History of International Relations.

1. HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS
Ancient World to WWII

2. United Nations (UN)
• The United Nations (UN) was established in the aftermath of World
War II with the goal of promoting international cooperation, peace,
and security.
• The UN officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, following
the ratification of the United Nations Charter by the majority of its
founding member states.

3. • Founding Members:
• The United Nations was founded by 51 countries that signed the UN
Charter in San Francisco on June 26, 1945.
• The five major Allied powers during World War II—the United States,
the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, and France—were given
permanent seats and veto power in the Security Council.

4. • Key Objectives:
• The mission and work of the United Nations are guided by the purposes and
principles contained in its founding Charter.
• The UN was established to
• prevent future conflicts,
• foster international cooperation,
• and promote social and economic development worldwide.
• Key principles include the
• sovereign equality of member states,
• non-interference in domestic affairs, and
• the peaceful resolution of disputes.

5. • Due to the powers vested in its Charter and its unique international character,
the United Nations can take action on the issues confronting humanity in the
21st century, such as
• peace and security,
• climate change,
• sustainable development,
• human rights,
• disarmament,
• terrorism,
• humanitarian and health emergencies,
• gender equality, governance,
• food production, and more.

6. Main Organs
• General Assembly: All member states are represented, and decisions
on significant international issues are made by a two-thirds majority.
It serves as a forum for member states to discuss and coordinate on
global issues.
• Security Council: Responsible for maintaining international peace and
security. It has five permanent members with veto power (China,
France, Russia, the UK, and the US) and ten rotating non-permanent
members elected by the General Assembly.

7. • International Court of Justice (ICJ): The International Court of Justice has 15 Judges, elected
by both the General Assembly and the Security Council for nine-year terms.
• The principal judicial organ of the UN, settling legal disputes between states and providing
advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by the General Assembly, Security Council,
or other UN organs.
• Secretariat: The Secretariat, one of the main organs of the UN, is organized along
departmental lines, with each department or office having a distinct area of action and
responsibility.
• Offices and departments coordinate with each other to ensure cohesion as they carry out the
daily work of the Organization in offices and duty stations around the world. At the head of the
United Nations Secretariat is the Secretary-General.

8. Security Council Functions
• Peacekeeping: Authorizes peacekeeping missions to areas of conflict
to help maintain or restore peace.
• Sanctions: Can impose economic and diplomatic sanctions on
countries or individuals to address threats to international peace and
security.
• Use of Force: Has the authority to use force, as outlined in the UN
Charter, in cases of self-defense (article 51) or when there is a threat
to international peace.

9. • Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):
• Coordinates international economic, social, and related work of 15
UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions, and five
regional commissions.
• Promotes international cooperation for development and addresses
social and economic issues.

10. • Specialized Agencies:
• The UN has various specialized agencies such as the World Health
Organization (WHO), United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the International Labour
Organization (ILO), among others.
• These agencies focus on specific areas such as health, education,
labor, and cultural exchange.

11. Specialized Agencies of the United Nations
1. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
2. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
3. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
4. International Labor Organization (ILO)
5. International Maritime Organization (IMO)
6. International Monetary Fund (IMF)
7. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
8. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
9. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
10. Universal Postal Union (UPU)
11. World Bank Group (WBG): International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD),
International Finance Corporation (IFC), International Development Association (IDA)
12. World Health Organization (WHO)
13. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
14. World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
15. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)

12. • Human Rights Council:
• An intergovernmental body within the UN system responsible for
promoting and protecting human rights around the world.
• Conducts periodic reviews of the human rights records of all UN
member states.

13. "Pacific Settlement of Disputes
• Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter focuses on the "Pacific Settlement of
Disputes."
• It outlines various peaceful means for member states to prevent, manage, and
resolve international conflicts.
• Key articles include Article 33, which enumerates peaceful methods such as
negotiation, mediation, and arbitration;
• Article 34, encouraging the use of the International Court of Justice; and
• Articles 35-38, emphasizing the role of the Security Council in recommending
appropriate methods for dispute resolution.
• This chapter reflects the UN's commitment to preventing conflicts and
promoting a world order based on the rule of law and peaceful resolutions.

14. Millennium Development Goals
• MDGs are eight goals with measurable targets and clear deadlines for
improving the lives of the world's poorest people. To meet these
goals and eradicate poverty, leaders of 189 countries signed the
historic millennium declaration at the United Nations Millennium
Summit in 2000. At that time, eight goals that range from providing
universal primary education to avoiding child and maternal mortality
were set with a target achievement date of 2015.
• The MDGs are interdependent; all the MDG influence health, and
health influences all the MDGs. For example, better health enables
children to learn and adults to earn. Gender equality is essential to
the achievement of better health. Reducing poverty, hunger and
environmental degradation positively influences, but also depends
on, better health.

15. Eight Millennium Development Goals 2015
• Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
• Achieve universal primary education;
• Promote gender equality and empower women;
• Reduce child mortality;
• Improve maternal health;
• Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases;
• Ensure environmental sustainability; and
• Develop a global partnership for development.

16. 17 Sustainable Development Goals
for 2015-2030
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable
agriculture
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long learning
opportunities for all
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and
foster innovation
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries

17. 17 Sustainable Development Goals
for 2015-2030
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (in line with the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change)
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice
for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development

18. • Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding:
• The UN plays a crucial role in peacekeeping operations, deploying
troops to conflict zones to monitor and enforce peace agreements.
• UN mediators and peacekeepers work to resolve conflicts through
diplomatic means and on-the-ground efforts.

19. United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL)
• Background:
• Liberia experienced a devastating civil war from 1989 to 2003,
marked by widespread violence, human rights abuses, and
displacement. The conflict involved multiple factions, and the
situation deteriorated into a humanitarian crisis. The UN Security
Council authorized the deployment of UNMIL to help stabilize the
country and facilitate the transition to a more secure and democratic
environment.

20. • Objectives:
• UNMIL's primary objectives included disarming former combatants, supporting the
extension of state authority, promoting human rights, and assisting in the organization of
democratic elections.
• Successes:
• Disarmament and Security: UNMIL played a crucial role in disarming thousands of
combatants and helping to restore a semblance of security. The mission contributed to
the reduction of violence and the establishment of a more stable environment.
• Democratic Elections: UNMIL facilitated and provided security for Liberia's presidential
and legislative elections in 2005.

21. • Security Challenges: Despite initial successes, UNMIL faced challenges in maintaining
security and stability, especially in the face of sporadic outbreaks of violence and the re-
emergence of armed groups.
• Economic and Social Reconstruction: The mission struggled to address the deep-rooted
economic and social issues that contributed to the conflict. High unemployment, poverty,
and a lack of basic services remained significant challenges.
• Withdrawal and Transition: The drawdown and eventual withdrawal of UNMIL in 2018
were followed by concerns about Liberia's ability to sustain the gains made and prevent a
relapse into conflict. Some argued that the withdrawal might have been premature, and
Liberia continued to face challenges in areas such as governance and corruption.

22. • Critics argue that the mission failed to address root causes and that
the withdrawal happened before the country was fully stabilized,
while supporters point to the positive impact in reducing violence and
facilitating the democratic process.
• In conclusion, the UNMIL mission in Liberia is a complex case with
both successes and failures, highlighting the intricate nature of
peacekeeping efforts and the challenges in achieving sustainable
peace in post-conflict environments.

23. • Environmental Initiatives:
• The UN has initiatives to address environmental challenges, including
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), focusing on
issues such as climate change, biodiversity, and sustainable
development.

24. Use of Force - Chapter VII
• The United Nations Security Council's use of force in the context of Iraq during the 1990s
and 2003 reflects two distinct periods marked by different approaches and outcomes.
Here's an overview of both situations:
• Gulf War (1990-1991)
• In August 1990, Iraq, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, invaded Kuwait. The
United Nations Security Council responded swiftly to this act of aggression.
• Security Council Response
• The Security Council passed a series of resolutions condemning Iraq's invasion of Kuwait
and demanding its immediate and unconditional withdrawal. When diplomatic efforts
failed to resolve the crisis peacefully, the Security Council authorized the use of force.

25. • Operation Desert Storm:
• In January 1991, a coalition of countries, led by the United States,
launched Operation Desert Storm to liberate Kuwait. This military
intervention had the explicit authorization of the Security Council
under Resolution 678.
• Outcome:
• The military campaign was successful in liberating Kuwait, and a
ceasefire was declared in February 1991. The Security Council
continued to play a role in the post-war period, overseeing
disarmament efforts in Iraq through resolutions such as Resolution
687.

26. Iraq War (2003)
• Background:
• In the early 2000s, concerns about Iraq's alleged possession of weapons of
mass destruction (WMDs) became a focal point. The United States, the United
Kingdom, and other coalition partners argued that Iraq's non-compliance with
UN resolutions and the perceived threat of WMDs justified military action.
• Security Council Response:
• Efforts to gain explicit Security Council authorization for the use of force faced
challenges. The United States and the United Kingdom, among others, argued
that existing resolutions provided a legal basis for military action. However,
other Security Council members, including France, China, and Russia,
expressed reservations and called for further inspections.

27. • Outcome:
• The lack of a clear Security Council resolution explicitly authorizing
the use of force led to a division within the international community.
In March 2003, the United States and its coalition partners initiated
military operations without a new Security Council resolution. This
decision was controversial and led to significant international debate.
• No WMDs were found
• The Iraq War of 2003 resulted in the removal of Saddam Hussein from
power but also had profound and lasting consequences, including
ongoing instability and sectarian tensions in the region.

28. COLD WAR
• The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension and ideological
rivalry between the United States and its allies, on one side, and the
Soviet Union and its allies on the other. Lasting roughly from the end
of World War II in 1945 to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991,
the Cold War shaped international relations, security policies, and
global alliances.

29. Division of Germany (1945-1949)
• After World War II, Germany was divided into four occupation zones,
controlled by the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and
France.
• Tensions between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union led to the
division of Germany into East (Soviet-controlled) and West (Allied-
controlled) Germany.

30. Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan (1947)
• In response to Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, the U.S. announced
the Truman Doctrine, pledging to contain the spread of communism.
The Marshall Plan provided economic aid to help Western European
countries recover from the war and resist communist influence.

31. Formation of NATO (1949) and WARSAW PACT
• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established as a
military alliance among Western countries to counter the Soviet
threat. It marked a significant shift in post-war security arrangements.
• The Warsaw Pact, officially known as the Treaty of Friendship,
Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance, was a political and military
alliance established among several Eastern Bloc socialist republics
during the Cold War. It served as a counterbalance to the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which was formed by Western
countries. The formation of the Warsaw Pact was a response to the
integration of West Germany into NATO and heightened Cold War
tensions.

32. Soviet Atomic Bomb (1949)
• The Soviet Union successfully tested its first atomic bomb in 1949,
escalating the arms race and contributing to the development of
nuclear deterrence strategies.
• The Hydrogen Bomb Race:
The development of the hydrogen bomb (thermonuclear bomb)
marked the next phase of the atomic race. The hydrogen bomb was far
more powerful than the atomic bomb, relying on nuclear fusion
reactions. The U.S. successfully tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1952,
and the Soviet Union followed suit in 1953.

33. • Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons:
The United Kingdom became the third country to develop nuclear
weapons, with its first successful test in 1952. France and China also
joined the nuclear club in subsequent years. The proliferation of
nuclear weapons expanded the geopolitical landscape and heightened
global security concerns.

34. • Korean War (1950-1953):
• The Korean War began as North Korean forces, supported by the
Soviet Union and China, invaded South Korea. The conflict ended in
an armistice, with the Korean Peninsula remaining divided along the
38th parallel.

35. • Cuban Missile Crisis (1962):
• A 13-day confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over Soviet
ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba. The crisis brought the superpowers to the
brink of nuclear war but ended with a diplomatic resolution.
• Vietnam War (1955-1975):
• The Vietnam War was a conflict between communist North Vietnam and non-
communist South Vietnam. The U.S. became involved to prevent the spread of
communism, but the war ended in 1975 with the fall of Saigon and the
unification of Vietnam.

36. Détente (1960s-1970s):
• A period of thawing relations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union,
marked by arms control agreements and efforts to reduce Cold War
tensions.
•

37. • Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979):
• The Soviet Union's intervention in Afghanistan led to increased
tensions and a U.S.-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in
Moscow.

38. • Strategic Defense Initiative (1983):
• U.S. President Ronald Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense
Initiative (SDI), a missile defense system, leading to renewed tensions
and concerns about an arms race.
• Gorbachev and the End of the Cold War (1985-1991):
• Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms, including perestroika and
glasnost, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Cold
War officially ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union.