrid Power Systems for Construction Machinery: Aspects of System Design and Operability of Wheel Loaders
1. Paper 07
Hybrid Power Systems
for Construction Machinery:
Aspects of System Design and Operability
of Wheel Loaders
Reno Filla
VOLVO CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AB, ESKILSTUNA, SWEDEN
Abstract
This paper will examine the wheel loader as a system with two parallel energy conver-
sion systems that show a complex interaction with each other and with the power
source. Using a systematic design approach, several principle design solutions for hy-
bridization can be found.
Furthermore, the human operator with his/her control actions needs to be considered
as part of the total system. This paper will therefore also connect to results from ongo-
ing and previous research into operator workload and operability.
Keywords: hybrid systems, operator workload, adaptive automation
2. It's not what you are underneath but what you do, that defines you.
(from the film “Batman Begins”)
This paper has been published as:
Filla, R. (2009) “Hybrid Power Systems for Construction Machinery: Aspects of
System Design and Operability of Wheel Loaders”. Proceedings of ASME
IMECE 2009, Vol. 13, pp 611-620.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/IMECE2009-10458
3. Hybrid Power Systems… 3
1 Introduction
Working machines in construction, mining, agriculture, and forestry are not only be-
coming ever more sophisticated in terms of digital control, but are also complex in ar-
chitecture even in their conventional form. Many of these machines consist of at least
two working systems that are used simultaneously and the human operator is essential
to the performance of the machine in its working place.
This paper will focus on wheel loaders, giving first an overview of the technical sys-
tem and then describing possibilities for hybridization with some examples of how as-
pects of operator workload are linked to system design. Methods to assess operator
workload will also be reviewed.
2 Conventional Wheel Loaders
Wheel loaders are good examples of complex working machines. Drive train and hy-
draulics are both equally powerful and compete for the limited engine torque. Figure 1
shows how in the case of bucket loading the primary power from the diesel engine is
essentially split up between hydraulics and drive train to create lift/tilt movements of
the bucket and deliver traction to the wheels.
Auxiliaries
Bucket
Wheels
Lifting +
Breaking/Tilting
Travelling/
Penetration
Drive train
Hydraulics
Σ Engine
Linkage
External (+/-)
Gravel
pile
Figure 1. Simplified power transfer scheme of a conventional wheel loader during
bucket loading
In addition to auxiliary systems such as cooling systems, there may also be external
systems connected via PTO’s (power take-outs).
3 Working Cycles
Wheel loaders are versatile machines and each working place is unique, yet common
features can nonetheless be found.
The short loading cycle shown in Figure 2, sometimes also dubbed V-cycle or Y-
cycle for its characteristic driving pattern, is highly representative of the majority of
applications. Typical for this cycle is bucket loading of granular material (e.g. gravel)
4. 4 Paper 07
on an adjacent load receiver (e.g. a dump truck) within a time frame of 25-35 seconds,
depending on working place setup and how aggressively the operator uses the machine.
The interaction between hydraulics and drive train is one reason for choosing the short
loading cycle as a kind of standard test cycle when productivity, fuel consumption and
operability are to be assessed. A detailed description with identification of all phases
can be found in [1] and [2].
Figure 2. Short loading cycle
Load & carry cycles, sometimes also called long loading cycles, are commonly used,
too. They resemble short cycles, but involve two longer transport phases of up to 400 m
in forward gear (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Load & carry cycle
5. Hybrid Power Systems… 5
4 Hybrid Wheel Loaders
As mentioned before, wheel loaders are versatile machines used in a variety of applica-
tions, which makes it hard to find a globally optimal setup. This problem is even more
accentuated when it comes to hybridization of these working machines. Customers will
expect great gains in terms of energy efficiency when using the hybrid wheel loaders for
the same variety of applications they used their conventional machines for.
In order to systematically examine hybridization opportunities, it is meaningful to
first consider the parallel working systems hydraulics and the drive train separately.
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Figure 4. Conventional drive train and hydraulics
The left-hand diagram in Figure 4 shows the conventional drive train, where the in-
ternal combustion engine drives a transmission via a torque converter (here simplified
as a clutch) and further on rotates the machine’s four equally large wheels, passing
through differentials along the way. The hydraulics are driven by one or several parallel
hydraulic pumps, directly connected to the engine (Figure 4, right).
In this paper the focus will be on electric hybrids, but also hydraulic hybrids are un-
der development in the industry and academia [3][4][5].
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Figure 5. Parallel hybrid drive train and hydraulics
6. 6 Paper 07
In a parallel hybrid system, another power source is mechanically connected to the
same drive shaft, enabling torque to be added or subtracted. As shown to the left in
Figure 5, in the case of the parallel hybrid-electric drive train the question arises of
whether the electric machine should be placed upstream or downstream of the torque
converter. Upstream placement permits cranking and torque support of the engine,
while a downstream position offers higher recuperation efficiency. A compromise can
be found by using a lock-up torque converter and an additional clutch. However the
design of a parallel hybrid hydraulic system is fairly straight forward (Figure 5, right).
In a series hybrid configuration (Figure 6) there is no purely mechanical connection
between engine, drive train, and hydraulics. The power flows through electric machines
where it is first converted into the electric domain and then back to the mechanical do-
main.
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Figure 6. Series hybrid drive train and hydraulics
A complex or power-split hybrid system can be seen as a combination of parallel and
series hybrid. There is both a mechanical connection between the engine and the system
to be driven and an electrical connection via two electric machines (Figure 7).
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Figure 7. Complex hybrid drive train and hydraulics
The amount of power to be transferred either way can be chosen according to the
situation at hand. This offers the possibility to combine the advantages and to avoid the
disadvantages of the topologies described above.
An abundance of literature deals with various types of complex hybrid drive trains
and power-split, continuously variable (CVT) or infinitely variable (IVT) transmissions.
It is also possible to let the road act as a summation device, as can be seen in Figure 8.
7. Hybrid Power Systems… 7
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Figure 8. Road as summation device
Power-split hydraulics can in principle be seen as conventional hydraulics with elec-
trically driven boost pumps, but might also be designed so that both pumps share the
generation of hydraulic power in a larger time frame.
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conventional
parallel hybrid complex (power-split) series hybrid
conventionalparallelhybrid
complex(power-split)serieshybrid
Hydraulics
Drivetrain
Figure 9. Combination matrix of hybrid topologies
Combining all the variants, we find a matrix of system possibilities (Figure 9), from
conventional systems over parallel and complex hybrids all the way to series hybrid
systems. The topology of the hydraulic system changes with the column, while the drive
train topology varies between the rows. Some combinations are not drawn because they
8. 8 Paper 07
are not logically possible: if e.g. a series hybrid drive train is installed, then naturally
any installed conventional hydraulics are automatically a parallel hybrid because the
electric machine connected to the engine is at the same time also connected to the hy-
draulic pumps. The same reasoning can be applied to all five excluded combinations.
The system sketches shown are to be understood as simple examples. Neither energy
storage nor power electronic converters are included. Also, several principle solutions
can be found for each combination, each with distinctive sub-variants.
For instance, the full series hybrid design shown in the lower right corner of Figure 9
may be the simplest possible solution in terms of design effort, but not necessarily so in
terms of system complexity. It is a relatively naïve design to drive only the hydraulic
pump and the transmission with an electric motor and keep the rest of the working sys-
tem unchanged. Using electric machines usually opens up for radical new possibilities
in system design, as well as system size (downsizing) and system control.
For hydraulics, one natural path of evolution might be towards pump-controlled
“valveless” systems [6][7], possibly with a separate hydraulic circuit for each individual
function (lift, tilt and steering). It is then a question of whether the flow adaptation
should still be made by means of pumps with variable displacement (as shown in all
figures) or if this should be accomplished varying only the motor speed and using fixed
displacement pumps.
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Figure 10. Designs of full series hybrid wheel loaders
In the case of the drive train, electric machines could be integrated directly into the
wheel hubs. Both solutions are shown on the right in Figure 10, in comparison to the
naïve design shown on the left.
In general, all electro-hybrid system solutions give rise to new system properties be-
cause electric machines offer a different torque envelope and a faster response in a
wider speed range compared to combustion engines. Their introduction should therefore
also include an adaptation and redesign of the system to be driven, rather than just a
substitution of the propulsion source. For a hybrid wheel loader, this gives new possi-
bilities to achieve an optimal compromise between productivity, energy efficiency, and
operability.
9. Hybrid Power Systems… 9
5 Operability
While there are usable definitions for productivity (for a wheel loader: material loaded
per time) and energy efficiency (preferably: fuel consumed per loaded unit, rather than
per time unit), a generally agreed definition of the human operator’s difficulty in work-
ing with the machine is still to be found. For vehicles, the concept of drivability has
been the main focus for quite some time. Recently, however, the operability of working
machines has also become a major research subject (the word operability acknowledg-
ing the fact that while the drive train is the only major power-consuming system in a
vehicle, working machines like wheel loaders have at least two working systems that
are used simultaneously).
In [8], a definition is offered that also works well for working machines: “Operability
is the ease with which a system operator can perform the assigned mission with a sys-
tem when that system is functioning as designed”. The limitation to states where the
system is functioning as designed effectively excludes somewhat related yet separate
properties such as robustness and reliability.
The challenge in designing a wheel loader, from a manufacturer’s point of view, is to
find an appropriate, robust, and maintainable balance between productivity, fuel effi-
ciency, and operability over the complete area of use. At Volvo, the term Harmonic
wheel loader has been coined, describing a machine possessing a high degree of ma-
chine harmony which makes it intuitively controllable and able to perform the work
task in a straightforward manner without much conscious thought or strategy. The lower
the degree of machine harmony, the more effort the operator has to put in in order to
perform the work task (Figure 11) and thus the higher the workload.
Primary harmony
(matched and appropriately specified hardware)
Operator
effort
Secondary harmony
(added control systems)
M
achine
harm
ony
Figure 11. Machine harmony and operator effort
In general, the assumption made in this research is that the operator’s impression of
the working machine’s operability stems from the amount of workload the operator is
subjected to. We exclude physical workload and therefore also operator comfort with
aspects like exposure to vibration, ergonomics etc, and concentrate on the mental work-
10. 10 Paper 07
load of the operator, which is affected by the operator’s control efforts and thus by the
following requirements (the fourth item probably being the most prominent):
• fast response
• high precision of machine and bucket positioning
• several operator controls to be actuated simultaneously in order to achieve
a specific effect
• several machine functions to be synchronized.
In a short loading cycle as shown in Figure 2, as well as in a load & carry cycle ac-
cording to Figure 3, there are three phases in which the operator is challenged to a
higher degree:
• Bucket filling (phase #1)
• Reversing (phase #4)
• Bucket emptying (phase #6 in Figure 2, #9 in Figure 3)
Each of these phases will be examined in more detail with regard to operability and
operator workload in the following sections.
6 Operability Aspects in the Bucket Filling Phase
Extending the schematics of the technical system (Figure 1), Figure 12 depicts how the
human operator interacts with the wheel loader during bucket filling.
Auxiliaries
Bucket
Wheels
Lifting +
Breaking/Tilting
Travelling/
Penetration
Drive train
Hydraulics
Σ Engine
Linkage
External (+/-)
Gravel
pile
OperatorECU
ECU
ECU
ECU
Figure 12. Simplified power transfer and control scheme of a wheel loader during
bucket loading
In order to fill the bucket, the operator needs to control three motions simultane-
ously: a forward motion that also exerts a force (traction), an upward motion (lift) and a
rotating motion to fit in as much material as possible (tilt). This is similar to how a sim-
ple manual shovel is used. However, in contrast to a manual shovel, the operator of a
wheel loader can only observe, and cannot directly control these three motions. Instead,
he or she has to use different subsystems of the machine in order to accomplish the task.
The gas pedal controls engine speed, while it is lift and tilt lever control valves in the
hydraulics system that ultimately control movements of the linkage’s lift and tilt cylin-
ders, respectively.
11. Hybrid Power Systems… 11
One difficulty is that no operator control directly affects only one single motion. The
gas pedal controls engine speed, which together with the selected transmission gear
affects the machine’s longitudinal motion. But engine speed also relates to the speed of
the hydraulic pumps, which in turn affects the lift and tilt cylinder speed. The linkage
between the hydraulic cylinders and the bucket acts as a non-linear planar transmission
and due to its design a lift movement will also change the bucket’s tilt angle and a tilt
movement affects the bucket edge’s height above the ground. Furthermore, when simul-
taneously using lift and tilt function, a reduction in the lift cylinder speed can be ex-
pected as the displacement of the hydraulic pump is limited and the tilt function is pri-
oritized over lift due to its lower pressure demand. The more the tilt lever is actuated,
the higher the tilt cylinder speed, while the speed of the lift cylinder decreases.
Finally, there is also a strong interaction between traction and lift/tilt forces: penetrat-
ing the gravel pile with the bucket requires tractive force, which is transferred through
the wheels to the ground (Figure 13). In accordance with Newton’s Third Law of Mo-
tion, the Law of Reciprocal Actions, the gravel pile exerts an equal and opposite force
upon the loader bucket. A typical sequence for actually filling the bucket is then to
break material by tilting backwards a little, lifting, and penetrating even further.
Figure 13 shows how these two efforts work against each other: in order to achieve a
lifting force, the cylinders have to create a counter-clockwise moment around the load-
ing unit’s main bearing in the front frame. At the same time, the reaction force from the
traction effort creates a clockwise moment that counteracts the lifting effort.
Figure 13. Force balance during bucket filling (simplified)
The ground and the gravel pile thus connect drive train and hydraulics, forcing them
to interact with each other, and to experience each other’s effort as an external load.
Since both working systems are already mechanically connected via the engine, an in-
teresting situation arises in which engine torque is transferred to the wheels to accom-
12. 12 Paper 07
plish traction, but at the same time counteracts that part of the engine torque that has
been transferred through hydraulics to accomplish lifting and tilting – in turn requiring
even more torque to be transferred.
The momentary torque or power distribution to drive train and hydraulics is specific
for the working task at hand and is controlled by the operator, who ultimately balances
the complete system and actively adapts to both the machine, the task at hand, and the
working place.
The traditional way of decreasing the severity of these phenomena has been to design
the wheel loader with a high load margin by utilizing the internal combustion engine at
a high speed (often near governed speed), backed up by a steep torque rise, and to em-
ploy weak torque converters that require a high rate of slip in order to transfer torque.
This creates a certain decoupling effect in the drive train, but it is unfortunately prohibi-
tively costly in terms of fuel efficiency.
In modern working machines the main idea is to utilize the engine at as low speeds
as possible by employing a stiffer torque converter and hydraulic pumps with larger
displacement. Also, major components and subsystems are controlled by electronic con-
trol units (ECUs), all connected within a network, as shown schematically in Figure 12.
This makes it possible to give the operator support in controlling the wheel loader. In a
hybrid working machine, this opportunity is even greater. Depending on the chosen
topology, several of the difficulties discussed above can be avoided.
While the gravel pile will still connect drive train and hydraulics downstream via the
bucket, in a series hybrid these systems would not be connected upstream via the en-
gine. This enables the operator to control only one motion at a time via only one con-
trol: the gas pedal will only control the machine’s longitudinal motion and the hydraulic
levers can control flow independently, all independently of each other and of the current
engine speed.
The responsiveness of electric machines also makes it possible to quickly ramp
torque up or down such that tractive force and lift/tilt force can be actively controlled.
This can be used in essentially all hybrid variants (Figure 9).
Furthermore, the cylinder speeds can be controlled in such a manner that the non-
linearity of the linkage is compensated for and thus the speed of bucket lift and tilt is
proportional to the angle of the tilt and lift lever.
However, it is important to observe that not all limitations that arise because of con-
ventional wheel loader design are experienced as negative by the operator. During their
work with a pump-controlled hydraulic system with a separate hydraulic circuit each for
the lift and tilt function, the authors of [6] and [7] noticed that professional operators
use the aforementioned prioritization of the tilt function over the lift function to their
advantage.
Instead of operating the lift and tilt lever separately, the operators pull the lift lever to
a certain level, hold it there and then use the tilt lever to control the speed of both tilt
and lift cylinder. By using this procedure during bucket filling, the operator has only to
actively handle two controls (tilt lever and gas pedal) instead of three (because the lift
13. Hybrid Power Systems… 13
lever has been locked in a fixed position). This behavior has been confirmed in the au-
thor’s own interview studies [1].
During measurements on a research prototype with the pump-controlled hydraulic
system described above, it was observed that the fuel consumption in short loading cy-
cles was unusually high during the bucket filling phase. It could be shown that the op-
erators tried, but were not able, to use the new system just like to old one. With the
speeds of the lift and tilt cylinders now independent of each other, they could no longer
be controlled by just one lever. No record exists as to whether the operators themselves
commented on this and complained about the new functionality (in the author’s own
studies on a similar machine one did), but it is clear that the prototype’s operability was
reduced and thus the workload of the operator increased. To solve this, a similar behav-
ior was implemented by software, artificially decreasing the flow demand for the lift
function when the tilt lever was activated (Figure 14).
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
Lift speed
Lift
command Tilt command
Figure 14. Reduction of lift speed due to prioritization
Learning from the example above, the question arises of how many changes one can
make in the design of the operator interface and the behavior of a hybrid wheel loader
without professional operators experiencing this in a non-positive way – and then, how
long it would take for the operators to adapt.
7 Operability Aspects in the Reversing Phase
In this phase of a short loading cycle the operator changes the direction of the machine
from reverse to forward and aims at the load receiver, while at the same time continuing
to raise the bucket using the lift function. As examined in [9], there is again a conflict
between the working systems:
In order to reverse the machine, the operator lowers the engine speed (otherwise gear
shifting will be jerky and the transmission couplings might wear out prematurely). Less
14. 14 Paper 07
torque is available at lower speeds. Engine response is also worse at lower speeds,
mainly due to the inertia of the turbo-charger and smoke limiter settings.
When the operator shifts from reverse to forward the loader is still rolling backwards.
This forces an abrupt change in the rotational direction of the torque converter’s turbine
wheel, greatly increasing the slip, which leads to a sudden increase in torque demand
from the already weakened engine.
Continuing to lift the bucket while reversing requires high oil flow, which is propor-
tional to the pump’s displacement and shaft speed (and thus engine speed). In order to
satisfy the flow requirement at lower speed, pump displacement is usually at maximum
in this phase, which together with a high hydraulic pressure due to a full bucket and the
loading unit’s geometry leads to a large demand for driving torque.
Thus, both drive train and hydraulics apply high load to the engine, which at lower
speed has less torque available and a longer response time. In a conventional wheel
loader it is the operator’s task to control the machine correctly. In order to lower fuel
consumption, operators of conventional wheel loaders with torque converters are usu-
ally advised to release the gas pedal and use the brakes in order to lower machine speed
almost to stand-still before shifting into forward. This greatly reduces torque converter
slip and thus saves fuel.
In a wheel loader with a hybrid drive train, it would actually be better, both operabil-
ity- and energy efficiency-wise, to go back to the traditional non-optimal method of
reversing and just command a change of direction at a certain point in time and then let
the machine automatically initiate regenerative braking by using the electric machine in
generator mode, followed by a smooth acceleration forward. Requiring the operator to
use the brake pedal leads to a higher workload and ideally requires the hybrid working
machine to incorporate brake blending, i.e. use the electric machine for regenerative
braking in combination with the mechanical brakes.
Related to this, the author witnessed another example of how productivity, energy
efficiency (in the form of fuel consumption) and operability (in the form of operator
workload) are intertwined. In a research prototype machine a system had been imple-
mented that automatically lowered engine speed and applied the brakes when the opera-
tor commanded a change of direction the traditional way by just putting the transmis-
sion gear lever from reverse into forward. The initial expectation was to save fuel,
according to a chain of reasoning as shown in Figure 15.
Machine automatically
uses brakes when
beginning to reverse
Reduced slip
over torque converter
Reduced
fuel consumption
Figure 15. Expected effect of the automatic reversing feature
Comparing fuel consumed per time unit with and without the automatic reversing
feature, it showed that the new feature actually led to higher fuel consumption. The rea-
son for this was the operator using the automatic reversing feature to increase produc-
15. Hybrid Power Systems… 15
tivity, which also increases fuel consumption per time unit. Figure 16 shows the actual
course of events.
Machine automatically
uses brakes when
beginning to reverse
Reduced
operator work load
Reduced slip
over torque converter
Increased
productivity
Operator compensates
for lower work load
and drives harder
Increased
fuel consumption
Figure 16. Actual effect of the automatic reversing feature
Besides showing how productivity, energy efficiency, and operability are connected
in a working machine, the example above also proves how clearly inappropriate it is to
use fuel consumption measured per time unit in such comparative testing. Fuel effi-
ciency expressed in fuel consumed per loaded mass unit of material would have been a
much better choice.
8 Operability Aspects in the Bucket Emptying Phase
Having driven the machine from the gravel pile to the load receiver and having raised
the full bucket to dumping height at the same time, the operator now needs to coordi-
nate four controls in order to successfully empty the bucket‘s contents:
• Tilt lever in order to dump the material
• Lift lever, gas pedal and brake pedal in order to safely guide the bucket
over the edge of the load receiver and to evenly distribute the material
In this phase, the aforementioned difficulty of no operator control affecting just one
motion is again apparent. The connection between desired increase in hydraulic flow
and thus commanded increase in engine speed now leads to a possibly unwanted in-
crease in tractive force, propelling the machine forward at a faster rate. With the wheel
loader already standing in front of the load receiver and only small forward movements
required, this increases the operator’s workload since the machine may risk driving into
the load receiver, which can only be prevented by also applying the brake pedal.
In a series of measurements on a research prototype with a stiffer torque converter
(i.e. one that can create the same torque at a lower slip rate than that of a baseline ma-
chine) the author again witnessed the connection between productivity, energy effi-
ciency, and operability. Originally it was expected to see a decrease in fuel consumption
due to the stiffer torque converter in the research prototype machine theoretically lead-
ing to less slip and thus lower drive train losses (Figure 17).
16. 16 Paper 07
Stiffer torque converter,
yet same traction demand
Reduced slip
over torque converter
Increased
fuel efficiency
Figure 17. Expected effect of a stiffer torque converter
Comparing fuel efficiency, the operator when using the research prototype machine
with the stiffer torque converter was shown to require more time per loading cycle and
thus consumed more fuel in total and per loaded unit of material (but not per time unit,
as the additional consumption per time unit was close to the average and thus led to
approximately the same mean fuel consumption figure). It was concluded that the main
reason for the longer cycle time was difficulties in bucket filling and bucket emptying
due to the stiffness of the torque converter. Figure 18 shows the course of events.
Stiffer torque converter,
yet same traction demand
Higher traction force
propels machine faster
for same pedal angle
However, same pump
speed and thus same
engine speed demand
Increased cycle
time and reduced
productivity
Operator compensates
by applying brakes
during bucket emptying
Reduced
fuel efficiency
Figure 18. Actual effect of a very stiff torque converter
Especially during bucket emptying the operator found it difficult to handle the higher
tractive force at lower slip rates and thus lower engine speeds if compared for the same
propeller shaft speed. In order to increase hydraulic oil flow, operators apply the gas
pedal to increase pump speed, which due to a conventional wheel loader’s system de-
sign also increases converter speed and thus increases tractive force. To avoid colliding
with the load receiver, the operator had to apply the brake pedal, which resulted in both
increased workload and increased drive train losses (because the torque converter essen-
tially acted as a retarder brake).
In most hybrid wheel loader designs (Figure 9) the above described course of events
can be avoided, since the gas pedal would be used to control the machine’s traveling
speed rather than the internal combustion engine’s rotational speed.
9 Assessing Operability
In summary it can be concluded that operability issues must be factored in when design-
ing working machines, and more so when designing hybrids.
Virtual Prototyping has been generally adopted in product development in order to
minimize the traditional reliance on testing of physical prototypes. The complex archi-
tecture of working machines with tightly coupled, non-linear subsystems in different
engineering domains make simulation of the complete system’s dynamic behavior diffi-
17. Hybrid Power Systems… 17
cult. But in early design stages such as conceptual design, simulation is the only viable
option.
In order to capture the full scope of the interaction between the machine (the techni-
cal system), its environment (working place, gravel pile), and its operator, all three must
be modeled at an appropriate level of detail if the simulation is to give valid results.
Usually, the technical systems are modeled at a very intricate level of detail, while its
environment is modeled crudely (for instance by various types of rolling resistance),
and the operator model is virtually non-existent, following a predefined trajectory with
control inputs at given points, and thus capturing none of the essential phenomena.
Advances in simulation-related research, among those the author’s own work
[10][11] and the work of others inspired by it [12][13] as well as the many advances in
research on autonomous bucket loading [14][15][16], have resulted in a growing body
of knowledge on the operator’s behavior and how to approximate his or her control ac-
tions in a simulation. Using for example a weighed, piece-wise analysis of control effort
in the different cycle phases might be one way of quantifying the (simulated) operator’s
workload and measuring the (simulated) machine’s operability. However, some work
still remains to be done in this regard.
Meanwhile, research in the field of Human-Computer Interaction has resulted in the
development of Cognitive Architectures that can be used for modeling cognitive aspects
of human beings while interacting with technical systems [17]. However, for tasks like
operating a machine within a simulated environment the operator model needs to have a
spatial awareness in order to orient itself in space, detect objects to interact with etc.
One promising approach to address this has been reported in [17].
It can also be argued somewhat philosophically that the closer a simulation comes to
reality, the more complex it necessarily has to be until it is finally as complex and diffi-
cult to understand as reality itself, also introducing challenges to its validity in terms of
repeatability. That means that there will be some limit to the extent of how operability
can be simulated using operator models.
The other approach then would then be to still simulate the technical system yet use a
human operator to control it in so-called human-in-the-loop simulations. Examples can
be found in [19][20][21]. The question then is how to quantify a (simulated) machine’s
operability or the operator’s workload leading to an impression of operability.
In the examples given earlier, a physical prototype already exists, yet the same ques-
tion of quantification of operator workload still needs to be answered. Fortunately,
much research has been done on this topic, initially in aeronautics but later also in on-
road vehicles and other applications.
In the beginning, workload was quantified using self-report measures like the modi-
fied Cooper-Harper scale or the NASA Task Load Index. These methods rely on the
operator trying to be objective, i.e. not consciously trying to skew results. However, due
to the fact that such self-report assessments are often performed afterwards, the time
delay itself leads to a certain amount of unreliability. Also if for example a wheel
loader’s operability in the reversing phase is to be rated, the operator may find it hard to
18. 18 Paper 07
concentrate on this and not let his/her impression of the machine’s total behavior in the
complete loading cycle influence the rating.
It has therefore been found better to assess workload by measuring psychophysi-
ological parameters, predominantly heart rate variability and finger temperature. A
comprehensive overview of the subject and references for further study can be found in
[22][23][24][25].
In the research published in [26], a real-time flight simulator is used with a human
pilot in the loop and the results from these simulator flights are compared to real flights.
We will conduct similar measurements, yet not focused on the operator’s training effect
but on using the operator’s workload in order to assess the tested machine’s operability.
This does not need to be limited to the development of advanced working machines like
hybrids, but can also play an important role in rating selected features of conventional
machines.
10 Workload-adaptive Machines
An earlier chapter discussed how the introduction of hybrid power systems can lead to
machines that are easier to use due to a different system design.
But there are also a great many opportunities in new human-machine interfaces,
made possible by hybrid systems and extensive computer control. The question was
earlier raised of how many changes one can make in the design of the operator interface
and the behavior of a hybrid wheel loader without professional operators experiencing
this in a non-positive way – and then, how long it would take for the operators to adapt.
This issue can be made less prominent by adapting machine behavior and operator
interface to the individual operator’s needs and preferences. This could be as relatively
easy to do as redefining the resolution and mapping of various operator controls to suit
the individual operator, either online or offline.
Augmented Cognition in order to raise the operator’s situation awareness is another
solution, for example by giving advanced visual, haptic or acoustic feedback [27][28].
Instead of requiring the operator to adapt, one could also move the adaption task to
the technical system and use adaptive automation to give the operator help in certain
situations [29]. Possibilities to do this are especially high in hybrid machines whose
systems have greater degrees of freedom than is the case for conventional machines.
11 Conclusions
Working machines like wheel loaders are complex in architecture and behavior, espe-
cially since the operator plays an important role in controlling the total system. This
paper has shown several examples where the operator’s influence has led to unexpected
results. It has been discussed that in future measurements, assessment of operator work-
19. Hybrid Power Systems… 19
load needs to be included in order to fully understand the course of events. Methods for
assessing workload in the context of this research have also been discussed.
Hybrid systems give the opportunity to not only vastly improve energy efficiency
and possibly productivity of the working machine, but also increase operability. Trying
to optimize a machine for such different properties as power, productivity, fuel effi-
ciency, operability, initial purchase cost, and total cost of ownership is difficult due to
conflicting demands. Examples have been shown on how hybrid systems can help to
find a better compromise.
Acknowledgments
The financial support of Volvo Construction Equipment and Energimyndigheten, the
Swedish Energy Agency, is hereby gratefully acknowledged.
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(Internet links updated and verified on August 18, 2011)