This document discusses grammatical cohesion in text. It defines cohesion as the linguistic features that link sentences together to form a coherent text. Grammatical cohesion refers to the grammatical devices used to make relations between sentences explicit, such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. The document examines these different types of grammatical cohesion in detail, providing examples and explanations of each. It also discusses the role of grammatical cohesion in creating connections between ideas in a text to aid the reader's understanding.

1. Grammatical
Cohesion
SAKAR, H. ALI
M.A. Student / ELT

2. Cohesion
The linguistic features which help make a
sequence of sentences a text. It occurs in a
text through the use of devices that link
across sentences. According to Connor (1984),
it is defined as the use of explicit cohesive
devices that signals relations among
sentences and parts of text. Cohesion Is
concerned with the ways which the
components of text are connected.

3. Grammatical cohesion
• refers to the various grammatical devices that can be used to make relations
among sentences more explicit.
• Cohesive devices are used to tie pieces of text together in a specific way.
• The aim is to help the reader understand the items referred to, the ones
replaced and even the items omitted (Harmer 2004) .furthermore, the
combination of sentences using cohesive devices which have semantic
relation need a shared linguistic environment to interpret items.
• “he said so”

4. Types of
grammatical
cohesion
Reference
01
02
03
04
Substitution
Ellipsis
Conjunction

5. Of the five major classes, reference, conjunction and lexical
cohesion appear in written discourse,
but substitution and ellipsis are more frequent in conversation
(de Beaugrande and Dressier 1981, Witte and Faigley 1981)

6. Reference
One of the options that grammar of English offers creating surface links
between sentences is reference .Halliday and Hassan (1976) point out that
reference features can not be semantically interpreted without referring to
some other features in the text .Pronouns is the most common linguistic
element as referring devices in a textual environment. However, there are
other linguistic elements used to fulfill the same function such us: articles,
demonstratives and comparatives.

8. Exophora
• involves exercises that require the reader to look out of the text in order to interpret
the referent. The reader, thus, has to look beyond or out of the text with a shared
world between the reader and the writer.
• “Exophoric reference directs the receiver „out of „the text and into an assumed shared
world” (McCarthy, 1991: 41).
• For example, „that must have cost a lot of money‟ in this example we have to look out
of the situation to retrieve the meaning of the sentences (Halliday and Hassan, 1976).

9.  Endophoric reference points to the textual environment of a given element
can be either anaphoric or cataphoric. Brown and Yule (1983: 192) point
that “where their interpretation lies within a text they are called „endophoric‟
relations and do from cohesive ties within the text”.
• Anaphoric reference is a form of presupposition and means that a
reference item points back to something that has gone before (Schubert
2008:33).
 Such an instance of anaphoric reference in which “he” refers back to “John”
in the preceding sentence.
 John goes fishing every other week. He is a very good fisherman.

10. Cataphoric reference, as oppositional term to anaphoric reference,
works the other way around. Here, a usually abstract reference item points
forward to a specific element within the subsequent text for its interpretation.
 In this sentence for example the reader has to look at the whole sentence
to make sense of the second word “it” which refers to the specific item
“watch” at the end.
 There it is, my so much admired watch.

11. Personal reference
is the reference by means of function in the
speech situation, through category person
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 37).
The examples of the personal can be the
words “he”, “she”, “they”

12. demonstrative
reference
is reference by means of location, on scale of
proximity (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 37).
The examples of demonstrative reference are the
words “this”, “that”, “those” , “these”.

13. comparative
reference
is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 37). (same, other)
The examples of comparative reference are the phrase
“such similar”, so similarity”, “other different else”

14. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was a fifteenth-century Italian genius who produced
only a handful of finished artworks. However, they include Mona Lisa and The Last
Supper, the former perhaps the most famous painting in the world. Although he is
remembered mainly as an artist, he was also an innovative engineer, scientist and anatomist.
His designs include tanks and flying machines, and although few of these were built in
his lifetime, he is still remembered as the man who saw their possibility.
Here, the reference words function as follows:
Leonardo da Vinci finished artworks Mona Lisa designs
He/His they the former these/their

15. substitution…
as another type of cohesive relation, or cohesive tie, is the process in which
one item within a text or discourse is replaced by another . While reference
was a relation on the semantic level, i.e. between meanings, substitution is a
relation on the lexico grammatical level (level of grammar and vocabulary)
“between linguistic items, such as words or phrases” (Halliday & Hasan 1994:
89). A substitute, in its broadest sense, can be seen as “a sort of counter which
is used in place of the repetition of a particular item”
• “I left my pen at home, do you have one?”

16. Nominal substitution
where the noun or a nominal group can be
replaced by a noun. substitutes “one” or “ones”
which always functions as head of a nominal
group, and can substitute only for an item.
• Jack’s car is very old and ugly. He should get a nicer one.

17. verbal substitution
the verb or a verbal group can be replaced by another
verb which is “do” .This functions as a head of verbal
group, and it is usually placed at the end of the group.
e.g.
A: Annie says you sleep too much.
B: So do you?

18. clausal substitution
is the type of substitution in which what is presupposed is
not an element within the clause but an entire clause
substituted by “so, not”
e.g. A: It is going to rain?
B: I think so.

19. Ellipsis
• is simply explained as „substitution by zero‟
(Halliday and Hasan. 1976: 142).
• words are deliberately left out of a sentence when
the meaning is still clear”. (Harmer, 2004:24)
It happens when a word or part of sentence are
omitted. Afterward, ellipsis can be divided into three
types, there are nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis, and
clausal ellipsis.

20. Types of Ellipsis
means ellipsis
within nominal
group
Nominal ellipsis
is the ellipsis
within the
verbal group
verbal ellipsis
Is the ellipsis or
omission of a part or
all of a clause.
clausal ellipsis

21.  Nominal ellipsis:
• e.g. “My kids practice an awful lot of sport. Both (0) are incredibly energetic”.
In this example, the omission concerned with “My kids”.
 Verbal ellipsis:
• e.g.: A: have you been working?
B: Yes, I have (0).
Here, the omission of the verbal group depends on what is said before and it is concerned with
“been working”.
 Clausal ellipsis:

• e.g.: A: why did you only set three places? Paul‟s, staying for dinner, isn‟t he?
B: Is he? He didn‟t tell him (0)
In this example the omission falls on the “Paul‟s, staying for dinner”

22. • this is achieved to have grammatical cohesion in texts which show the relationship between
sentences. They are different from other cohesive, ties that they reach the meaning by using
other features in the discourse. Because as Nunan (1993) points out, they use features to refer
to the other parts of the text in order to make relationship between sentences extremely
understood.
• focusing attention not on the semantic relation as such, as realized throughout the grammar of
the language, but on one particular aspect of them, namely the function they have of relating
to each other linguistic elements that occur in succession but are not related by other,
structural means. (Halliday and Hassan, 1978: 227)

23. MARS
Despite being red, Mars is a cold
place, not hot
Causal
Adversative
Types of conjunctive cohesion
Temporal
02
03
04 04
01 Additive

24. • The additive relation is somewhat different from coordination proper, although it
is no doubt derivable from it (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 244). The example of
additive conjunction are the words “and”, “or”, “besides”, etc.
• the base meaning of adversative is contrary to expectation (Halliday and Hasan,
1976: 250). The examples of adversative conjunction are the words “but”, “yet”,
“however”, etc.
• causal conjunction conducts between the subsequent of sentence or clause by
the relation of causality. The examples of causal conjunction are “so”, “thus”,
“because”, “hence”, etc.
• The last is temporal conjunction, according to Halliday and Hasan (1976, 261)
temporal relation occur in the sequence of time. The examples of temporal
conjunction are “then”, “next”, “afterwards”, etc.

25. References
Listiyanto, R. . (2015). The analysis of grammatical cohesion of sentences used in campus English magazine .
Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta.
Brown, G. & Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the spoken language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
Lucid, C. . (2011). Cohesion types.http://www.slideshare.net/cupidlucid/cohesion-types-presentation.
Sudani, N. K, et. al.(2017). The Grammatical Cohesion with Reference to Short Stories Entitled “The Twelve Dancing
Princesses” by Brothers Grimm And “The Whale Sound” by Roger Dean Kiser.Jurnal Humanis. 18.2 .39-46
George A. McCulley,G. A.(1985), .Writing Quality, Coherence, and Cohesion. National Council of Teachers of English.19(
3) .pp. 269-282 : http://www.jstor.org/stable/40171050
Halliday, M. and Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. Longman English Language Series.
Connor, U. (2009).A study of cohesion and coherence in English as a second language students’ writing. Purdue University.
Mahmoud, S. A .(N. D.).Cohesion in English :A Lecture in Composition and Comprehension .College of education for
humanities: University of Al. Muthanna .
Klimova, B.F.and Hubackova, S. (2014). Grammatical Cohesion in Abstracts. Elsevier Ltd. 116 : 664 – 668.doi:
10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.276

26. Thank you!
Any questions?