HISTORY OF DESIGN COMPILED BY ADEEBA AFREEN

HISTORY - The study of past events.
ART DECO
Italy, Spain, France, England
Egyptian
Mesopotamian
Indus Valley
Ancient Chinese
Ancient Middle Ages
Romanesque & Gothic
Greek
Roman
Early Christianity & Byzantine
Renaissance
Modern Movements
Baroque & Rococo
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
ART AND CRAFT
ART NOUVEAU
ART DECO
Classic

ANCIENT PERIODS Years in B.C Century in B.C
Egyptian 7500 - 332 80 - 4
Mesopotamian 5000 – 334 50 - 4
Indus 5000 – 1500 50 - 16
Ancient Chinese 2000 - 1500 20 - 16
CLASSICAL
PERIODS
year Century
Greek 3000 B.C – 30 B.C 30 B.C - 1 B.C
Roman 753 B.C – 476 A.D 8 B.C - 5 A.DMIDDLE AGES Years in A.D Century in
A.D
Early Christianity 260 - 525 3 - 6
Byzantine 330 - 1453 4 - 15
Romanesque 1000 - 1200 11 - 12
Gothic - French 1100 - 1600 12 - 16
Renaissance 1300 - 1700 14 - 17
Baroque 1638 - 1715 17 - 18
Rococo - French 1730 - 1760 Mid 18
Neoclassical 1774 - 1793 Late 18MORDERN AGES Years in A.D Century in
A.D
Industrial Revolution 1760 - 1840 18 - 19
Art and Craft 1880 - 1920 19 - 20
Art Nouveau 1890 - 1905 19 - 20
Art Deco 1910 - 1939 Early 20
World War 1 1914 - 1918 Early 20
Bauhaus 1919 - 1933 Early 20
FRENCH
RULERS
Years in A.D
Ruling
Period
Century
in A.D
Louis XIII 1601–1643 17
Louis XIV 1643 - 1715 17 - 18
Louis XV 1715 - 1774 18
Louis XVI 1774 –1792 Late 18DESIGNERS LIFE - SPAN NATIONALITY
Frank Lloyd Wright 1867 – 1959 American
Charles Rennie
Mackintosh
1868 – 1928 Scottish
Ludwig Michael Mies; 1886 – 1969 German-American
Le Corbusier 1887 –1965 Swiss-French
Alvar Aalto 1898 – 1976 Finnish
Charles Eames 1907 - 1978 American
Eero Saarinen 1910- 1961 Finnish; American

Civilization is the opposite of barbarism and chaos.
Civilization is an advanced stage of human society, where people live with a
reasonable degree of organization and comfort and can think about things like art
and education.
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
EGYPTIAN
7500BC – 300BC
MESOPOTAMIAN
5000BC – 300BC
INDUS VALLEY
5000BC – 1500BC
ANCIENT CHINESE
2000BC – 1500BC
BC - Before Christ
AD - The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means
“In the year of the Lord“.

EGYPTIAN – CIVILIZATION
 Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern
Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River
in the place that is now the country Egypt.
 It is one of the historic civilizations to arise Independently.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came from its
ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for
agriculture.
Menes (or Narmer) unified Upper and Lower Egypt and
established his capital at Memphis around 3000 B.C.
OLD
KINGDOM •EARLY BRONZE AGE
MIDDLE
KINGDOM
•MIDDLE BRONZE AGE
NEW
KINGDOM
•LATE BRONZE AGE

EGYPTIAN – CIVILIZATION
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include
1. The quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of
monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks;
2. A system of mathematics,
3. A practical and effective system of medicine,
4. Irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques,
5. The first known planked boats,
6. Egyptian faience (material made from powdered quartz covered with a true vitreous
coating, usually in a transparent blue or green isotropic glass) and glass technology,
7. New forms of literature
 Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities
carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the
imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries.

STRUCTURES BUIT BY THE EGYPTIANS
HOUSES
of the poor
consisted of a living
room, a sleeping
room and a
kitchen, with
perhaps one or two
cellars for storage.
These were built
with sun-dried
bricks, or reed
matting smeared
with clay.
PALACES
Were for the
Wealthy
Egyptians and
were much more
elaborate than
the houses of the
poor as There
was a huge
difference in
living standards
between the rich
and the poor.
TEMPLES
were built for the
official worship
of the gods and
in
commemoration
of the pharaohs
in ancient Egypt
and regions
under Egyptian
control. Temples
were seen as
houses for the
gods or kings to
whom they were
dedicated..
OBELISKS
- a tapering
stone pillar,
typically having
a square or
rectangular
cross section,
set up as a
monument or
landmark.
TOMBS
a large vault, typically an underground
one, for burying the dead
MASTABA - is a type of
ancient Egyptian tomb in the
form of a flat-roofed,
rectangular structure with
inward sloping sides,
constructed out of mud-bricks
(from the Nile River).
STEPPED PYRAMID - This first
Egyptian pyramid consisted of
mastabas (of decreasing size)
built atop one another.
PYRAMID - a monumental
structure with a square or
triangular base and sloping
sides that meet in a point at
the top, especially one built of
stone as a royal tomb in
ancient Egypt.

EGYPTIAN – CHARACTER AND STYLE
• Because of the highly religious nature of Ancient Egyptian civilization,
many of the great works of Ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and
Pharaohs, who were also considered divine.
• Ancient Egyptian art is characterized by the idea of order.
• Clear and simple lines combined with simple shapes and flat areas of
color helped to create a sense of order and balance in the art of ancient
Egypt.
• Ancient Egyptian artists used vertical and horizontal reference lines in
order to maintain the correct proportions in their work.

Ramesses II in his war chariot charging into battle against the
Nubians
EGYPTIAN – CHARACTER AND STYLE
Political and religious, as well as artistic order, was also maintained in
Egyptian art. In order to clearly define the social hierarchy of a situation, figures
were drawn to sizes based not on their distance from the painter's point of view
but on relative importance.

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
Materials : Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building
materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone,
mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable
quantities.
Abu Simbel, site of two temples built by the
Egyptian king Ramses II. Carved out of a sandstone
cliff on the west bank of the Nile
SUN DRIED BRICKS

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE AND INTERIORS
Wall Treatment: Exterior and interior walls,
as well as the columns and piers, were
covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial
frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant
colors.
Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative
purposes as well as to record historic events
or spells. In addition, these pictorial frescoes
and carvings allow us to understand how the
Ancient Egyptians lived, statuses, wars that
were fought and their beliefs. This was
especially true when exploring the tombs of
Ancient Egyptian officials in recent years.

Akhenaten and Nefertiti
bathed in the light of the
Aten(Sun God)
Egyptian Scarab
Beetle of
Tutankhamun
Gods: Nekhbet; Mut
Attributes: eternity; monarchy, leadership
The vulture often holds the shen (shn)
symbol of eternity in its talons, offering
eternal protection to the pharaoh.
Gods: Anubis; Duamutef; Wepwawet; Sed
Attributes: Fairness, clairvoyance, sensitivity, judgment,
guide
Anubis was the god of mummification.
The jackal was thought to be a guide to the newly dead
because they were often seen around the desert and
mountains where the tombs were usually built.
EGYPTIAN MOTIFS
Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are symbolic, such as the scarab, or sacred
beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture.

EGYPTIAN MOTIFS
Other common motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds
and flowers of the lotus. Egyptians were great artists, drawing the
inspiration for their art from nature.

Royal chair form tomb of
king tut
EGYPTIAN FURNITURE
•Houses were mostly sparsely furnished
•Only the royal and wealthy people used furniture.
•RANGE: stools, chairs ,tables, beds and chests. The presence of stools, chests, footrests,
small cabinets, small tables, and even vase stands, points to a fairly high level of
organization in living arrangements.
•VISUAL IMPACT: Highly decorative with graphic
elements
•SYMBOLIC PRESENTATION: Used symbols especially
ceremonial as inlays or painting on the furniture
•MATERIAL: Ebony wood was mostly used as it was
imported at great expense.
•TECHNICAL: Excellent craftsmanship.

Four-legged stools and collapsible
stools with seats made from animal
skins or woven with leather strips or
plant material were provided for
honoured guests, while simpler folk
had to sit on pillows or mats spread
on the floor.
EGYPTIAN FURNITURE - STOOLS

EGYPTIAN FURNITURE – CHAIRS
-Chairs were covered with cloth or leather.
-Were made of carved wood like this chair (on the right) from the
tomb of Tutankhamen.
-They were much lower than today's chairs, with their seats
sometimes only 25 cm high.
-Chairs were used by important people, as is reflected by the
hieroglyph (a man sitting on a chair), which was the determinative
for "dignitary". In the households of common people it was
generally only the master of the household who sat on a chair, if
there were chairs at all. Among the better-off they might be
painted to look like the ornate inlaid and carved chairs of the rich,
but the craftsmanship was generally poor.
-The legs of the furniture were often carved in the form of animal
legs or the fore and hind-parts of some animal such as the lion. In
the first dynasties these were generally legs and hooves of bulls.
This bull's hoof is made of ivory and the pronounced muscles
point to a Mesopotamian influence. From the III Dynasty onwards
lion paws (and sometimes whole stylized lions) were more
popular.
Chair, tomb of
Tutankhamen
Leg of a chest
or chair
Leg of a
stool

Mobile foot stand of king
Tutankhamun
EGYPTIAN FURNITURE – FOOT STOOL
-Generally speaking, the higher ranked an
individual was, the taller and more sumptuous
was the chair he sat on and the greater the
honour.
-On state occasions the pharaoh sat on a
throne, often with a little footstool in front of
it.

EGYPTIAN FURNITURE – BEDS
Beds were wooden frames on legs, onto which strips of leather or
cloth were fastened. These frames were put together using tenons
and mortises.
The legs, at first shaped like cattle legs and later more and more like
lion paw.
Legs were of unequal length, the bed sloping slightly from head
towards the foot end, where there often was a foot support.
Beds were at times decorated with images of protective household
deities such as Bes or Taweret.
Egyptians used headrests instead of pillows for sleeping on. They were
made of stone, pottery, ivory or, most often, wood. It has been
proposed that little cushions were placed on the headrests to soften
them, but this conjecture is purely speculative. The rests were at times
decorated with images of Bes and other gods, seemingly intended to
protect the sleeper from evil at a time when he could not defend
himself.
Headrests were connected with the rising sun and had therefore
great symbolic significance. They often supported the heads of
mummies or were placed in the tomb near or under the head of the
mummy, at times in conjunction with a hypocephalus, and as symbols
of rebirth. They figure more prominently in graves than any other
piece of everyday furniture.
And while the wealthy slept on beds, the poor had to make do with a
mattress filled with straw or wool, a mat or even the plain floor.
Egyptian wood bed featuring
gold sheaths and a platform
consisting of woven mats.

EGYPTIAN FURNITURE – TABLES
Tables were rarely used. Even scribes, more affluent
than the average Egyptian, did not write their scrolls
sitting at a table, but generally squatted on the floor,
holding a wooden board, on which the papyrus was
spread, with one hand and writing with the other.
There were tables, which were generally low and had
four legs, though three and even one legged dining and
gaming tables were known.
Drawers were not unknown but not widely used.
Gaming tables for instance might have little drawers for
the counters.

EGYPTIAN FURNITURE – BASKETS
The average Egyptian family did not have
many possessions which were not in daily use,
but the little there was had to be put away.
 Baskets were often used for this purpose.
They may not have kept rodents at bay for
long, but they were cheap to make and light to
carry. This storage basket was discovered in the tomb of
Senenmut's mother, Hatnofer (36.3.1), who lived into the
reign of Hatshepsut. The basket is made of halfa grass coils
sewn together with strips of palm leaf. It was tied shut using
pieces of linen cords attached around the top edge of the
basket. Then a mud seal was pressed over the knot at the
center of the lid. The basket had been filled with soiled
bandages that had probably been used in the embalmiing
process for one of the mummies in the tomb.

EGYPTIAN FURNITURE – BOXES OR CHESTS
-Boxes were made of wood, ivory or the like.
-More difficult to build and therefore costlier than baskets.
- They were made for the wealthy and were often elaborately
decorated with drawings or inlays.
-Their construction could be quite sophisticated.
- From the Middle Kingdom we know of a box covered with
veneer which had sliding lids .
Box for king Tut
-Cupboards were not used in the home although the principle of the cupboard was
known and applied in religious shrines.
-The lids of a few of these chests were hinged, but mostly the cover was completely
removed when the chest was opened. Flanges or pegs glued to the lids and inserted into
appropriate holes in the chests' walls kept them in place.
- In order to lock the chests strings were tied to knobs on the lid and chest and sealed
with clay seals.

Stone lamp from the
tomb of Tutankhamen
Pottery lamp
EGYPTIAN – INTERIORS – ACCESSORIES – LAMPS
There were lamps for lighting the dark, generally shallow
pottery containers filled with oil in which a wick was
floating. Olive oil or the smellier oil of the kiki, the castor
berry, was used . Fat and, possibly, tallow were also used
At times artisans and scholars must have continued
working into the night , especially during the short days of
winter; but mostly people went to bed when night fell and
rose with the first light.
But on special occasions the whole country was lit up.
The wicks were made of linen and the salt was seemingly
added to prevent the lamps from smoking.

Egyptian pitchers with
geometric decoration
Louvre, Paris
Egyptian Black Pot
National Museum of
Natural History
Wahington DC
Ancient Egyptian Lotus
Chalice 1479 -
1353 BCE
( Museum of Fine Arts
Boston )
Hand painted Egyptian
pottery
Egyptian cobalt blue
glaze vessel , Louvre
Egyptian
pottery with
hieroglyphs
Ancient
Egyptian
faience –
Louvre, Paris
EGYPTIAN – INTERIORS – ACCESSORIES – VASE STANDS AND VASES
Vase Stands

ORNAMENTATION
•Egyptians loved ornamentation, which was
designed and crafted with great care, and
served for decoration as well as magical
protection(amulets)
•It was used by all social classes, and materials
varied from expensive Gold, Glass, Precious
stones, to cheap clay and Limestone for the
poor classes.
•They made jewellery out of amethyst, garnet,
jasper, onyx, hematite, turquoise, lapis lazuli,
copper, malachite (a form of copper ore), gold,
silver, faience and shells.

COLOURS
•The ancient Egyptian palette was
formed around six main colour
groups:
1.Green (wadj);
2.Red (desher);
3.Blue (irtyu or khesbedj);
4.Yellow (khenet or kenit);
5.White (hedj or shesep); and
6.Black (kem).
•The ancient Egyptians used
mineral compounds to add colour
to their art. As a result, some of
the colours are still vibrant and
beautiful thousands of years later.

-Egypt was conquered by
Alexander the Great, and later by
the Romans.
-Alexander the Great conquered
Egypt for Greece 332BC.
-Both the Greek and Roman
conquerors were significantly
influenced by Egyptian culture,
art and philosophy.

https://www.slideshare.net/patricehigh/mesopotamia-power-point?next_slideshow=2
https://www.slideshare.net/patricehigh/mesopotamia-power-
point?next_slideshow=2

Mesopotamia was a historical region in Western Asia situated within the
Tigris–Euphrates river system, in modern days roughly corresponding to most
of Iraq, Kuwait, parts of Northern Saudi Arabia, the eastern parts of Syria,
Southeastern Turkey, and regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq
borders.

•Its modern name comes from the Greek for middle—mesos—and river—
potamos—and literally means a “country between two rivers.”
•Mesopotamia was the crossroads of the Egyptian and the Indus Valley
civilizations. This made it a melting pot of languages and cultures that stimulated
a lasting impact on writing, technology, language, trade, religion, and law.
Some of the major Mesopotamian civilizations include the
Sumerian,
Akkadian,
Assyrian, and
Babylonian civilizations.
Evidence shows extensive use of technology, literature, legal codes, philosophy,
religion, and architecture in these societies.

Sumerian civilization
first took form in southern Mesopotamia around
4000 BCE—or 6000 years ago.
Mesopotamians are noted for developing one of
the first written scripts around 3000 BCE: wedge-
shaped marks pressed into clay tablets. This
cuneiform—another way to say wedge-shaped—
script was also adapted by surrounding peoples to
write their own languages for roughly 2000 years.
It is also the script that one of the world’s first
great works of literature, The Epic of Gilgamesh,
was written in. Mesopotamians used writing to
record sales and purchases, to write letters to one
another, and to tell stories.

The incredibly important invention of the wheel is also
credited to the Sumerians; the earliest discovered wheel
dates to 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia.
Sumerians built ships that allowed them to travel into the
Persian Gulf and trade with other early civilizations, such as
the Harappans in northern India. They traded textiles,
leather goods, and jewelry for Harappan semi-precious
stones, copper, pearls, and ivory.
Sumerian religion was polytheistic—or worshipped multiple
gods—many of which were anthropomorphic—they took
human-like form. Temples to these gods were constructed
atop massive ziggurats which were in the centers of most
cities. These structures would have taken thousands of
people many years to construct.

Akkadian Empire
-Around 3000 BCE, the Sumerians had significant cultural interchange with a
group in northern Mesopotamia known as the Akkadians—named after the city-
state of Akkad.
-The Akkadian language is related to the modern languages of Hebrew and
Arabic. These languages are known as Semitic languages. The term Semitic
comes from the biblical character Shem, a son of Noah, the purported
progenitor of Abraham and, accordingly, the Jewish and Arab people.
-Around 2334 BCE, Sargon of Akkad came to power and established what might
have been the world’s first dynastic empire. The Akkadian Empire ruled over
both the Akkadian and Sumerian speakers in Mesopotamia and the Levant—
modern day Syria and Lebanon. The Empire of Akkad collapsed in 2154 BCE,
within 180 years of its founding.

Assyrian Empire
-Assyria is named for its original capital, the ancient city of Ašur—also known as
Ashur—in northern Mesopotamia.
-Ashur was originally one of a number of Akkadian-speaking city states ruled by
Sargon and his descendents during the Akkadian Empire.
-Within several hundred years of the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, Assyria had
become a major empire.
-For much of the 1400 years from the late twenty-first century BCE until the late
seventh century BCE, the Akkadian-speaking Assyrians were the dominant power in
Mesopotamia, especially in the north. The empire reached its peak near the end of
this period in the seventh century. At that time, the Assyrian Empire stretched from
Egypt and Cyprus in the west to the borders of Persia—modern-day Iran—in the
east. The major exceptions to Assyrian dominance were the Babylonian Empire
established by Hammurabi and some more chaotic dark ages where there wasn’t a
dominant power.

Babylonian Empire
Babylon was a minor city-state in central Mesopotamia for a century after it was founded in 1894 BCE. Things
changed with the reign of Hammurabi, from 1792 to 1750 BCE. He was an efficient ruler, establishing a centralized
bureaucracy with taxation. Hammurabi freed Babylon from foreign rule and then conquered the whole of southern
Mesopotamia, bringing stability and the name of Babylonia to the region.
One of the most important works of this First Dynasty of Babylon was the compilation in about 1754 BCE of a code
of laws, called the Code of Hammurabi, which echoed and improved upon the earlier written laws of Sumer, Akkad,
and Assyria. It’s similar to the Sumerian king Ur-Nammu of Ur’s code, written from 2100 to 2050 BCE. Hammurabi’s
code is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. Written in about 1754 BCE by the
sixth king of Babylon, Hammurabi, the Code was written on stone stele—slabs—and clay tablets. The Code consists
of 282 laws with scaled punishments depending on social status, adjusting "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth".
For example, if a person from a noble class broke an enslaved person’s arm, they would have to pay a fine, whereas
if a noble person broke another noble person's arm, the offending noble would have their arm broken. Some have
seen the Code as an early form of constitutional government, the presumption of innocence, and the ability to
present evidence in one's case.
The Babylonian Empire established by Hammurabi lasted for 260 years until Babylon got sacked by invaders in 1531
BCE. In the period between 626 BCE and 539 BCE, Babylon asserted itself again over the region with the Neo-
Babylonian Empire. This new empire was overthrown in 539 BCE by the Persians who then ruled over the region
until the time of Alexander the Great, 335 BCE.

THE INDUS VALLEY (OR HARAPPAN) CIVILIZATION (5000 BC - 1500 BC)
5000 BC - Evidence of religious practices in the Indus Valley.
4000 BC - Farming settlements are established in the Indus Valley.
3000 BC - 2600 BC The rise of the great Indian cities of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.
3000 BC - First signs of urbanization in the Indus Valley.
2600 BC - Dozens of towns and cities are established in the Indus Valley.
2500 BC - Earliest use of the Indus Script.
1500 BC - The Aryans - nomadic northerners from central Asia, begin to migrate into the
Indus Valley.
1000 BC - The Aryans expand into the Ganges valley in India.
530 BC - Persia conquers the Indus Valley.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
-Along with Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia, it was one of the early
cradles of civilisations of the Old
World, and of the most widespread.
-The Indus Valley Civilisation is also
named the Harappan civilisation.
-It was named after the city of
Harappa.
- Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-
Daro were important centers of the
Indus valley civilization.
The Indus Valley Civilisation was a
Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the
north-western regions of South Asia,
extending from what today is northeast
Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest
India.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION –
-They were well know for their
•TOWN PLANNING: The cities during this period were divided into the upper and the lower town -the residential area where
the common people lived. They were well planned with streets, residential spaces, public spaces ,granaries, water-supply and
drainage system etc.
•BRICKS: They used baked bricks of size 7cm x14cm x 28cm.
•GRANARIES: The granaries were the largest structures and were used for storing grains.
•DRAINAGE SYSTEM: Drains were built either side of the roads. They were covered with stones which could be removed in
order to clean them(manholes). Almost every house had a bathroom, usually a fine sawn burnt brick pavement, often with a
surrounding curb. First floor bathrooms also built. There is also evidence of vertical drains which were probably their toilet. The
house drains start from the bathrooms of the houses and join up to the main sewer in the street, which was covered by burnt
brick slabs or corbelled brick arches. Some drains flow to closed seeps, others flow out of the city.
•HOUSES: The houses were built either side of the road and varied in size. Some might have been two storyed. They were made
of burnt bricks. Most of which had central courtyard, well ,toilet and kitchen.
•TOWN HALL: A palace-like building that look like an assembly hall for the city government for the people to meet.
•STREETS: The roads and streets intersected at right angles(An orthogonal street layout) and were oriented toward the north-
south & east-west directions: the widest streets run north-south, straight through town; secondary streets run east-west,
sometimes in a staggered direction. Secondary streets are about half the width of the main streets; smaller alleys are a third to a
quarter of the width of the main streets.
•DOCKS, TEMPLES, STEP WELLS, PUBLIC BATHS, TRADE SEALS, STATUES, TOYS.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION – STEP WELLS
-Were famous for building highly
impressive step wells.
5,000-year-old step well found in one
of the largest Harappan cities,
Dholavira, in Kutch, Gujarat.
The big houses had their own wells,
other wells would serve groups of
smaller houses.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION – THE GREAT BATH AT MOHENJO-DARO
-The "great bath" is without doubt one of the earliest public water tank in the ancient world.
-The tank itself measures approximately 12 meters north-south and 7 meters wide, with a
maximum depth of 2.4 meters.
-Two wide staircases lead down into the tank from the north and south.
-At the foot of the stairs is a small ledge with a brick edging that extends the entire width of
the pool.
-The floor of the tank was watertight due to finely fitted bricks and mud laid on edge with a
kind of plaster and the side walls were constructed in a similar manner. -To make the tank even
more watertight, a thick layer of bitumen (waterproof tar) was laid along the sides of the pool
and presumably also on the floor.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION – TRADE SEALS
-Their trade seals, decorated with animals and mythical beings,
indicate they conducted thriving trade with lands as far away as
Sumer in southern Mesopotamia.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION –STATUES
STONE STATUES found in Indus valley sites are excellent examples
of handling the 3D volume. One among the major stone statues is
The Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King) that was found in
Mohenjo-Daro. It is made of Steatite .It is interpreted as a priest
and is draped in a shawl coming under the right arm and covering
the left shoulder. The shawl is decorated with trefoil pattern. The
eyes are elongated and half closed as in a meditative
concentration. Nose is well formed and medium sized. It has a
short cut moustache, a short beard with Hair parted in the middle.
Dancing Girl is a prehistoric BRONZE SCULPTURE made in
approximately 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilisation city of
Mohenjo-Daro (in modern-day Pakistan).The statue is 10.5
centimetres (4.1 in) tall, and depicts a young woman with stylized
proportions standing in a confident, naturalistic pose.
It is well-regarded as a work of art, and is a cultural artefact of the
Indus Valley Civilisation. The statuette was discovered by British
archaeologist in 1926, prior to the Partition of India. It is held by
the National Museum, New Delhi.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION –TOYS
a. Numerous toys were recovered made of clay
which includes the dice, marbles and some pawns.
The most intriguing toys are the circular and
rectangular mazes whose modern day version is
made of plastic, with a small metal ball secured
inside with a plastic transparent top.
b. Movable Carts
c. Movable Toys.
d. Small scaled Kitchen sets for playing.
e. Animal figurines resembling modern day zoo set.
f. Hollow egg and bird shaped whistles.
g. Figurines with movable heads which most of the
time depicts cattle. They are usually pierced
through the neck or through the head in order to
secure them to the bodies and control them with a
cord.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e. f.
g. g.

CLASSICAL PERIODS – GREEK AND ROMAN
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the
period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th or 6th century
AD centred around the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking
civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the
Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman society
flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and
Western Asia.

ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES
BUILT BY THE GREEKS
• PALACES
• HOUSES
• TEMPLES
• OPEN AIR THEATRES
• PROPYLENE
• AGORA
• STOA
• BOULEUTERION
• MAUSOLEUM
• STADIUM
FURNITURE BUILT BY THE
GREEKS
• STOOLS
• THRONES
• CHAIRS -KLISMOS
• COUCHES
• TABLES

-Ancient Greece was a large area in the northeast of the Mediterranean Sea,
where people spoke Greek.
-It was much bigger than the Greece we know today.
-The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece.
-The big four cities were Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens.
The Parthenon is a temple
dedicated to Athena,
located in Athens. Athena is
the ancient Greek goddess of
wisdom, handicraft, and war.

-TEMPLES: Ancient Greek
architecture is best known from its
temples, many of which are found
throughout the region, mostly as
ruins but many substantially
intact.
-OPEN AIR THEATRES: The second
important type of building that
survives are the open-air theatre.
"Hera II," c. 460 B.C.E., 24.26 x 59.98 m, Greek,
Doric temple from the classical period likely
dedicated to Hera.
Theatre at the Sanctuary of Asclepius
at Epidaurus, c. 350 - 300 B.C.E.

-PROPYLENE: Other architectural
forms that are still in evidence are
the processional gateway
(propylene),
-AGORA:the public square (agora)
-STOA:surrounded by storied
colonnade (stoa), is a Greek
architectural term that describes a
covered walkway or colonnade that
was usually designed for public use.
Early examples were usually
composed of a single level, although
later examples came to be two-story
freestanding structures.
20th century reconstruction of the
Stoa of Attalos in the Athenian
Agora (original c. 159-138 B.C.E.),

-BOULEUTERION: the town council building
(bouleuterion), was an important civic building in a Greek
city, as it was the meeting place of the boule (citizen
council) of the city. These select representatives
assembled to handle public affairs and represent the
citizenry of the polis (in ancient Athens the boule was
comprised of 500 members). The bouleuterion generally
was a covered, rectilinear building with stepped seating
surrounding a central speaker’s well in which an altar was
placed.
-MAUSOLEUM: the public monument, the monumental
tomb (mausoleum) and the
-STADIUM:
BOULEUTERION, PRIÈNE
(TURKEY), C. 200 B.C.E
THE MAUSOLEUM
AT
HALICARNASSUS.STADIUM AT APHRODISIAS

PARTS OF A COLUMN
• THE CAPITAL- (from the Latin caput, or "head") forms
the topmost member of a column (or a pilaster). It
mediates between the column and the load thrusting
down upon it, broadening the area of the column's
supporting surface. The capital may be convex, as in
the Doric order; concave, as in the inverted bell of
the Corinthian order; or scrolling out, as in the Ionic
order.
• THE SHAFT- The main part of the column, the shaft, may
be smooth, fluted (grooved), or carved with designs.
• THE BASE- Most columns (except the early Doric) rest on
a round or square base, sometimes called a plinth.

ORDER is defined by the particular type of column and entablature . The form of the
capital is the most distinguishing characteristic of a particular order. There are three
distinct orders in Ancient Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These
three were adopted by the Romans, who modified their capitals.

There are five major Classical orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian,
Tuscan, and Composite. The Romans added the Tuscan capital,
a modified form of the Doric, and the Composite capital, which
combined Ionic volutes with the Corinthian bell shape.

Architrave:(in classical architecture) a main beam resting across the tops of columns.
-the moulded frame around a doorway or window.
Pediment: the triangular upper part of the front of a classical building, typically
surmounting a portico.
Gable: is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of a sloping roof.

Moulding, also known as coving, is a strip of material with various profiles used to
cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration.
Cornice an ornamental moulding round the wall of a room just below the ceiling.
Frieze: a broad horizontal band of sculpted or painted decoration, especially on a wall
near the ceiling. the part of an entablature between the architrave and the cornice.

GREEK FURNITURE:
-We know very little about Greek furniture because
little has survived. Most of our knowledge comes
from reliefs and sculptures showing people using
furniture items.
-The Greeks seemed to prefer smoother lines and
curves than the angular Egyptian styles, with a
greater focus on comfort.
-There was not a lot of extra ornamentation. A lack
of extra decoration let the viewer appreciate the
shape of the structure without distraction.

GREEK FURNITURE:
-Many Greek furniture items even had legs carved to look like columns.
-Among the most important Greek Furniture was the couch.
-Greek couches were called klines . These multi-purpose furniture items were primarily
used for eating. The Greeks ate while reclining. The backrest, providing more support,
and plenty of cushions or pillows made it a comfortable household item.

-So, where would the Greeks sit when they weren't eating? The basic sitting apparatus
was a simple stool.
-Most stools had straight, solid legs, but the Greeks also had folding stools with x-
shaped, crossed legs.
-However, the Greeks also created their own distinct styles of seating. Most notable is
the klismos, a light chair that had a back.

GREEK FURNITURE:
-Apparently, the construction of Greek furniture pieces was
heavily influenced by the work of the Egyptians in materials
and technique, although in style, ornamentation and motif,
these pieces were quite distinct.
-Lines became softer, much use was made of subtle and
elegant curves, and more attention was given to comfort.
-Houses were not cluttered with much furniture, and
household items were made for use and comfort rather than
decoration.
-Furniture was simple elegant without any excess in form
,material , ornament or treatment.
-Being light in weight most of the non ceremonial Greek
furniture was supposed to be carried outdoors and used
there.
•Greek furniture styles were simple, elegant and tasteful.
Although carving and inlays were used, furniture was not
over-decorated.

GREEK FURNITURE:
-The Six main types of furniture in ancient Greece
were stools, couches, tables, chests, thrones and
chairs and were made for practicality to serve their
purpose.
-TABLES:In general, Greek tables were low to be
pushed underneath a couch. The most common type
of Greek table had a rectangular top, supported on
three legs, though numerous configurations exist.
Tables could have circular tops, and four legs or even
one central leg instead of three. Tables in ancient
Greece were used mostly for dining purposes.

GREEK FURNITURE:
-THRONES: were derived from Egyptian and
Mesopotamian models. They were
impressive and elaborate as considered to
be seats of gods.
-CHAIRS: Greeks are known for there
famous Klismos Chair

MATERIALS USED IN ARCHITECTURE:
-WOOD, used for supports and roof beams.
-PLASTER, used for sinks and bathtubs.
-UNBAKED BRICK, used for walls, especially for
private homes.
-STONES, like limestone and marble, used for
columns, walls, and upper portions of temples
and public buildings.
-TERRACOTTA, used for roof tiles and ornaments.
-METALS, especially bronze, used for decorative
details.
Architects used these building materials to
construct five simple types of buildings -
religious, civic, domestic, funerary, and
recreational.cc
MATERIALS USED IN FURNITURE:
-WOOD, oak, cedar, olive and boxwood
as well as imported species such as
maple and ebony were common
building materials.
-METALS, copper, bronze or iron metal
inlay work was frequently employed
technique.
-NATURAL FABRICS, It is also thought that
leather and vegetable cords were
woven to create seats, and that
embroidered linens and animal skins
may have been transformed into
cushions.

-Roman cities were planned with straight roads ,running
water and sewers.
-The rich lived in fine villas and the poor lived in
apartment style buildings.
-Romans adopted all greek furniture forms and added
grandeur ,ostentation and luxury to them.
-Romans used luxurious materials like Gold, Silver
,Copper , Bronze , Ivory and Tortoise shell as inlay in
various materials.
-Furniture in Roman houses tended to be sparse, since
the occupants liked space and simplicity in their decor.
-Beauty was created by Mosaics, Frescos and Water
features.
-Marble tiled flooring laid with geometrical figures with
contrasting colors

•The interior was decorated to suit the
tastes and means of the owner , even
the poorer houses had charming
effects.
•Due to stratification of authority type
of furniture was specified to denote
ranks.
•The throne in theaters was meant for
magistrates and VIPs.
•The X stool -sella curulis denoted the
seat for magistrate.
•Couches were the seats to sit , relax
and sleep,They were provided with a
back like the modern period.

• Buffets , boxes , and semicircular
consoles were common.
• Romans did not have upholstered
furniture, but luxurious pillows and
cushions were used.
• Curtains and valances rich in fabric
and color were employed.
•The walls of buildings were beautifully painted.
•Tables were done with intricate carving
• and fine ornamentation with mythical figures.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KaY8zqYfQI0

•The Colosseum or Coliseum is an oval amphitheatre ( an open-air venue
used for entertainment, performances, and sports). It is in the centre of the city
of Rome, Italy.
•The Colosseum is the largest amphitheatre ever built.
•Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was
completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir, Titus. Further modifications
were made during the reign of Domitian (81–96).
•The Colosseum could hold between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators, having an
average audience of some 65,000.

Built of TRAVERTINE, TUFF, BRICK-FACED CONCRETE.
-TRAVERTINE is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot
springs. It exists in white, tan, cream-colored, and even rusty varieties. It is
formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the
mouth of a hot spring or in a limestone cave. It is frequently used in Italy and
elsewhere as a building material.
-TUFF also known as volcanic tuff, is a type of rock made of volcanic ash ejected
from a vent during a volcanic eruption. Following ejection and deposition, the ash
is compacted into a solid rock in a process called consolidation. Tuff is a relatively
soft rock, so it has been used for construction since ancient times. Since it is
common in Italy, the Romans used it often for construction. It can be classified as
either sedimentary or igneous rock.

•It is elliptical in plan and is 615 ft long, and 510 ft wide.
•The height of the outer wall is 157 ft.
•The arena itself was 272 ft by 157 ft .
•The arena comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the latin word for sand is harena or arena),
•The arena covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning
"underground").
•The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor
Domitian.
•It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where
gladiators and animals were held before contests began.
•The construction of the hypogeum at Domitian's behest put an end to the practise of flooding, and thus
also to naval battles, early in the Colosseum's existence.

•It was used for gladiatorial contests and
public spectacles such as mock sea battles
(for only a short time as the hypogeum was
soon filled in with mechanisms to support
the other activities), animal hunts,
executions, re-enactments of famous
battles, and dramas based on Classical
mythology.
• The building ceased to be used for
entertainment in the early medieval era. It
was later reused for such purposes as
housing, workshops, quarters for a religious
order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian
shrine.
Gladiator - a man trained to fight
with weapons against other men
or wild animals in an arena.

•The outer wall's façade comprises three stories of superimposed
arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of
which are pierced by windows at regular intervals.
•The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.
• Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed
statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical
mythology.
•Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of
the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the
velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. It covered two-thirds
of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and
provide a breeze for the audience.

•The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue
could be filled or evacuated quickly. The amphitheatre was ringed by
eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary
spectators. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each
staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman
Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most
likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with
painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive.
•Although partially ruined because of damage caused by earthquakes
and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is still an iconic symbol of Imperial
Rome and is listed as one of the New7Wonders of the World.

EARLY CHRISTIANITY art and architecture is the art produced by Christians from
the earliest period of Christianity sometime between 260 and 525. Christian art
only survives from the 2nd century onwards. After 550 at the latest, Christian art
is classified as Byzantine.
It is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began prior to 100 A.D, Christians
may have been constrained by their position as a persecuted group from
producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the
lower classes in this period,the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds
for patronage, and simply small numbers of followers.
https://www.slideshare.net/gobycracked/early-christian-architecture-43239736?next_slideshow=1

Early Christianity used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan
culture. These media included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript
illumination. Early Christian art not only used Roman forms, it also used Roman
styles. Late classical style included a proportional portrayal of the human body
and impressionistic presentation of space. Late classical style is seen in early
Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, which include
most examples of the earliest Christian art.
Early Christian art and architecture adapted Roman artistic motifs and gave
new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted
were the peacock, grapevines, and the "Good Shepherd". Early Christians also
developed their own iconography, for example, such symbols as the fish
(ikhthus), were not borrowed from pagan iconography.
Early Christian art is generally divided into two periods by scholars: before and
after either the Edict of Milan of 313, bringing the so-called Triumph of the
Church under Constantine, or the First Council of Nicea in 325. The earlier
period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and after
being the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils.The end of the period
of early Christian art, which is typically defined by art historians as being in the
5th–7th centuries, is thus a good deal later than the end of the period of early
Christianity as typically defined by theologians and church historians, which is
more often considered to end under Constantine, around 313–325.

BYZANTIUM
330 A.D – 1453 A.D
4TH – 15TH CENTURY
1 MILLENIUM

BYZANTIUM
•Started in 330AD.
•The Byzantine era is the period after the fall of the
Roman Empire.
•Constantinople became known as the Roman
capital in 330 AD.
•Constantinople is what is now present day Istanbul.
•Byzantine architecture was mostly influenced by
Roman and Greek architecture.
•It began with Constantine the Great when he
rebuilt the city of Byzantium and named it
Constantinople and continued with his building of
churches.
•The first imposing Church structures were built
during this era.

•By the time Constantine became the
Caesar of the Roman empire, the Empire
had split in half, The Western Roman
Empire centered in Rome, speaking Latin
and the Eastern Roman Empire of
Byzantium (later renamed
Constantinople), today Istanbul .
• The empire endured for more than a
millennium, dramatically influencing
Medieval and Renaissance era
architecture in Europe and, following the
capture of Constantinople by the
Ottoman Turks in 1453, leading directly to
the architecture of the Ottoman Empire.

ARCHITECTURE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
WAS CHARACTERIZED BY
•MASSIVE DOMES WITH SQUARE BASES - Domes were of
various types and were placed over square compartments
whereas in Roman architecture domes were only used over
circular or polygonal structures.
•ROUNDED ARCHES
•SPIRES
•EXTENSIVE USE OF GLASS MOSAICS – Were best in Mosaic
Work. Glass making techniques were refined to a fine art, and
with the addition of gold to the mix, richly luminous stained
glass was used to produce the famous Byzantine mosaics.
Instead of landscape in background, the figures were
surrounded by gold light as if they are outside “space and
time”. For spiritual importance, emphasized more on the eye
and head
•WERE GOOD AT PICTORIAL THEN IN SCULPTURAL ART.
•USED THE GREEK CROSS PLAN IN CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

EXAMPLE - Hagia sophia - Istanbul, Turkey.

ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
GENERAL
APPEARANCE
1. Dark spaces
2. Exterior was simple
3. Modest Height
4. Horizontal lines
5. Multiple UnitsChurches were heavily influenced by the Roman Basilica, but they had a
few important di!erences.
The roof was made of stone vaults, which were much heavier and needed
more supports.
The solution was thicker walls and piers, rather than columns alone, to
support the interior spaces.
This made the space inside dark, rather gloomy, and kept the height rather
low.
The exteriors were very simple, and several geometric forms often made up
the building, rather than one large space

ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
•Combining features of ancient Roman and
byzantine buildings and other local traditions,
Romanesque architecture is know by its—
•The style can be identified right across
Europe, despite regional characteristics and
different materials.
•Many castles were built during this period,
but they are greatly outnumbered by
churches.
-Decorative arcading
-Large towers
-Groin vaults
-Sturdy pillars
-Semi-circular
arches
-Thick walls

•Romanesque architecture is often divided
into two periods known as the "First
Romanesque" style and the "Romanesque"
style.
•The difference is chiefly a matter of the
expertise with which the buildings were
constructed.
•The First Romanesque employed rubble
walls, smaller windows and unvaulted
roofs.
•A greater refinement marks the Second
Romanesque, along with increased use of
the vault and dressed stone.

1.WALLS
The walls of Romanesque buildings are often of massive
thickness with few and comparatively small openings.
They are often double shells, filled with rubble.
The building material differs greatly across Europe,
depending upon the local stone and building traditions.
In Italy, Poland, much of Germany and parts of the
Netherlands, brick is generally used.
Other areas saw extensive use of limestone, granite and
flint. The building stone was often used in comparatively
small and irregular pieces, bedded in thick mortar.

2.BUTTRESSES
•Because of the massive nature of Romanesque
walls, buttresses are not a highly significant feature,
as they are in Gothic architecture.
•Romanesque buttresses are generally of flat
square profile and do not project a great deal
beyond the wall.
•In the case of aisled churches, barrel vaults, or
half-barrel vaults over the aisles helped to buttress
the nave, if it was vaulted.In the cases where half-
barrel vaults were used, they effectively became
like flying buttresses. Often aisles extended through
two storeys, rather than the one usual in Gothic
architecture, so as to better support the weight of a

3.ARCHES
•The arches used in Romanesque architecture
are nearly always semicircular, for openings
such as doors and windows, for vaults and for
arcades.
•Wide doorways are usually surmounted by a
semi-circular arch, except where a door with a
lintel is set into a large arched recess and
surmounted by a semi-circular "lunette" with
decorative carving.
•These doors sometimes have a carved central
jamb.
•A characteristic feature of Romanesque
architecture, is the pairing of two arched
windows or arcade openings, separated by a
pillar or colonette and often set within a larger
arch.

4.WINDOWS
•Later Romanesque churches may have wheel/ rose/ocular windows with
plate tracery.

5.ARCADE
An arcade is a row of arches, supported on piers
or columns.
They occur in the interior of large churches,
separating the nave from the aisles.
Arcades can occur in storeys or stages.The
arcade that divides the nave and aisles in a
church is typically of two stages, with a third
stage of window openings known as the
clerestory rising above them.
Arcading on a large scale generally fulfils a
structural purpose, but it is also used, generally
on a smaller scale, as a decorative feature, both
internally and externally where it is frequently
"blind arcading" with only a wall or a narrow
passage behind it.

6.PIERS
Piers were often employed to support arches.
They were built of masonry and square or
rectangular in section, generally having a
horizontal moulding representing a capital at the
springing of the arch.

7.COLUMNS
Columns are an important structural feature of
Romanesque architecture.
Colonnettes are also used structurally and for
decoration.
A. MONOLITHIC COLUMNS - cut from a single
piece of stone were frequently used in Italy, as
they had been in Roman and Early Christian
architecture.
They are also common in structures that do not
bear massive weights of masonry, such as
cloisters, where they are sometimes paired.

7.COLUMNS
B. SALVAGED COLUMNS-a great number of antique Roman columns were salvaged and
reused in the interiors and on the porticos of churches.
The most durable of these columns are of marble and have the stone horizontally bedded.
The majority are vertically bedded and are sometimes of a variety of colours.
They may have retained their original Roman capitals, generally of the Corinthian or Roman
Composite style.
Some buildings, like Santa Maria in Cosmedin and the atrium at San Clemente in Rome,
may have an odd assortment of columns in which large capitals are placed on short
columns and small capitals are placed on taller columns to even the height.
Santa Maria in Cosmedin, Rome(8th –
early 12th century) has a basilical plan and
reuses ancient Roman columns.

7.COLUMNS
C.DRUM COLUMNS-In most parts of Europe, Romanesque
columns were massive, as they supported thick upper walls
with small windows, and sometimes heavy vaults. The most
common method of construction was to build them out of
stone cylinders called drums, as in the crypt at Speyer
Cathedral.
D. HOLLOW CORE COLUMNS- Where really massive
columns were called for, such as those at Durham Cathedral,
they were constructed of ashlar masonry and the hollow core
was filled with rubble. These huge untapered columns are
sometimes ornamented with incised decorations.

7.COLUMNS
E. ALTERNATION-A common characteristic of Romanesque buildings,
occurring both in churches and in the arcades that separate large interior
spaces of castles, is the alternation of piers and columns.The most
simple form that this takes is to have a column between each adjoining
pier. Sometimes the columns are in multiples of two or three. At St.
Michael's, Hildesheim, an A B B A alternation occurs in the nave while an
A B A alternation can be seen in the transepts.At Jumièges there are tall
drum columns between piers each of which has a half-column supporting
the arch. There are many variations on this theme, most notably at
Durham Cathedral where the mouldings and shafts of the piers are of
exceptional richness and the huge masonry columns are deeply incised
with geometric patterns.Often the arrangement was made more complex
by the complexity of the piers themselves, so that it was not piers and
columns that alternated, but rather, piers of entirely different form from
each other, such as those of Sant' Ambrogio, Milan, where the nature of
the vault dictated that the alternate piers bore a great deal more weight
than the intermediate ones and are thus very much larger.

8.CAPITALS-The foliate Corinthian style provided the inspiration for many
Romanesque capitals.
The Corinthian capital is essentially round at the bottom where it sits on a circular column
and square at the top, where it supports the wall or arch.
This form of capital was maintained in the general proportions and outline of the
Romanesque capital. This was achieved most simply by cutting a rectangular cube and
taking the four lower corners off at an angle so that the block was square at the top, but
octagonal at the bottom, as can be seen at St. Michael's Hildesheim. This shape lent itself
to a wide variety of superficial treatments, sometimes foliate in imitation of the source, but
often figurative.
In Northern Europe the foliate capitals generally bear far more resemblance to the
intricacies of manuscript illumination than to Classical sources. In parts of France and Italy
there are strong links to the pierced capitals of Byzantine architecture. It is in the figurative
capitals that the greatest originality is shown. While some are dependent on manuscripts
illustrations of Biblical scenes and depictions of beasts and monsters, others are lively
scenes of the legends of local saints.The capitals, while retaining the form of a square top
and a round bottom, were often compressed into little more than a bulging cushion-shape.
This is particularly the case on large masonry columns, or on large columns that alternate
with piers as at Durham.

9.VAULTS AND ROOFS
The majority of buildings have wooden roofs,
generally of a simple truss, tie beam or king post
form. In the case of trussed rafter roofs, they are
sometimes lined with wooden ceilings in three
sections like those that survive at Ely and
Peterborough cathedrals in England.
In churches, typically the aisles are vaulted, but the
nave is roofed with timber, as is the case at both
Peterborough and Ely.
In Italy where open wooden roofs are common, and
tie beams frequently occur in conjunction with vaults,
the timbers have often been decorated as at San
Miniato al Monte, Florence.
Vaults of stone or brick took on several different
forms and showed marked development during the
period, evolving into the pointed ribbed arch
characteristic of Gothic architecture.
San Miniato al Monte, Florence.

Typical English Romanesque bay (from Peterborough Cathedral). (left) External
elevation. (middle) Internal elevation. (right) Section through bay

9.VAULTS AND ROOFS
A. BARREL VAULT - The
simplest type of vaulted roof is
the barrel vault in which a
single arched surface extends
from wall to wall.
However, the barrel vault
generally required the support
of solid walls, or walls in which
the windows were very small.

9.VAULTS AND ROOFS
B. GROIN VAULTS - occur in early
Romanesque buildings.
Groin vaults are most frequently
used for the less visible and smaller
vaults, particularly in crypts and
aisles.
A groin vault is almost always
square in plan and is constructed of
two barrel vaults intersecting at
right angles.
Unlike a ribbed vault, the entire
arch is a structural member.

9.VAULTS AND ROOFS
C. RIBBED VAULTS- came into general use in
the 12th century.
In ribbed vaults, not only are there ribs
spanning the vaulted area transversely, but
each vaulted bay has diagonal ribs, following
the same course as the groins in a groin vault.
However, whereas in a groin vault, the vault
itself is the structural member, in a ribbed vault,
it is the ribs that are the structural members,
and the spaces between them can be filled with
lighter, non-structural material.
Because Romanesque arches are nearly
always semi-circular, the structural and design
problem inherent in the ribbed vault is that the
diagonal span is larger and therefore higher
than the transverse span.

9.VAULTS AND ROOFS
D .POINTED ARCHED VAULT- The problems
encountered in the structure and appearance
of vaults was solved late in the Romanesque
period with the introduction of pointed arched
ribs which allowed the height of both diagonal
and transverse ribs to be varied in proportion
to each other.
Pointed ribs made their first appearance in the transverse ribs of the
vaults at Durham Cathedral in northern England, dating from 1128.
Durham is a cathedral of massive Romanesque proportions and
appearance, yet its builders introduced several structural features that
were new to architectural design and were later to be hallmark features
of the Gothic. Another Gothic structural feature employed at Durham is
the flying buttress. However, these are hidden beneath the roofs of the
aisles.

9.VAULTS AND ROOFS
E. DOMES Generally found at the
intersection of a church’s navel and transept.
•Typically octagonal in plan.
•Octagonal vaults appear "in connection with
basilicas almost throughout Europe"
between 1050 and 1100.
ELY CATHEDRAL
ELY CATHEDRAL
-PLAN
ELY CATHEDRAL – TOP VIEW

Romanesque furniture consisted mostly of pieces
designed and constructed for church use.
Altars, canopies, shrines, silver chalices, throne
chairs, caskets, and tapestry were common.
Materials used: local wood (walnut, oak, mixture of
woods).
Throne chairs were made solely for the ruler and
showed his status among the community. Such
chairs were often heavily decorated with carving,
painting and inlays, and were a symbol of power.
Simple animal and plant forms were also used in
carving.
Storage came in the form of chests made from
IVORY and were decorated heavily.
Most of the furniture was brightly painted to lighten
up gloomy interiors.

STAINED GLASS
Stained glass, the
Prophet Daniel from
Augsburg Cathedral,
late 11th century.
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT
The Three Magi from the St.
Albans Psalter, English, 12th
century.
WALL PAINTINGS
Life of St. Eldrado,
abbot. 11th century
fresco in Novalesa
Abbey
BRIGHT COLOURS WERE USED often PRIMARY

The tympanums of important church portals were carved with
schemes, oftenChrist in Majesty or the Last Judgement.

Gothic Architecture
Gothic architecture is a style of
architecture that flourished during the high
and late medieval period.
It evolved gradually in 12th century from
Romanesque architecture and was
succeeded by Renaissance architecture.
Gothic architecture was known as the
French style.
Gothic architects designed town halls,
royal palaces, courthouses, hospitals and
bridges.
Gothic style attained its most meaningful
expression in the construction of churches.
Notre-Dame Cathedral,
Paris
(1163-1345)

MAIN FEATURES OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
1.POINTED ARCHES.
2.RIBBED VAULTS.
3.FLYING BUTTRESSES.
4.STAINED GLASS WINDOWS.
5.TRACERIES.
6.GARGOYLE

1.pointed arches
•The gothic style brought innovative
new construction techniques that
allowed churches and other buildings
to reach great heights.
•One important innovation was the
use of pointed arches.
•During the gothic era, builders
discovered that pointed arches would
give structures amazing strength and
stability.
•In gothic buildings, the weight of the
roof was supported by the arches
rather than the walls. this meant that
walls could be thinner.

2.RIBBED VAULTS
gothic builders introduced the dramatic technique of ribbed vaulting.
it allowed for a lighter and more elevated interior.
such light, skeletal construction employing cross ribbed-vaults and other thin
carrying structures, replaced the massiveness of romanesque vaults.
cross vault needs support only on the corners of the vault .

3.FLYING BUTTRESSES
The aim of the gothic architecture was to achieve light looking, vertical
buildings.
so they had to invent ways to handle vault pressure without heavy walls.
with the flying buttress it is possible to keep inner walls thin because, the flying
buttress design provides for an equal and opposite force to be imposed on the
wall, thus keeping the wall in balance.
as the higher wall can not resist horizontal force produced by arch the structure
collapses. this can be solved by making wall thicker, but higher walls require
more massive structures. to replace this flying buttresses are invented.

4.STAINED GLASS WINDOWS
Since the walls themselves were
no longer the primary supports,
gothic buildings could include
large areas of glass.
Huge stained glass windows and
a profusion of smaller windows
created the effect of lightness
and space.

5.TRACERIES
It is used primarily to describe the stonework elements that support the glass in
a gothic window.
6.GARGOYLE
A gargoyle is a carved stone grotesque with a spout designed to convey water
from a roof and away from the side of a building

TYPICAL EXAMPLE - NOTRE DAME ,PARIS
•Notre dame de Paris was one of the first gothic cathedrals and was built
throughout the gothic period.
•Its sculptures and stained glass show the heavy influence of naturalism,
giving them a more secular look that was lacking from earlier Romanesque
designs.
•It was among the first building in the world to use the flying buttress.
•The building was not originally designed to include the flying buttresses
after the construction began stress fractures began to occur. As the walls
pushed outward the buttresses were added to prevent further deterioration.
•The magnificent window on the west measures 10 meters in diameter (
32.8 feet) depicts biblical figures of Adam and Eve on the outer rim.
•The building measures, 128m long (420 ft) with two 69 meter tall towers
(226 ft)

GOTHIC FURNITURE
•Much of the gothic furniture has perished.
•From manuscripts and paintings
•Various kinds of woods were depending on
availability
-Oak - Northern Europe ,England
-Lime, apple, pear, walnut ,cypress - Southern
France ,Spain ,Italy
-Pine ,fir – Alpine region

•The furniture was inspired by gothic architecture.
•Spires,crockets,gables,butresses,crenellation and canopies migrated
,miniaturized from cathedrals and castles to furniture.
1.A spire is a tapering conical or pyramidal structure on the top of a
building, often a skyscraper or a church tower.
2.A crocket is in the form of a stylized carving of curled leaves, buds or
flowers which are used at regular intervals to decorate the sloping
edges of spires.
3.Gable is the triangular upper part of a wall at the end of a ridged
roof.
4. Buttress is an architectural structure built against or projecting from
a wall which serves to support or reinforce the wall.
5.Crenellation is a parapet at the top of a wall, especially of a fort or
castle, that has regularly spaced squared openings for shooting
through.
6.A canopy is an overhead roof or else a structure over which a fabric
or metal covering is attached, able to provide shade or shelter from
weather conditions such as sun, hail, snow and rain..
CROCKET
CRENELLATION

Gothic furniture first used ornament based
on arcades then progressed from design
inspired by gothic window tracery.
1.Arcade is a covered passage with arches
along one or both sides.
2.In architecture, tracery is the stonework
elements that support the glass in a Gothic
window.
TRACERY

1.GOTHIC STOOLS
•Many types of stool existed
•X shaped stool of antique origin was
common
•Most common was the 3 legged stool ,
with stout, cut or turned legs ,Joined by
seat rails and stretchers ,topped by a
wooden or a rush seat whose triangular
shape ignored the human anatomy.
•Some times one of the legs was
extended upwards and a cross bracket
attached to it to work as a backrest, this
formed the three legged chair.

2.GOTHIC BENCHES
-In 15th century a new type of stool called slab stool
emerged. It had a flat top of plank supported at both the
ends by planks.
-Piece of wood was cut of the base to form a trefoil ovigal or
cusped gothic arch.
-Seat rails were either nailed to the end support or slotted
into them.
-Benches were made in the same style.
-The hole look was very Islamic.

3.GOTHIC THRONES
Thrones seem to be more common than simple chairs.
They were seldom moved because they were very
heavy.
CORONATION CHAIR IN
WESTMISTER ABBEY
Thrones were frequently
adorned with the lion ,an
ancient symbol associated in
the Christian's mind with king
Solomon, hence regality and
justice.
The throne was always
elevated, often by its form as
well as being placed upon a
platform.

4.GOTHIC CHAIRS
Most of he ceremonial chairs was made of wood and were
some times furnished with high backs, curving forward at
the top to form a canopy which some times had a cloth of
estate suspended over them.
The use of foot stool with a chair denoted rank.

5.GOTHIC TABLES AND DESKS
Gothic tables where two types fixed and movable
The movable tables where usually boards on trestles.
Most writing desks were boxes with sloping top to allow convenient
writing and were highly portable.
They often had panelled construction with elaborate decoration and
tracery.

6.GOTHIC CHESTS were the most widespread and popular items of the
gothic period.
The one with the flat top were used as a seat, a bench, a table and some
times as bed apart from being used as a container.
Earlier ,the chest were made by hollowing out a tree trunk hence the chest
were called trunk. A slice cut from the top acted as a lid resulting in the
curved lid on the chest which helped in warding off water and snow.

Early 13th century saw the elaboration of the chest in France. It was
constructed stoutly and simply from planks of oak and covered with
wrought iron scrolls which increased its strength security and beauty.
Some chests had slits which continued downwards to form feet ,thus
saving them from dampness.
•Sometimes surfaces were plain
,sometimes carved , sometimes painted.
•In the 14th century with architecture
assuming a more decorative character
,furniture also became highly decorative ,
and pictorial motifs appeared on them.

7.GOTHIC CUPBOARDS
•Textiles , plates ,silver cups and jewels were the measures by which status
was jugged throughout the middle ages. As they were the pride of the
house, furniture makers provided cupboards for display.
•Enclosed presses came into existence in the 12th century for the use in
churches and were used for secular purposes in the later part of the middle
ages

9.GOTHIC BEDS
•Many types of beds existed during the gothic period.
•Some had simple box like construction.
•Others were fixed type which had draped testers hung from the ceiling by cords.
•Some beds had half testers, which were formed by head board extension.
•By 15th century ,the bed received the degree of ceremony and were meant for show pieces.
-Tester, canopy, usually of carved or cloth-draped wood, over a bed, tomb, pulpit, or throne. It
dates from the 14th century and is usually made of the same material as the object it covers.
It can be supported either by four posts, by two posts at the foot and a headpiece at the back,
or by suspension from the ceiling. The edges may overhang and in some cases are
decorated with incised work or a fabric valance. The word, derived from the late Latin testa
(“head”), came into use in the Middle Ages, originally referring only to the vertical headpiece.

10.GOTHIC CRADLES
•All the trappings of beds were transferred to cradles.
•Like adults children were provided with two cradles
one for show and one for actual sleeping.

There are two popular
images of the gothic
1.Gothic architecture
2.Gothic fairytale (gargoyle ,
monsters witches, dragons)
It hardly entered furniture
design in gothic period but
surfaced during gothic
revival

CRAFTS DURING GOTHIC PERIOD
1.Frescos is any of several related mural painting done on wall or ceiling
with plaster. Used as the pictorial narrative craft on church walls.
2.Panel paintings is a painting made on a flat panel made of wood.
3.Illuminated Manuscript is manuscript in which the text is supplemented
by the addition of decoration ,such as border and miniature illustration.
4.Stained glass.
The Nativity, fresco by Giotto, c. 1305–06,

ROMANESQUE
• 11 – 12 century.
• Exterior was simple.
• Buildings had thick walls.
• Windows were small.
• Windows had plain glass.
• Interiors were dark due to
lack of natural light.
• Vaults-barrel,groin,ribbed.
• Furniture was painted in
bright colours.
• Buttresses were introduced.
• Semi-circular arches were
seen in archading,window
and door openings.
• Buildings were of modest
Heights.
• Blind archading was seen.
GOTHIC
• 12 – 16 century.
• Exterior was heavy.
• Buildings had thinner walls.
• Windows were Huge.
• Windows had Stained glass.
• Interiors were bright due to
presence of natural light.
• Vaults-Pointed ribbed
• Furniture was inspired from
architecture.
• Flying Buttresses were
introduced.
• Pointed arches were seen in
archading,window and door
openings.
• Buildings were of great
Heights.
• Blind archading was seen.

European Renaissance
(14th–17th century)

-It started in the Late Medieval period
marking the beginning of the Early
Modern Age.
-The Renaissance was regarded as the
cultural bridge between the Middle Ages
and modern history.
-It started as a cultural movement in
Italy, and later spread to the rest of
Europe.
-In Italy began in Tuscany (Central Italy),
and centered in the city of Florence,
later spread to Venice and finally had a
significant effect on Rome.

The Italian Renaissance is best known for its
achievements in painting, architecture, sculpture,
literature, music, philosophy, science and
exploration.
-Italy became the recognized European leader in
all these areas by the late 15th century.
-The Italian Renaissance peaked in the mid-16th
century.

-Italian Renaissance art exercised a dominant influence on
subsequent European paintings and sculpture for centuries
afterwards, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,
Raphael, Donatello, Giotto di Bondone,etc.
Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci
The Pietà (1498–1499)
is a sculpture in marble
by Michelangelo,
housed in St. Peter's
Basilica, Vatican City. It
is the only piece
Michelangelo ever
signed. This famous
work of art depicts the
body of Jesus on the
lap of his mother Mary
after the Crucifixion.

ItalianRenaissance
• Leonardo da
Vinci
• 1452-1519
• Birth place - Vinci,
Republic of
Florence (present-
day Italy)
• areas of interest
included invention,
drawing, painting,
sculpting,
architecture,
science, music,
mathematics,
engineering,
literature,
anatomy, geology,
astronomy, botany,
writing, history,
and cartography.
ItalianRenaissance
• Michelangelo
• 1475 –1564
• Birth place -
Caprese near
Arezzo,
Republic of
Florence
(present-day
Tuscany, Italy)
• was an Italian
sculptor,
painter,
architect and
poet
ItalianRenaissance
• Raphael
• 1483 –1520
• Birth place –
Urbino in Italy
• was an Italian
painter and
architect of the
High
Renaissance.

Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper is a Renaissance masterpiece, though it is one which has struggled to
survive intact over the centuries. It was commissioned by Duke Ludovico Sforza for the refectory of the
monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, and in order to paint it Leonardo used an oil and tempera
mix and applied it to a dry wall. He did this because he wanted to capture the look of an oil painting, but
even within his lifetime it began to wear off. Further destruction was caused in the seventeenth century,
when a door was cut into the bottom (obviously Leonardo’s work was not esteemed at that time like it is
today).
The scene shows us figures in a rectangular room with coffers on the ceiling and tapestries on either side
of the room. The room terminates at three windows on end of wall and through the windows we can see
into a beautiful landscape setting. We see how the landscape in the background terminates in a kind of
misty, grayish horizon. As far as the composition is concerned, Christ is in center among the apostles,
and his body forms a triangle-like shape which is not overlapped by any apostles.
Work by Leonardo da Vinci

Work by Michelangelo
David is a masterpiece in
marble between 1501 and 1504
by the Italian artist
Michelangelo. David is a 5.17-
metre (17.0 ft) statue of the
Biblical hero David,
The Sistine Chapel ceiling painted by
Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, is a
cornerstone work of High Renaissance art.
The Sistine Chapel is a chapel in the
Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the
pope, in Vatican City. The subject of the
frescos, is centered around several scenes
from the Old Testament beginning with the
Creation of the World and ending at the story
of Noah and the Flood.

Raphael’s masterpiece, The School of Athens, is one of
the four main frescoes on the walls of the Stanze di
Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. The four
paintings epitomize Philosophy, Poetry, Theology, and
Law; with The School of Athens representing Philosophy.
Critics have suggested that every great Greek
philosopher can be found among the 21 painted in the
painting. However, apart from Plato and Aristotle, who are
placed in the center of the scene, no one’s identity can be
verified with certainty. The School of Athens is considered
“the perfect embodiment of the classical spirit of the High
Renaissance” and it is the most famous painting by
Raphael.
The School of Athens (1509)
Work by Raphael
Disputation of the Holy Sacrament (1510
Along with Michelangelo’s frescoes in the
Sistine Chapel, Raphael’s frescoes in the
Apostolic Palace are quintessential artworks of
High Renaissance in Rome. Stanza della
Segnatura (“Room of the Signatura”) is one of
the four Raphael Rooms in the palace. It
contains four grand paintings which epitomize
Philosophy, Poetry, Theology, and Law; with
Disputation of the Holy Sacrament representing
theology. The painting, which shows the image
of church spanning both earth and heaven, is
one of the most well-known frescoes painted by
Raphael.

The same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leon
Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include
Florence Cathedral, St. Peter's Basilica in Rome etc.
St. Peter's Basilica in Rome
Florence Cathedral

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE FURNITURE
Similar to the Gothic style, the furniture of the Renaissance period was reflecting the
architectural forms and ornaments.
The unique Italian Gothic was already coexisting with Renaissance elements since the 14th
century, and in the 15th century, the return to classic forms had immediate results in the
form and ornamentation of the furniture.
The Italian Renaissance furniture had a palatial rather than domestic character.
Its carving fully expressed the spirit of the Arts revival, to such an extent that cabinet-
makers from all over Europe came to learn from their Italian counterparts. Thus, furniture
styles on the continent were heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance. The cabinet-
makers of the Renaissance partially abandoned the coarser oak, and began to use walnut,
chestnut, and other woods.
As opposed to Gothic, which was using subjects taken from saints’ lives, Renaissance
carving had mythological, and historical subjects.

CHAIRS: During the 16th century,
the number of chairs increased.
Beside the carved, rectangular, high-
back chairs, there were the X-shaped
curule or Savonarola chairs. This type
was a smaller and more comfortable
chair. It was carved, sometimes
gilded, and could have a wooden seat
with a cushion placed on it. Toward
the end of the century, chairs were
occasionally upholstered in silk,
leather, or tapestry.
A "Savonarola chair",
16th Century

THE TYPICAL RENAISSANCE TABLE: was rectangular and
supported by solid carved legs connected by heavy stretchers,
with the legs terminating sometimes in a scroll. The tops
could sometimes be slabs of marble or mosaic, while the
ornaments of the tables were carved or gilded.

CHESTS: were common, particularly the cassone, used
mainly as a marriage chest. Their ornamentation varied, they
were carved, painted or gilded. The forms also varied.

FRENCH RENAISSANCE
FURNITURE
The French furniture, fashion, and
arts, were all revived by the Italian
spirit. Everything was made in the
Italian style. The old "Prie-dieu" chair
became larger, with a more ornate
back. The large high-backed chairs
and the arm-chairs were adorned
with the highly elaborated carving of
the Renaissance, in France still
combined with Gothic elements.

The most important French furniture style in
the Renaissance period was the Henry II
style. Great French designers applied their
original ideas to the Italian model, looking at
the classical forms from a different angle than
that of their Italian predecessors. Cabinets
had doors with richly carved panels in the
upper part, which, when opened, were
revealing drawers with finely detailed carved
front. The oak bedstead illustrated here is
typical for the French Renaissance furniture.
It belonged to Jeanne d'Albret, mother of
Henri IV.

ENGLISH RENAISSANCE FURNITURE
The Renaissance furniture in England is
the furniture of the Tudor reigns.
Although historically the period lasted
until the beginning of the 17th century, the
Elizabethan furniture, with its distinct
character, stands on its own.
The Tudor furniture was a combination of
Gothic and Renaissance, with fine
carving depicting biblical or mythological
scenes.

Until the reign of Elizabeth I, the Italian influence was predominant,
together with Flemish and even German elements. Although French and
Italian pieces were still around, the Elizabethan furniture introduced its
own new decorative elements. Heraldic motifs were introduced, together
with the bulb decoration used on table legs or cabinet supports.

Maybe the most representative of the English Renaissance furniture
are the posts and the corniced canopies of the massive posted
Elizabethan beds, their elaborate carving illustrating the distinct
character acquired by the furniture of this period.

The Spanish Renaissance refers to a movement in Spain, emerging from
the Italian Renaissance in Italy during the 14th century, that spread to Spain
during the 15th and 16th centuries.
The furniture was made mostly of walnut, of which Spain is so rich. The
Spanish walnut was preferred due to its close grain, and lustrous surface.
Oak was scarce, and had to be imported from France and England.
The Flemish craftsmen introduced the art of inlaying with ebony, or ivory.

BAROQUE –
ROCOCO –
NEOCLASSICAL

Baroque
• It began in Italy during 1600s
and later spread to different parts
in Europe.
Rococo
• It began in France during 1700s
and later spread to different parts
of Europe.

Baroque (Architectural Example)
• Below is St. Peters Basilica in
Rome(Italy)
Rococo (Architectural Example)
• Below is Trevi Fountain in
Rome

Baroque
• .In the decoration the details were
Symmetrical.
• Baroque Style was heavy and masculine.
Rococo
• In the decoration the details were
Asymmetrical.
• Rococo Style was very delicate and romantic

Baroque (Motifs)
• Baroque Style sees great use of acanthus
leaf motif.
Rococo (Motifs)
• Rococo Style sees great use of interlacing
shell decoration (scallop shell), plant and
flower motifs, C scrolls and S scrolls.

Renaissance - Louis XIII (1610–1643)
Baroque - Louis XIV (1638–1715)
Rococo - Louis XV (1730-1760)
Neoclassicism - Louis XVI (1774–93)
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION was a
period of far-reaching social and
political upheaval in France that
lasted from 1789 until 1799.

TUDOR PERIOD (1485–1603)
Elizabethan period (1558–1603)
WILLIAM & MARY STYLE (1700 to
1725 )
QUEEN ANNE STYLE (1702–1714)
GEORGIAN ERA (1714 TO C. 1830–
37)
Regency era (1811 – 1820)
VICTORIAN ERA (1837 - 1901)
EDWARDIAN ERA (1901 to 1910)
WORLD WAR 1 (1914 – 1918)
WORLD WAR 2 (1939 – 1945)
PERIODS IN ENGLISH HISTORY

ELIZABETHIAN PERIOD (1558–1603)
•Furniture legs were mainly bulbous – carved at the
top and a gadroon (A DECORATIVE EDGING ON METAL OR
WOOD FORMED BY PARALLEL ROUNDED STRIPS LIKE
INVERTED FLUTING)
at the bottom with an acanthus leaf.
•Chairs were either turned or wainscoted.
(WAINSCOTED CHAIR FEATURES - THE FRONT LEGS HAVING
BEEN SHAPED ON A LATHE, THE BACK LEGS BEING SQUARE-
SECTIONED, HAVING ARM SUPPORTS, LACKING AN
UPHOLSTERED SEAT, A CARVED WOODEN BACK IN A
RELATIVELY COMPLEX DESIGN)
•Pewter was displayed in buffets or court
cupboards.
•Beds were very large with carved posts, a canopy
and long velvet hangings often with bulbous
decoration.

WILLIAM AND MARY STYLE (1700 to
1725 )
style of decorative arts so named during
the reign of William III and Mary II of
England.
•William encouraged many Dutch
artisans to follow him.
• In addition to these craftsmen,
refugees from France worked in the
cabinetmakers’ and designers’ shops of
London during this time. Their influence
was strongly felt under William, who was
partial to the florid effects of French
style.

•emphasizing the vertical line rather than
the more horizontal line.
•embellished with delicate
ornamentation
•Marquetry in ivory and coloured woods
or metal inlay frequently is found in
arabesque patterns resembling seaweed
and spiders’ webs.
•Highboys and lowboys are major pieces
for the period, and serpentine stretchers
and spiral turnings are typical.
•Characteristic of William and Mary style
are the scallop shell, C- and S-scrolls,
and the acanthus leaf of classical
tradition.
Marquetry inlaid work made from small pieces
of coloured wood or other materials, used for
the decoration of furniture.
arabesque patterns an ornamental design
consisting of intertwined flowing lines, originally
found in ancient Islamic art.
Highboy is a tall chest of drawers with a legged
base.
Lowboy is a low chest of drawers on short legs,
resembling the lower part of a highboy.
.

QUEEN ANNE STYLE (1702–1714)
• Refers to the English Baroque architectural
style approximately of the reign of Queen
Anne.
•The Queen Anne style of furniture design
developed before, during, and after the reign
of Anne, Queen of Great Britain
•Queen Anne furniture uses C-scroll, S-
scrolls, and ogee (S-curve) shapes in the
structure of the furniture itself.
•an emphasis on line and form rather than
ornamentation.
•Curved lines, in feet, legs(cabriole), arms,
crest rails(the top rail of a chair back
especially when distinctively carved or
shaped), along with ornament (often in a
shell shape) emphasizing the material, are
characteristic of Queen Anne style.

Carved shell and S-scroll features
on a walnut Philadelphia Queen
Anne compass-seat chair,
Queen Anne wing chair
Cabriole leg, leg of a piece of furniture shaped
in two curves—the upper one convex, the lower
one concave.
Bat wing handles
Queen
Anne
Style

THE GEORGIAN ERA (1714 TO C. 1830–37)
named after the kings George I, George II, George III and George IV.
THE SUB-PERIOD ,THE REGENCY ERA (1811 – 1820)
is defined by the regency of George IV as Prince of Wales during the
illness of his father George III.
The definition of the Georgian era is often extended to include the
relatively short reign of William IV, which ended with his death in 1837.

ThomasChippendale
•Chippendale(1718 – 1779)
•born in England
•perfect blend of gothic,
rococo, and Chinese
design
•Chair backs are adorned
with ribbon and shell
motifs.
•legs were either straight
,cabriole, tapered or fluted.
The trade mark foot of
Chippendale furniture is the
ball and claw-foot.
RobertAdam
•Robert Adam(1728–
1792)
•Scottish architect
•It is a Neo Classical style.
•brought back the simple
classical lines of the
Roman and Greek Styles.
•The chair back usually
has the classical motif
like the shape of a Greek
lyre.
•Never used Cabriole legs
he preferred to use
straight, tapered legs.
•Used other tradesmen to
produce his designs.
•Oval and shield back
chairs.
GeorgeHepplewhite
•Hepplewhite(1727–1786 )
•English furniture style
•It is a neoclassic style
•One characteristic that is
seen in many of his designs
is a shield-shaped chair
back.
•In contrast to the popular
curving cabriole legs of
earlier styles such as
Queen Anne and
Chippendale, Hepplewhite
pieces usually have straight
legs. These can be square
or tapered and often have
reeded or fluted edges.
They were designed to
imitate Classical columns of
Greek and Roman
architecture.
ThomasSheraton
•Thomas Sheraton(1751
–1806)
•English furniture style
•Sheraton furniture also
obeys Neoclassical
devotion to simple
geometry, and particularly
rectilinear forms. Chair
and sofa backs are
generally rectangular in
shape.
•the legs, which (while
thin) tend to be straight,
rounded and fluted like
the columns of a Greek
temple. Some are
tapered, and back legs
are occasionally splayed.

The Victorian era is noted for
ornamentation.
•A house from this period was idealistically
divided in rooms, with public and private
space carefully separated.
• The parlour(Drawing Room) was the
most important room in a home and was
the showcase for the homeowners where
guests were entertained. A bare room was
considered to be in poor taste, so every
surface was filled with objects that
reflected the owner's interests and
aspirations.
•The dining room was the second-most
important room in the house. The
sideboard was most often the focal point of
the dining room and very ornately
decorated.
A sideboard, also called a
buffet, is an item of furniture
traditionally used in the dining
room for serving food, for
displaying serving dishes, and for
storage. It usually consists of a
set of cabinets, or cupboards,
and one or more drawers, all
topped by a wooden surface for
conveniently holding food,
serving dishes, or lighting
devices

The Victorian look was typically cluttered with dark furniture, heavy fabrics, and
lots of china and glassware as accessories.

Furniture
•There was not one dominant style of furniture in the Victorian period.
•Designers rather used and modified many styles taken from various time periods in history
like Gothic, Tudor, Elizabethan, English Rococo, Neoclassical and others.
•The Gothic and Rococo revival style were the most common styles to be seen in furniture
during this time in history.

•Wallpaper and wallcoverings became accessible for
increasing numbers of householders with their wide
range of designs and varying costs.
•Wallpaper was often made in elaborate floral patterns
with primary colors (red, blue, and yellow) in the
backgrounds and overprinted with colours of cream
and tan.
•This was followed by Gothic art inspired papers in
earth tones with stylized leaf and floral patterns.
•William Morris was one of the most influential
designers of wallpaper and fabrics during the latter half
of the Victorian period.
•Morris was inspired and used Medieval and Gothic
tapestries in his work.
•Embossed paper were used on ceilings and friezes.
Acanthus wallpaper, designed by
William Morris, manufactured by
Jeffrey & Co., 1875, England.
Museum no. E.800-1915. ©
Victoria and Albert Museum,
London

•The choice of paint color on the walls in Victorian homes was said to be
based on the use of the room.
•Hallways that were in the entry hall and the stair halls were painted a
somber gray so as not to compete with the surrounding rooms.
•Most people marbleized the walls or the woodwork.
•Also on walls it was common to score into wet plaster to make it resemble
blocks of stone.
• Finishes that were either marbleized or grained were frequently found on
doors and woodwork. "Graining" was meant to imitate woods of higher
quality that were more difficult to work.
•There were specific rules for
interior color choice and
placement.
•The theory of “harmony by
analogy” was to use the colors
that lay next to each other on the
color wheel.
• The second was the “harmony
by contrast” that was to use the
colors that were opposite of one
another on the color wheel.

There was a favored tripartite wall that included
a dado or wainscoting at the bottom, a field in
the middle and a frieze or cornice at the top.
This was popular into the 20th century.
Frederick Walton who created linoleum in 1863
created the process for embossing semi-liquid
linseed oil, backed with waterproofed paper or
canvas. It was called Lincrusta and was applied
much like wallpaper. This process made it easy
to then go over the oil and make it resemble
wood or different types of leather. On the
ceilings that were 8–14 feet the color was tinted
three shades lighter than the color that was on
the walls and usually had a high quality of
ornamentation because decorated ceilings
were favored.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE or MODERNIST ARCHITECTURE
is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first
half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. It was based
upon new technologies of construction, particularly the use of glass, steel and
reinforced concrete; and upon a rejection of the traditional neoclassical
architecture that was popular in the 19th century.
Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist
movement include
-Frank Lloyd Wright,
-Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,
-Le Corbusier,
-Walter Gropius,
-Louis Sullivan, etc

BAUHAUS, was a
school of art in Germany founded
by Walter Gropius an architect.
•It operated from 1919 to 1933.
•The term Bauhaus is German for
"House of Building" or "Building
School" and was coined by Walter
Gropius.
•One of the main objectives of the
Bauhaus was to unify art, craft,
and technology.

-The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and
product design were important components.
-Gropius taught at a school, which focused on functional craftsmanship, and his
students were guided to focus on designs that could be mass-produced.
-It was founded with the idea of creating a 'total' work of art in which all arts,
including architecture would eventually be brought together.
-The Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in Modernist
architecture and modern design. The Bauhaus style is marked by the absence of
ornamentation and maintained harmony between function, artistic and technical
means.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BAUHAUS STYLE:
-Cubic
-Favored right angles
-They have smooth finishes
Walter Gropius

•THE SCHOOL EXISTED IN THREE GERMAN CITIES
-Weimar from 1919 to 1925,
-Dessau from 1925 to 1932 and
-Berlin from 1932 to 1933,
UNDER THREE DIFFERENT ARCHITECT-DIRECTORS:
-Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928,
-Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and
-Ludwig Mies van derRohe from 1930 until 1933, then the school was closed by its own
leadership under pressure from the Nazi regime.
-The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus,
technique, instructors, and politics.
-For instance, the pottery shop was discontinued when the school moved from
Weimar to Dessau, even though it had been an important revenue source.
-When Mies van derRohe took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a
private school.

One of the most important contributions of
the Bauhaus is in the field of modern
furniture design.
EXAMPLES:
1.CANTILEVER CHAIR (A cantilever chair
is a chair with no back legs, relying for
support on the properties of the material
from which it is made.)
This famous form was designed by Mart
Stam in 1926, and remains an important
example of 20th century design.
Other important designers of cantilever
chairs were Ludwig Mies van derRohe
and Marcel Breuer.
MART STAM CANTILEVER CHAIR S33
MIES VAN DER ROHE MR10 CANTILEVER CHAIR
CANTILEVER CHAIR MARCEL BREUER

2.THE WASSILY CHAIR, also
known as the Model B3 chair,
was designed by Marcel Breuer
in 1925-1926 while he was the
head of the cabinet-making
workshop at the Bauhaus, in
Dessau, Germany.
Breuer found his inspiration for
the chair in the bent form of a
bicycle handlebar, available for
the first time in steel due to a
development in technology.

3. THE BARCELONA CHAIR was exclusively designed by Mies van derRohe for
the German Pavilion, that country's entry for the International Exposition of 1929,
which was hosted by Barcelona, Spain.

3. THE BARCELONA CHAIR
The frame was initially designed to be bolted
together, but was redesigned in 1950 using
stainless steel, which allowed the frame to be
formed by a seamless piece of metal, giving it
a smoother appearance. Bovine leather
replaced the ivory-colored pigskin which was
used for the original pieces.
-The form is thought to be extrapolated from
Roman folding chairs known as Curule
chair .It was an upholstered stools used by
Roman aristocracy.
And despite the industrial appearance the
Barcelona chair requires much hand
craftsmanship.

Frank Lloyd Wright is one of the world’s greatest architects.
He was an American architect, interior designer, writer, and
educator, who designed more than 1,000 structures, 532 of
which were completed.
•His work includes many building types, including offices,
churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, and museums.
•Wright also designed many of the interior elements of his
buildings, such as furniture, fabrics, carpets, stained glass and
accessories. Wright wrote 20 books and many articles and
was a popular lecturer in the United States and in Europe.
•Already well known during his lifetime, Wright was recognized
in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as “The
greatest American architect of all time".
•His influence on the world of architecture can be
demonstrated not just by the many structures he designed but
also by the many Bauhaus students that he influenced.
Frank Lloyd Wright was a
visionary, a man ahead of
his time. The design of many
of his homes once seemed
light-years ahead of their
time, and people often had
trouble understanding his
vision, yet almost all of our
modern construction puts to
use the ideals he thought to
be so important.
“The architect must be a
prophet… a prophet in the
true sense of the term… if
he can’t see at least ten
years ahead don’t call him
an architect.”

HISTORY OF DESIGN COMPILED BY ADEEBA AFREEN

HISTORY OF DESIGN COMPILED BY ADEEBA AFREEN

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HISTORY OF DESIGN COMPILED BY ADEEBA AFREEN