This document defines different types of clauses and their characteristics. It discusses independent clauses, which can stand alone as sentences, and dependent clauses, which cannot stand alone and need to be attached to independent clauses. It also defines types of dependent clauses such as noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses. Additionally, it covers subjects, verbs, agreement, verbals, sentence fragments, run-on sentences, and pronoun usage.

1. Grammer
Jojo American literature Block F

2. Clause
Definition:
a group of words that contains a verb (and usually
other components too)
! may form part of a sentence or it may be a
complete sentence in itself

3. Types of Clause
! Independent Clause
! Dependent Clause---- Noun Clause
Adjective Clause
Adverb Clause

4. Independent Clause
! contain both a
subject and a verb
! can stand alone as a
sentence
! Example: My dog
loves play.
In this example dog
is the subject and loves
is the verb.
Dependent Clause
! contain both a subject
and a verb
! cannot stand alone as a
sentence
! does not express a
complete thought
! Example: Whenever lazy
students whine, Mrs.
Heather throws chalk
erasers at their heads

5. Independent clauses can also be joined to other
independent clauses, by using a conjunction.
! Ex: and, but, in addition, also, however, so
Example: I have a high fever today, but I still go to
school.

6. Noun Clause
! A dependent clause that is used as a noun
! Used as a subject, a predicate nominative,
a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of
a preposition
! Example: William talked at length about how she
had won the pizza-eating contest.
（object of the preposition about）

7. Adjective Clause
! A dependent clause that modifies a noun or a
pronoun
! Must connect to the independent clause in order
to finish the thought.
! Example: The vegetables that people leave
uneaten are often the most nutritious.

8. Adjective Clause
Essential Clause
! provides information
that is necessary to the
meaning of a sentence
! Example: The
vegetables that people
leave uneaten are often
the most nutritious.
Nonessential Clause
! provides additional
information that can be
omitted without
changing the basic
meaning of a sentence
! Example: Broccoli,
which people often
leave uneaten, is very
nutritious.

9. Adverb Clause
! A dependent clause that modifies a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb
! Tells how, when, where, why, to what extent, or
under what condition
! Example: Ping’s three cats bolted from the
driveway once they saw her car turn the corner.
(When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner)

10. Subject-Verb Agreement
! Subject: the person or thing that is being
discussed or describes in a sentence
! Ex: I want to have a toy. (I is the subject)
! Verb: the word use to describe an action
! Ex: I want to have a toy. (want is the verb)

11. Singular
! Ex:
! I → go
! You→ go
! He/ She→ goes
! It→ goes
! Mr. Ted→ goes
! Mr. Ted is a kind
person.
Plural
! Ex:
! You→ go
! They→ go
! We→ go
! Mr. Ted & me→ go
! Mr. Ted and me are
kind people.

12. Agree with the tense
Jojo: runs (present)
ran (past)
is running (present continuous)

13. Important Rules
! Used Plural: One of … who… a number of…
(many)
! Used Singular: the only one … who… the
number of , every
! Ex: She is one of the students who do not
enjoy classic concerts.
! Every student in the classroom is hard
working.

14. Verbals
! Definition: Verbals are verbs that being changed
into different form of Noun, Adjective, Adverb.

15. Three different kinds of verbals:
! Infinitive- is a verb form that start with the word “To”
! Ex: To sleep, To talk, To run
! Participle –using it in describing and modifying the
subject
! Ex: Running along the path.
! Gerund – a verb with “-ing”
! Ex: Chrewing gum in class is not allowed.

16. Sentence Fragments
! Definition: It is part of a sentence that you must add
to a main clause because it is not complete by itself
! Cannot use a sentence fragment alone
! But if you add the fragment to the main clause that
will be a good sentence
! Example: I won't leave the house. Until I hear from
you.

17. Types of Sentence Fragment
! Prepositional Phrase- the fragment starts with a
preposition(of, to, and, in, on…)
Ex: In the rain, I enjoyed my run.
! Appositional Phrase- is a noun based fragment
Ex: My friend, Lily, is jealous of me.
! Participial Phrase- uses a specific type of past
tense verb that acts like an adjective, but the
participial verb is not a true verb.
! Ex: Dissatisfied with my coffee, I went to the
store to buy milk.

18. Types of Sentence Fragment
! Gerund Phrase-uses a verb with an “ing” ending Ex:
Running to school, I afraid to late.
! Infinitive Phrase- uses the infinitive form of the verb
“to”
! Ex: I stand the top of the hill to see the view of the
whole country.
! Afterthought Phrase-clarifies earlier information by
providing specific details. (especially, including, for
example)
! Ex: Some people are very talkative, for example:
vincent.

19. Comma-Splices
! Definition: the error when you combine tow
independent clauses in a compound sentence by
inserting only a comma between the without the
necessary conjunction.
! Ex: Vincent has a lot of friends, he is very kind.
(X)

20. Run on sentecne
! Definition: the error when you combine two
independent clauses by inserting only a
conjunction between them without the
necessary comma.
! Ex: This has been as very dry summer and
supply of water in the reservoirs is low.. (X)

21. Fused Sentence
! Definition: the error when you combine two
independent clauses with nothing in between.
The two clauses are just jammed up next to each
other (fused) with neither conjunction nor
punctuation.
! Ex: Grandma still use rides her Harley motorcycle
her toy poodle balances in a basket. (X)

22. How to fixed the problems
! Use a period (.)
! Use a semi-colon (;)
! Use a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS,
F=for, A=and, N=nor, B=but, O=or, Y=yet, S=so)
! Use a subordinating conjunction (although, as,
even thought, if, because, since, until and so on)

23. Example to fix the problem
! Fused Sentence: Grandma still use rides her Harley
motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket.
! Use a period: Grandma still use rides her Harley
motorcycle．Ｈｅｒ toy poodle balances in a basket.
! Andy went to the gym everyday he lost a lof of weight.
! Use a semi colon: Andy went to the gym everyday; he
lost a lof of weight.

24. Example to fix the problem
! This has been as very dry summer and the supply
of water in the reservoirs is low. (Run on
sentence)
! Use a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
! This has been as very dry summer, so the supply
of water in the reservoirs is low.

25. Example to fix the problem
! Vincent has a lot of friends, he is very kind.
(comma splice)
! Use a subordinating conjunction
! Vincent has a lot of friends because he is very
kind.

26. Misplaced Modifier
! Definition:
! A word, phrase, or clause that is separated from the word
it modifies/ describes
! Example: On his way home, Bob found a gold man’s
watch.(X) (this means that gold man owns watch)
! On his way home, Bob found a man’s gold watch. (this
means that the watch is gold not the man)

27. Types of misplaced
Misplaced Clauses:
A sentence that sounds awkward and does not make
any sense because the sentence was placed
incorrectly.
I held the ticket tightly in my hand that my friend gave
me. (X)
I held the ticket that my friend gave me tightly in my
hand.

28. Misplaced Modifier
! Misplaced Adjectives:
! Adjective phrase that is separated from the noun that
it modifies, which might change the meaning of the
whole sentence.
! Ex: The beautiful student’s bag lay on the floor.(X)
! The student’s beautiful bag lay on the floor.

29. Misplaced Modifier
! Misplaced Adverbs:
! Ex: We ate the lunch that we had brought slowly.
(X)
! We slowly ate the lunch that we had brought.

30. Dangling Modifier
! Dangling Participle:
! found at the beginning of a sentence, that appears
from its position to modify an element of the
sentence other than the one it was intended to
modify
! Ex: Rushing to the catch the bus, Bob's wallet fell out
of his pocket.

31. Dangling Modifier
! Dangling Gerund:
! A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions
as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund,
like the other two kinds of verbal, is based on a verb
and therefore expresses action or a state of being
! Ex: We drinking our coffee, the lions approached
our camp.

32. Dangling Modifier
! Dangling Infinitive:
! Start with the infinitive form of a verb (such as to tango, to
simmer, to cogitate, etc
! After having danced all night, they realized it was late and
no restaurants were open.
! Ex: To survive in this heat, new plants must be watered
daily.

33. Dangling Modifier
! Dangling Elliptical Clause:
! An elliptical clause will dangle if a writer does not make
sure that the word it refers to is the subject of the main
clause
! - To ensure accuracy, we evaluated N2 selectivity only
when the no conversion exceeded 10%.
! Ex: While driving a car, traffic regulations must be
observed.

34. Lack of Agreement Between
Pronoun and Antecedent
! What is pronoun?
! Pronoun replace nouns (pronouns are usually
short words)
! Pronouns like “he, which, none, you” to make
your sentences less cumbersome and less
repetitive

35. Types of Pronoun
! Personal Pronoun: the subjective personal
pronouns are “I, you, she, he, it we, they”
! Ex: It is on the table.
! Objective Personal pronoun: the objective
personal pronouns are “me, you, her, him, it, us,
them”
! Ex: Bobby threw it into the garbage can.

36. Types of Pronoun
! Possessive Personal Pronouns: “mine, yours, hers,
his, its, our, theirs”
! Ex: Don’t you dare touch the bag! It’s mine!
! Demonstrative Pronouns – this and these refer to
things that are nearby either in space or in time,
while that and those refer to things that are farther
away in space or time
! Ex: This is not good, you should not do it.

37. Types of Pronouns
! Interrogative pronouns: “who, whom, which,
what and the compounds formed with the suffix
ever whoever, whomever whichever and
whatever”
! Ex: Which one do you like best?
! Indefinite Pronouns: all, another, any, anybody…
! Ex: Give a book to each.

38. Types of Pronouns
! Reflexive Pronouns: myself, yourself, herself,
himself, itself, ourselves and themselves
! Ex: He usually sends a copy of email to himself.
! Intensive Pronouns: used to emphasize its
antecedent
! Ex: Amanda herself thinks that her boyfriend is
the worst guy out here.

39. Examples of sentences
without pronouns
! Joe plays basketball with Jack because Joe
really likes Jack.
! Bob wants to eat so badly because Bob is very
hungry.
! My mother cannot resist the smell of corn soup
because corn soup is my mother’s favorite.

40. Lack of Agreement Between
Pronoun and Antecedent
! What is an antecedent?
! “Ante” in the word antecedent is prefix for
something that goes before. For example,
antediluvian that describes something old fashioned
or out of date
! A pronoun takes places for a noun that you’ve once
mentioned, such as “he” used it to replace “Jack”, or
“it” that is used to replace a “dog”

41. Allusion
! Definition: An allusion is a figure of speech that
makes a reference to , or a representation of,
people, events, literary works, myths, or work of
arts.

42. Types of Allusion
! Biblical Allusion- is when the writer makes
reference to someone or event in the Bible.
! Ex: The Crucible Act two: Elizabeth states
Abigail brings the other girls into the court, and
where she walks the crowds will part like the sea
for Israel.
! This is referring to Moses, who parted the seas
of Israel for the Israelites to escape from the
Pharaoh’s armies.

43. Types of Allusion
! Historical Allusion- is used when someone make reference
to an individual or event in the past.
! Ex: Crucible Act Two: At the beginning of Act 2, a kind of
cold war exists between John and Elizabeth because of
past events.
! Literary Allusion-is used when the writer refers to a book
or a person, place or event in a book or play.
! Ex: Crucible Act Two: Although an honest and strong man,
John Procter has an Achilles heel his relationship to
Abigail.

44. Epiphany
! Definition:
! a moment of sudden revelation or insight
! the point in literature works when the character
experiences a sudden deep understanding or
realization of someone or something

45. Idiom
Definition: Idioms can be classified based on their
structural properties. There are many different
ways to classify them, and none are considered to
be the totally wrong or right.

46. Types of Idioms
! Lexemic idioms- that function as a familiar part
of speech. They have to be longer than one word
but not as long as a sentence
! Ex: Give in: To admit to be defeated or not to be
able to do something.
! Sememci idioms: Functions as a sentence.
Never to get to first base: To fail to achieve the
first state of significance in an activity.

47. Irony
! Definition:
! Is a literary device in which words are used to
express a contradiction between appearance
and reality
! In irony is usually the opposite of what it seems
! In literature there are three types of irony

48. Types of Irony
! Verbal irony – is when a speaker of writer says
one thing but actually means the opposite
! Ex: When your mon walks into you filthy bedroom
and says, “I see you’ve cleaned your room.”
! (Sarcasm in one type of verbal irony)

49. Types of Irony
! Situational Irony- is when the outcome of a
situation is inconsistent with what we expect
would logically or normally occur. It is the
reverse of what we expect will be or happen. An
example of situational irony would be.
! Ex: If a thief’s house was broken into at the same
time he was robbing someone’s house.

50. Types of Irony
! Dramatic Irony- is when the audience or the
reader is aware of something that a character
dose not know.
! Ex: When Romeo believes Juliet is dead, but the
audience know that she has only been given a
potion to sleep.

51. Themes
! Definition: The main idea of text, expressed directly
and indirectly. Themes are the fundamental and often
universal ideas explored in a literary work.
! The theme is not the topic of the work, but a point
made about the topic.

52. How to find the theme
! First, what is the topic, or big idea of the work?
! Second, what do the characters say or do that
relates to the topic?
! Third, what do these things tell you that is
important to learn about the topic?

53. Example:
! Themes are usually about big ideas like freedom,
trust, friendship family good versus evil, love, courage,
religion, death, survival and so on.
Ex: Romeo and Juliet is the Love and Tragedy
The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn: Religion and Supersition
! Harry Potter: Adventure and mystery
! Hunger Games: Survival and love

54. Motifs (Definition)
! Motif is not the same as motive
! A decorative design or pattern
! A distinctive feature or dominant idea in an
artistic or literary composition
! To summarize, motif is a symbolic idea or a
pattern that reoccurring again and again

55. Why motif is so important
! Understanding motif will help us identify the theme of a
story
! Motif can also show different aspects of the story and its
character
! Motif can help us understand a story that has many
different part
! Motif can help writers centralize the message that the they
try to express

56. Motif (example)
! In the Animal Farm by George Orwell one of the
major motif is the song, poem, and slogan like “the
Beasts of England.” This represent propaganda and
the authors opinion on communism
! In Slaughter House Five, one of the motif in the novel
is the phrase, “so it goes.” This phrase follow every
mention of death in the novel. This phrase reflect
what Tralfamadorian’s idea on death

57. Other types of Motif
! Motif also appears in many types of music and art
! In music:
Motif is a short rhythmic passage that repeats
throughout the song or composition
! In arts:
! A repeated design in architecture or decoration

58. Paradox
! Definition:
! A seemingly contradictory statement that may
nonetheless be true.

59. Types of Paradox
! Veridical Paradox - is a counter-intuitive
result which can be demonstrated to be true.
! Ex: A man who is 20 years old but had only
have 5 birthdays.
! Fasidical Paradox - is a result being absurd
on the surface, is the result of faulty
reasoning and so is genuinely false.

60. Types of Paradox
! Antinomy - presents a statement, question or
problem that seems to have no answer
! Ex: Assumes there is a town in which "the barber shaves all
and only those men in town who do not shave themselves."
The question that is posed is who shaves the barber
! Dialethia - is a statement which is paradoxical
through the fact that it is both true and false at the
same time.

61. Rhetorical Question
! Definition:
! A rhetorical question is a question that does not
expect an answer. It is a question that is making
a point, and not really asking a question.

62. Types of rhetorical
! Negative assertions- is intended as a challenge
with the implication that the question is difficult
or impossible to answer.
! Ex: Smoking can lead to lung cancer, who knew?
! As a metaphor- one common form is where a
rhetorical question is used as a metaphor for a
question already ask.
! Ex: How do you catch a cloud and pin it down?

63. Types of rhetorical
! Other forms- sometimes the implied answer to a
rhetorical question is “Yes but I wish it were not so”
or vice versa
! Ex: Eh, why not?
! Ex: When you parents are angry at you, they will say,
“Are you a little child?”
! (It is not asking a question, but making point that your
behavior is like a little child)

64. Satire
! Definition: is a literary work in which human
voice or folly is attacked through wit, sarcasm
and irony

65. Types of Satire
! Horation: humorous, lighthearted jabbing
! Ex: Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice
! Juvenalian: harsh, bitter, cruel mocking
! Ex: William Golding’s lord of the files.
! Menippean: spreads its mental barbs at a wide
number of targets.
! Ex: Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland.

66. Weapons of Satire
! Humor
! Ex: the class was so boring; everyone fell asleep
in three seconds.
! Comic Juxtaposition
! Ex: Pop’s line in Rape of the Lock: “Puffs,
patches, and bibles.”

67. Weapons of Satire
! Diminution
! Ex: Treating the Canadian Members of Parliament as
a squabbling group of little boys.
! Invective
! You are a liar.
! Lampoon
! Jed Babbin: “Going to war without the French is like
going deer hunting without your accordion.”

68. Sarcasm (what is sarcasm)
! The use of language that subverts the user’s true
meaning or position in order to be harsh or attacking
! Sarcasm is intended to be cutting or hurt to a third
party in one’s subversive use of language
! A form of irony that is widely used in English
especially when people being humorous
! Is a verbal irony but not every verbal irony is sarcasm
! While satire can mostly be found in literature
sarcasm can be found mostly by speaking

69. Example of Sarcasm
! Jacky is very tall.
! I work 40 hours a week to be this poor.
! And which dwarf are you?

70. THANK YOU
End