The document discusses several viral infections:
- HIV weakens the immune system and can lead to AIDS. There are two main types of HIV viruses.
- Bird flu, or avian influenza, is caused by influenza A viruses that infect birds and can spread to humans. Common symptoms are similar to regular flu but it can also cause pneumonia.
- Swine flu is caused by H1N1 viruses that originated in pigs but can infect humans. It shares common flu symptoms.
- Nipah virus is transmitted from bats and pigs to humans and has a high mortality rate. Symptoms include fever, cough, and breathing difficulties.
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and over time acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and over time acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
This slide contains information regarding HIV, ARV. This can be helpful for proficiency level and bachelor level nursing students. Your feedback is highly appreciated. Thank you!
This slide contains information regarding HIV, ARV. This can be helpful for proficiency level and bachelor level nursing students. Your feedback is highly appreciated. Thank you!
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
2. HIV
• HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a
virus which targets the immune system of a
person and causes AIDS (Acquired immuno
deficiency syndrome).
• With time, this HIV weakens and eventually
damages the immune system of the
individual.
• The body starts to lose the ability to defend
itself against germs, bacteria and infections.
Hence it is difficult to fight this disease.
3. • Types of HIV:
• HIV 1-Most common type, causing 95% of all infections, world wide
• HIV 2-Uncommon & less Infectious, West Africa and surrounding
countries.
• HIV 2 is less fatal and progresses more slowly than HIV 1.
HIV – Structure
• HIV forms Spherical, membrane-enveloped, pleomorphic virions ,1000-1500 A°
diameter which contain two copies of its single stranded, Positive sense RNA
genome.
5. Pathogenesis
• HIV virus enters to the host cells and bind itself to a receptor (T cells
CD4) and releases its RNA in to the host cell .
• It undergoes the reverse transcription and converts its RNA in to
double stranded DNA.
• HIV DNA uses a enzyme to create its copies forming long protein
chains.
• These new units forces out ‘buds’ from host cell and envelopes it.
• Then the affected host cells goes out in to infect other cells.
6. Symptoms
• Primary infection (Acute HIV) :
• Some people develop Flu- like illness within 2-4 Weeks after the virus
enters the body.
• It may last for a few weeks.
• Fever, head ache, muscle aches and joint pain, rash, sore throat and
painful mouth sores, Swollen lymph glands – mainly on the neck,
diarrhea, weight loss, cough & night sweat.
• Clinical latent infection (Chronic HIV) :
• In this stage, HIV still present in the body and WBC
• Many people may not have any symptoms during this time.
• Fever, fatigue, swollen lymph nodes, diarrhea, weight loss, oral yeast
infection, and pneumonia.
7. How HIV spreads
• Unprotected sexual contact
• By sharing needles
• Blood transfusion
• During pregnancy or delivery or through breast feeding.
• HIV can’t catch by hugging, kissing, dancing, shaking hands with
someone who has the infection.
• HIV doesn’t spread through the air, water or insect bites.
8. Complications
• Wasting syndrome.
• Neurological complications
• Kidney diseases
• Liver diseases
Cancers Common to HIV/ AIDS:
• Lymphoma
• Kaposi’s sarcoma
• HPV – related cancers
9. Diagnosis
• Antigen test
• Antigen / antibody test
• Nucleic acid test (NATs)
• ELISA (Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay).
•Treatment
• No cure exist for HIV /AIDS, but medications are control HIV and
prevent disease progression
• Antiviral drugs used
10. Prevention
• Get tested for HIV
• Choose less risky sexual behaviours
• Use condoms
• Avoid sharing of needles
11. BIRD FLU
• Also called- H5N1 or Avian Influenza
• Causative agent – Avian Influenza Type A virus.
• It can cause zoonotic infections.
• 3 sub types- A, B & C
• Some strains of virus infect humans – H5N1, H7N3, H7N7, H7N9 &
H9N2
12. Mode of transmission
• By air borne respiratory
droplets ( coughs or
sneezes)
• Strains of influenza virus
that primarily infect
birds. But can also infect
humans.
• It can also passed from
person to person
13. Symptoms
• Symptoms begin with in 2 – 8 days and can seem like the common flu.
• Cough
• Fever
• Sore throat
• Muscle aches
• Head ache
• Shortness of breath
14. Diagnosis
• Conventional laboratory techniques – Isolation, identification and
characterization (including virulence estimates) of the virus
• Molecular biological techniques- RT-PCR Reverse transcriptase PCR
• RT –PCR – Real time PCR
15. Treatment
• Antiviral drugs – neurominidase inhibitor – can reduce the duration of Viral
replication
• Adamantane antiviral drugs
• Prevention
• Regular hand washing with proper drying of the hands.
• Avoiding close contact with sick people
• Avoiding touching one’s eyes, nose, or mouth
• Good respiratory hygiene
16. SWINE FLU
• Also called –pig Influenza
• Causative agent- H1N1 virus
• It is a human respiratory infection caused by an Influenza strain that
started in pigs.
17. Mode of transmission
• By air borne respiratory droplets ( cough or sneezes)
• By touching a contaminated surface
• By saliva
• By skin to skin contact
18. Symptoms
• Fever
• Cough
• Sore throat
• Chills
• Weakness
• Body aches
• Children, pregnant women and elderly are high risk from severe
infection.
20. Prevention
• Flu vaccine
• Cover nose and mouth with a tissue when you sneeze or cough
• Wash your hands with soap and water
• Don‘t touch your eyes, nose or mouth
• Avoid people who are sick
21. NIPAH
• Nipah is a bat- borne virus disease.
• Infect humans and other animals – It has high mortality rate
• Nipah virus is a zoonotic virus ( It is transmitted from animals to
humans)
22. Mode of transmission
• Direct contact with infected animals, such as bats or pigs or their body
fluids ( Such as blood, urine, or saliva)
• Consuming food products that have been contaminated by body fluids of
infected animals
• Close contact with a person infected with NiV or their body fluids.
•Symptoms
• Fever
• Head ache
• Cough
• Sore throat
• Difficulty breathing
• Vomiting
23. Diagnosis
• RT- PCR (Real time – PCR)
• ELISA
•Treatment
• Monoclonal antibody therapies
• Antiviral drugs- ribavirin
• Prevention
• Practice hand washing regularly with soap and water
• Avoid contact with sick bats or pigs
• Avoid contact with the blood or body fluids of any person known to be
infected with NiV
