The document discusses the history of ideas about biological species from Aristotle to the 18th century. It argues that the standard view of species essentialism dominating until Darwin is incorrect. Early naturalists like Aristotle conceptualized species based on their generative capacities and ability to interbreed, not as fixed essences. While logicians discussed essences, naturalists focused on describing natural species. The concept of biological species as changing over generations emerged as early as the 17th-18th centuries with thinkers like Maupertuis proposing evolution through gradual hereditary changes.
It explains about the story of Ernst Mayr. He is great Taxonomist, Tropical explorer, Ornithologist, Historian science, Naturalist. He also published 20 Books and 700 Scientific papers.
The document provides a history of taxonomy from ancient times through modern evolutionary taxonomy. It describes how early taxonomy began with folk classifications and the earliest written works from China, Egypt, and Greece. Key figures discussed include Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny who established early plant classifications. The development of printing helped spread herbals written by early botanists. Early modern taxonomists like Caesalpino and the Bauhin brothers established genera and species as taxonomic levels. John Ray established species as the basic unit of taxonomy. Joseph Pitton de Tournefort dominated pre-Linnaean botanical taxonomy with his floral-based system. Carl Linnaeus then revolutionized taxonomy with his
This document discusses the early history of biological classification systems. Ancient Chinese herbalists, Egyptians, Greeks such as Aristotle, and Romans began classifying organisms and identifying their characteristics and relationships. The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided animals into those with or without blood. The Greek botanist Dioscorides made the first systematic classification of plants based on their medical properties while serving as a military surgeon.
This document provides a history of taxonomy from ancient times through the modern era. It discusses how early ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman scholars began classifying and organizing plants and animals. Key early taxonomists mentioned include Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny. It then covers the contributions of later taxonomists like Caesalpino, the Bauhin brothers, John Ray, and Joseph Pitton de Tournefort. The era of Carl Linnaeus is described as revolutionizing taxonomy through his introduction of binomial nomenclature. The document outlines how Linnaeus helped transform botany and zoology into scientific disciplines. It concludes with a discussion of developments like cl
This document summarizes the theory of evolution and presents criticisms of it from a creationist perspective. It discusses how scientific evidence has invalidated Darwin's original ideas and argues life is too complex to have evolved through natural selection and chance alone. The document also criticizes those who still defend evolution for ideological rather than scientific reasons and presents alternative explanations for the complexity of life.
The document summarizes the evolution of biological classification systems from Linnaeus' initial two-name system to the current three domain system. It describes how early classification grouped organisms based on physical similarities, while modern evolutionary classification is based on evolutionary relationships and genetic similarities revealed by molecular analysis. The three domain system divides all living things into Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Carl Linnaeus established the foundations of modern taxonomy in the 18th century with works like Systema Naturae and Species Plantarum which introduced binomial nomenclature. Over subsequent centuries, various scientists improved and developed taxonomic methods. Rules for botanical nomenclature were established in the 19th century to promote stability of scientific names. The development of evolutionary theory in the mid-19th century led to a shift from classification based only on observable characteristics to classifications attempting to reflect evolutionary relationships and phylogenies.
It explains about the story of Ernst Mayr. He is great Taxonomist, Tropical explorer, Ornithologist, Historian science, Naturalist. He also published 20 Books and 700 Scientific papers.
The document provides a history of taxonomy from ancient times through modern evolutionary taxonomy. It describes how early taxonomy began with folk classifications and the earliest written works from China, Egypt, and Greece. Key figures discussed include Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny who established early plant classifications. The development of printing helped spread herbals written by early botanists. Early modern taxonomists like Caesalpino and the Bauhin brothers established genera and species as taxonomic levels. John Ray established species as the basic unit of taxonomy. Joseph Pitton de Tournefort dominated pre-Linnaean botanical taxonomy with his floral-based system. Carl Linnaeus then revolutionized taxonomy with his
This document discusses the early history of biological classification systems. Ancient Chinese herbalists, Egyptians, Greeks such as Aristotle, and Romans began classifying organisms and identifying their characteristics and relationships. The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided animals into those with or without blood. The Greek botanist Dioscorides made the first systematic classification of plants based on their medical properties while serving as a military surgeon.
This document provides a history of taxonomy from ancient times through the modern era. It discusses how early ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman scholars began classifying and organizing plants and animals. Key early taxonomists mentioned include Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny. It then covers the contributions of later taxonomists like Caesalpino, the Bauhin brothers, John Ray, and Joseph Pitton de Tournefort. The era of Carl Linnaeus is described as revolutionizing taxonomy through his introduction of binomial nomenclature. The document outlines how Linnaeus helped transform botany and zoology into scientific disciplines. It concludes with a discussion of developments like cl
This document summarizes the theory of evolution and presents criticisms of it from a creationist perspective. It discusses how scientific evidence has invalidated Darwin's original ideas and argues life is too complex to have evolved through natural selection and chance alone. The document also criticizes those who still defend evolution for ideological rather than scientific reasons and presents alternative explanations for the complexity of life.
The document summarizes the evolution of biological classification systems from Linnaeus' initial two-name system to the current three domain system. It describes how early classification grouped organisms based on physical similarities, while modern evolutionary classification is based on evolutionary relationships and genetic similarities revealed by molecular analysis. The three domain system divides all living things into Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Carl Linnaeus established the foundations of modern taxonomy in the 18th century with works like Systema Naturae and Species Plantarum which introduced binomial nomenclature. Over subsequent centuries, various scientists improved and developed taxonomic methods. Rules for botanical nomenclature were established in the 19th century to promote stability of scientific names. The development of evolutionary theory in the mid-19th century led to a shift from classification based only on observable characteristics to classifications attempting to reflect evolutionary relationships and phylogenies.
This document discusses taxonomy and the classification of living organisms. It explains that taxonomy is the discipline of classifying organisms and assigning scientific names. It then provides a brief history of classification systems from ancient times to the current system, which is based on Carolus Linnaeus' introduction of binomial nomenclature and the six-kingdom system. The key levels of taxonomic classification from broadest to most specific are explained as kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Characteristics used to classify organisms into these categories are also outlined.
Hybrid species - talk delivered at GöttingenJohn Wilkins
1) The document discusses various concepts of what constitutes a species and argues that no single existing definition meets the criteria of being generally applicable, empirically adequate, and theoretically consequential.
2) It proposes that the concept of "species" is best understood as a cluster of related meanings and properties rather than a single definition, incorporating phenomena like lineages, genes, and habitats.
3) Templeton's "cohesion conception," which defines a species based on genetic and demographic exchangeability, is presented as one of the more general conceptions.
The document discusses the origin of the universe, life, and evolution of organisms. It describes two hypotheses for the origin of the universe - the Big Bang theory and Nebular hypothesis. It outlines how life originated from inorganic substances around 3.5 billion years ago, as evidenced by the Miller-Urey experiment. It also discusses homologous organs, analogous organs, vestigial organs, and evidence for evolution such as Archaeopteryx.
Unit 1.1.a. principle of genetics defintion and history- early concepts of i...Simranjit Singh
This document provides an overview of the early concepts of inheritance in genetics. It discusses key figures like Gregor Mendel who performed experiments on pea plants in the 1860s and deduced Mendel's laws of heredity. It also discusses earlier concepts including Aristotle's views on spontaneous generation and the experiments of Francesco Redi in the late 1600s which challenged this idea. The document also outlines the contributions of Antony van Leeuwenhoek who discovered microorganisms in the 1600-1700s and Louis Pasteur's experiments in the 1800s which provided strong evidence against spontaneous generation.
A Level Biology - Classification and Biodiversitymrexham
This is a PowerPoint presentation for Topic 3 in the Edexcel Biology B A Level course that starts in 2015.
This is a free sample, the full PowerPoint presentation is available to purchase here: https://sellfy.com/MrExham
This document provides an overview of the history and importance of systematic botany. It discusses how systematic botany evolved from early classification attempts by ancient tribes and scholars like Aristotle and Theophrastus to the modern system developed by Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century. Key developments include Linnaeus introducing the hierarchical classification system and binomial nomenclature, as well as contributions from Lamarck, Haeckel, Darwin, and others who advanced evolutionary understandings of classification. Systematic botany remains important for understanding biodiversity, evolution, and identifying important plant species.
This is a slideshow (with notes) of the Creation-Evolution Controversy presented to Calvary Coastal Fellowship in Auckland.
DISCLAIMER: Appropriate acknowledgement of copyright material has been made. However, information to rectify any oversight is welcomed.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) was a French naturalist who developed one of the first coherent theories of evolution. He believed that species evolved over time in response to environmental changes and could pass on acquired traits to their offspring. While his ideas were mocked in his lifetime, Lamarck was the first to propose evolutionary mechanisms and his work influenced later scientists like Darwin.
Revolutionizing the Research on Ants through new Methods and Technologies: th...agosti
Invited lecture presented at the XXII Simpósio de Mirmecologia, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil, October 22, 2015. The title takes reference to the ant conference to create a standard protocol to measure and monitor ants - the manual has been published 2000 as "Ants: measuring and monitoring biodiversity" which has been close to 2500 times cited by followup papers - and with the preparation started in 1995 in Ilhéus. The focus is on open access, digital library, sharing of data, publishing and the sociology of myrmecology, and how the data could be used in project like EU-BON.
- The document discusses how biologists reconstruct evolutionary histories and relationships between species through phylogenetic analysis. It uses the example of distinguishing snakes from legless lizards.
- Phylogenies are constructed by comparing traits across species and potential close relatives to determine how they are related through shared ancestors. They show patterns of descent, not just phenotypic similarity.
- Understanding phylogenies can help with applications like identifying wild relatives of domesticated species and determining the species identity of samples by comparing DNA sequences.
This document is the preface to Charles Darwin's 6th edition of "The Origin of Species". It provides a historical sketch of the progression of scientific thought on evolution and the origin of species prior to Darwin's work. It discusses the early ideas of several naturalists including Buffon, Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, and Wells who proposed ideas about species changing over time or the evolution of species. It outlines how Darwin's theory of natural selection built upon these early ideas.
This document discusses arguments for and against evolution and creationism. It presents summaries of scientific studies and quotes from scientists on both sides of the debate. The main questions raised are how life originated, how diversity arose, and whether evolution is a scientifically proven theory or a philosophical belief. Criticisms of the fossil record and dating of DNA are mentioned. Overall the document aims to critically examine evidence for both evolution and intelligent design.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of taxonomy. It discusses early Eastern and Western classifiers from 3000 BC to the 1700s AD such as Shen Nung, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Linnaeus. It then summarizes advances from the 1600s to present, including the establishment of the biological species concept, evolutionary taxonomy based on cladistics and phylogenetics, and the increasing use of genetic data to construct phylogenetic trees.
This document provides information about taxonomy and biological evolution. It discusses Carl Linnaeus' development of binomial nomenclature for classifying organisms into a taxonomic hierarchy of kingdoms, phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. Charles Darwin is noted for advancing the theory of evolution through natural selection, observing this on the Galapagos Islands. Evidence of evolution includes homologous structures and vestigial organs. Mutations, genetic drift, and gene flow can trigger changes in species over time as per the mechanism of evolution.
This document provides biographical information about Jonathan Wells, a prominent advocate of intelligent design. It summarizes Wells' educational and professional background, including receiving advanced degrees from Unification Theological Seminary and Yale University. It notes that Wells embarked on a PhD in molecular and cellular biology at UC Berkeley with the stated goal of "preparing myself for battle" against Darwinism. The document questions details of Wells' subsequent career and publications, and analyzes some of the claims made in Wells' book Icons of Evolution, finding that Wells misrepresents the evidence and takes facts out of context to criticize evolutionary biology. Overall, the document casts doubt on Wells' objectivity and characterization of the evidence regarding evolution.
The document discusses the classification of organisms into kingdoms. It describes the six kingdom system used today: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Each kingdom is defined by characteristics such as whether its cells are prokaryotic or eukaryotic, whether its members are unicellular or multicellular, and how they obtain nutrition.
Evrimin Cokusu( 생명의 기원-한국어) the collapse of evolution- The Orig...babylonboss
This document discusses the theory of evolution and the origin of life. It argues that life is too complex to have originated through natural processes alone and must have had an intelligent creator. It summarizes key points in the development of evolutionary theory from Darwin to modern times, noting that scientists have been unable to explain how the first living cell could have emerged from non-living matter through natural causes. The complex structures of cells and DNA are presented as evidence that life was designed and could not have arisen through random chance alone.
The document discusses the history and development of taxonomy from its earliest forms in ancient China through the modern era. It covers key figures and works that advanced the field, such as the first herbal works in ancient Egypt and Greece, early classification systems, Carolus Linnaeus's seminal contributions in the 1700s that established the modern binomial nomenclature system, the development of rules for nomenclature in the 19th century, and the shift from morphological to molecular techniques in recent decades. The document traces how taxonomy transformed from early herbalism and classification into the formal scientific discipline it is today.
This document describes a hot billet handling gantry system for picking up and placing hot billets that are 1250 degrees Celsius and weigh 150 kg. The system has a 10 meter long X-axis and a 0.5 meter lift Z-axis, along with a billet gripper that includes special cooling. It is designed to pick up and place hot forging billets at speeds up to 60 meters per minute.
El documento habla sobre las inundaciones en Pilar luego de intensas lluvias. Más de 1400 personas están afectadas y se incrementó el número de damnificados debido a nuevas crecidas en los arroyos Pinazo y Burgueño. También continúa la complicada situación en el río Luján. Se realizan campañas de donaciones para asistir a los afectados y se solicita la exención del pago de impuestos y tasas municipales para los damnificados.
This document discusses taxonomy and the classification of living organisms. It explains that taxonomy is the discipline of classifying organisms and assigning scientific names. It then provides a brief history of classification systems from ancient times to the current system, which is based on Carolus Linnaeus' introduction of binomial nomenclature and the six-kingdom system. The key levels of taxonomic classification from broadest to most specific are explained as kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Characteristics used to classify organisms into these categories are also outlined.
Hybrid species - talk delivered at GöttingenJohn Wilkins
1) The document discusses various concepts of what constitutes a species and argues that no single existing definition meets the criteria of being generally applicable, empirically adequate, and theoretically consequential.
2) It proposes that the concept of "species" is best understood as a cluster of related meanings and properties rather than a single definition, incorporating phenomena like lineages, genes, and habitats.
3) Templeton's "cohesion conception," which defines a species based on genetic and demographic exchangeability, is presented as one of the more general conceptions.
The document discusses the origin of the universe, life, and evolution of organisms. It describes two hypotheses for the origin of the universe - the Big Bang theory and Nebular hypothesis. It outlines how life originated from inorganic substances around 3.5 billion years ago, as evidenced by the Miller-Urey experiment. It also discusses homologous organs, analogous organs, vestigial organs, and evidence for evolution such as Archaeopteryx.
Unit 1.1.a. principle of genetics defintion and history- early concepts of i...Simranjit Singh
This document provides an overview of the early concepts of inheritance in genetics. It discusses key figures like Gregor Mendel who performed experiments on pea plants in the 1860s and deduced Mendel's laws of heredity. It also discusses earlier concepts including Aristotle's views on spontaneous generation and the experiments of Francesco Redi in the late 1600s which challenged this idea. The document also outlines the contributions of Antony van Leeuwenhoek who discovered microorganisms in the 1600-1700s and Louis Pasteur's experiments in the 1800s which provided strong evidence against spontaneous generation.
A Level Biology - Classification and Biodiversitymrexham
This is a PowerPoint presentation for Topic 3 in the Edexcel Biology B A Level course that starts in 2015.
This is a free sample, the full PowerPoint presentation is available to purchase here: https://sellfy.com/MrExham
This document provides an overview of the history and importance of systematic botany. It discusses how systematic botany evolved from early classification attempts by ancient tribes and scholars like Aristotle and Theophrastus to the modern system developed by Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century. Key developments include Linnaeus introducing the hierarchical classification system and binomial nomenclature, as well as contributions from Lamarck, Haeckel, Darwin, and others who advanced evolutionary understandings of classification. Systematic botany remains important for understanding biodiversity, evolution, and identifying important plant species.
This is a slideshow (with notes) of the Creation-Evolution Controversy presented to Calvary Coastal Fellowship in Auckland.
DISCLAIMER: Appropriate acknowledgement of copyright material has been made. However, information to rectify any oversight is welcomed.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) was a French naturalist who developed one of the first coherent theories of evolution. He believed that species evolved over time in response to environmental changes and could pass on acquired traits to their offspring. While his ideas were mocked in his lifetime, Lamarck was the first to propose evolutionary mechanisms and his work influenced later scientists like Darwin.
Revolutionizing the Research on Ants through new Methods and Technologies: th...agosti
Invited lecture presented at the XXII Simpósio de Mirmecologia, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil, October 22, 2015. The title takes reference to the ant conference to create a standard protocol to measure and monitor ants - the manual has been published 2000 as "Ants: measuring and monitoring biodiversity" which has been close to 2500 times cited by followup papers - and with the preparation started in 1995 in Ilhéus. The focus is on open access, digital library, sharing of data, publishing and the sociology of myrmecology, and how the data could be used in project like EU-BON.
- The document discusses how biologists reconstruct evolutionary histories and relationships between species through phylogenetic analysis. It uses the example of distinguishing snakes from legless lizards.
- Phylogenies are constructed by comparing traits across species and potential close relatives to determine how they are related through shared ancestors. They show patterns of descent, not just phenotypic similarity.
- Understanding phylogenies can help with applications like identifying wild relatives of domesticated species and determining the species identity of samples by comparing DNA sequences.
This document is the preface to Charles Darwin's 6th edition of "The Origin of Species". It provides a historical sketch of the progression of scientific thought on evolution and the origin of species prior to Darwin's work. It discusses the early ideas of several naturalists including Buffon, Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, and Wells who proposed ideas about species changing over time or the evolution of species. It outlines how Darwin's theory of natural selection built upon these early ideas.
This document discusses arguments for and against evolution and creationism. It presents summaries of scientific studies and quotes from scientists on both sides of the debate. The main questions raised are how life originated, how diversity arose, and whether evolution is a scientifically proven theory or a philosophical belief. Criticisms of the fossil record and dating of DNA are mentioned. Overall the document aims to critically examine evidence for both evolution and intelligent design.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of taxonomy. It discusses early Eastern and Western classifiers from 3000 BC to the 1700s AD such as Shen Nung, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Linnaeus. It then summarizes advances from the 1600s to present, including the establishment of the biological species concept, evolutionary taxonomy based on cladistics and phylogenetics, and the increasing use of genetic data to construct phylogenetic trees.
This document provides information about taxonomy and biological evolution. It discusses Carl Linnaeus' development of binomial nomenclature for classifying organisms into a taxonomic hierarchy of kingdoms, phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. Charles Darwin is noted for advancing the theory of evolution through natural selection, observing this on the Galapagos Islands. Evidence of evolution includes homologous structures and vestigial organs. Mutations, genetic drift, and gene flow can trigger changes in species over time as per the mechanism of evolution.
This document provides biographical information about Jonathan Wells, a prominent advocate of intelligent design. It summarizes Wells' educational and professional background, including receiving advanced degrees from Unification Theological Seminary and Yale University. It notes that Wells embarked on a PhD in molecular and cellular biology at UC Berkeley with the stated goal of "preparing myself for battle" against Darwinism. The document questions details of Wells' subsequent career and publications, and analyzes some of the claims made in Wells' book Icons of Evolution, finding that Wells misrepresents the evidence and takes facts out of context to criticize evolutionary biology. Overall, the document casts doubt on Wells' objectivity and characterization of the evidence regarding evolution.
The document discusses the classification of organisms into kingdoms. It describes the six kingdom system used today: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Each kingdom is defined by characteristics such as whether its cells are prokaryotic or eukaryotic, whether its members are unicellular or multicellular, and how they obtain nutrition.
Evrimin Cokusu( 생명의 기원-한국어) the collapse of evolution- The Orig...babylonboss
This document discusses the theory of evolution and the origin of life. It argues that life is too complex to have originated through natural processes alone and must have had an intelligent creator. It summarizes key points in the development of evolutionary theory from Darwin to modern times, noting that scientists have been unable to explain how the first living cell could have emerged from non-living matter through natural causes. The complex structures of cells and DNA are presented as evidence that life was designed and could not have arisen through random chance alone.
The document discusses the history and development of taxonomy from its earliest forms in ancient China through the modern era. It covers key figures and works that advanced the field, such as the first herbal works in ancient Egypt and Greece, early classification systems, Carolus Linnaeus's seminal contributions in the 1700s that established the modern binomial nomenclature system, the development of rules for nomenclature in the 19th century, and the shift from morphological to molecular techniques in recent decades. The document traces how taxonomy transformed from early herbalism and classification into the formal scientific discipline it is today.
This document describes a hot billet handling gantry system for picking up and placing hot billets that are 1250 degrees Celsius and weigh 150 kg. The system has a 10 meter long X-axis and a 0.5 meter lift Z-axis, along with a billet gripper that includes special cooling. It is designed to pick up and place hot forging billets at speeds up to 60 meters per minute.
El documento habla sobre las inundaciones en Pilar luego de intensas lluvias. Más de 1400 personas están afectadas y se incrementó el número de damnificados debido a nuevas crecidas en los arroyos Pinazo y Burgueño. También continúa la complicada situación en el río Luján. Se realizan campañas de donaciones para asistir a los afectados y se solicita la exención del pago de impuestos y tasas municipales para los damnificados.
This document discusses Bulgaria's involvement in international environmental cleanup efforts and good sustainability practices in the city of Burgas. It describes how Bulgaria participated in the "Let's Do It!" campaign in 2013 by cleaning 19,000 tons of garbage. It also notes that students helped clean their school and surrounding area. Finally, it highlights some of Burgas's eco-friendly initiatives like separate collection bins, planting trees, creating bike lanes, and offering rent-a-bikes to reduce pollution.
1) Inmates go through classification tests before prison entry and must adjust to a no-frills policy where prisons punish, not coddle.
2) Prison life involves deprivation of liberty, goods, relationships and autonomy under constant surveillance in overcrowded facilities.
3) Inmates develop unique subcultures and codes of conduct to navigate prisonization, with African American and Latino inmates more cohesively organized than whites.
4) Rehabilitation programs like counseling, education and vocational training provide benefits in and out of prison, but inmates face risks of reentry like reconviction due to lack of preparation for conventional life.
While Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was developed independently of ideas about eugenics and social policy, some later interpreted his work as supporting eugenics programs. Eugenics emerged in the late 19th century with the goal of improving human hereditary traits through policies like encouraging reproduction among the "fit" and discouraging it among the "unfit." Eugenics programs were implemented in several Western countries in the early 20th century, most notoriously by the Nazis in Germany. However, Darwin's theory does not inherently imply any social or political program, and many evolutionary biologists opposed eugenics. The relationship between scientific theories of heredity and evolution and their social interpretations is complex.
Este documento describe las propiedades de los líquidos y las soluciones. Explica que los líquidos tienen volumen definido pero no forma definida debido al movimiento browniano de sus moléculas. Describe propiedades como la viscosidad, presión de vapor, punto de ebullición y capilaridad. Luego se enfoca en el agua como solvente común, dando sus propiedades. Finalmente define las características de las soluciones, solubilidad, tipos de soluciones y propiedades coligativas como punto de fusión, presión de vapor y punto de
This document provides an overview of taxonomy and the classification of life. It discusses the early development of taxonomy from Aristotle through Linnaeus and the establishment of the binomial nomenclature system. It also describes how Darwin's theory of evolution influenced taxonomy by establishing that classification should reflect evolutionary relationships and shared ancestry. Modern taxonomy incorporates various lines of evidence including morphology, embryology, biochemistry, and molecular data to reconstruct evolutionary history and classify organisms appropriately.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of taxonomy, the science of classifying living organisms. It discusses how early taxonomists like Aristotle and Linnaeus grouped organisms based on visible characteristics. Charles Darwin later established that taxonomy should reflect evolutionary relationships and shared ancestry. The document also outlines the major kingdoms and domains proposed by scientists over time to classify the diversity of life, from the original plant and animal kingdoms to the current three domain system of bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Molecular evidence now supports or refines previous taxonomic classifications.
1) Aristotle made many contributions to biology, directly studying hundreds of species and making discoveries like dolphins being mammals, different types of reproduction in animals, and embryonic chicken development.
2) He established guidelines for biological research including beginning with observation, explaining structures in terms of purpose, and recognizing natural classifications.
3) Aristotle developed one of the earliest systems for classifying animal life, grouping animals based on attributes like live birth, egg-laying, blood, and shells.
The document evaluates an argument that all living beings originated from aquatic creatures. It presents the main argument that aquatic animals descended from an original aquatic phylum. However, it raises an objection that not all living beings use water in the same way. For example, fish can survive on land for brief periods but do not have lungs to oxygenate blood, so there is no direct relationship between fish and land mammals. In conclusion, while evolution has not been disproven, arguments against evolution based on "creationism" are not scientifically valid since creationism is not supported by evidence in the same way as scientific hypotheses.
This document provides brief biographies of 9 famous people in biology:
1. Aristotle was an early Greek philosopher who made important contributions to many fields including biology and is considered the originator of the scientific study of life.
2. Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist who proved that microorganisms cause disease and fermentation and developed vaccines for rabies and anthrax. He is regarded as one of the founders of microbiology.
3. Charles Darwin was a British naturalist best known for developing the theory of evolution by natural selection and providing scientific evidence that all species evolve over time from common ancestors.
1. The document discusses evolution and natural selection, referencing Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle. It describes how Darwin was influenced by observing homologous structures in the Galapagos Islands.
2. Darwin later published On the Origin of Species, introducing his theory of evolution by natural selection. He proposed that species evolve over generations through natural selection of inheritable traits that increase survival and reproduction.
3. The document provides examples of natural selection in action, adaptive radiation of honeycreepers in the Galapagos, and the process of speciation leading to new species.
This document provides a historical sketch of the progression of scientific thought on the origin of species prior to Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859. It discusses the early works of several naturalists throughout the 18th and 19th centuries who proposed ideas about species changing over time or being descended from other species, including Buffon, Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, and Wells. It outlines how their thinking gradually moved towards the theory of evolution by natural selection, with thinkers like Grant, Herbert, and Matthew proposing ideas similar to Darwin and Wallace's natural selection model in the 1830s-1850s.
This document discusses the concept of essentialism in biology and its history. It argues that the idea that pre-Darwinian biologists held an essentialist view that prohibited biological change is incorrect. While the term "essentialism" has been used in various ways, essentialism per se was not prevalent in biology and did not constrain early evolutionary thought. The document traces how the idea of an "Essentialism Story" arose in the mid-20th century and became cemented in scientific thought despite a lack of evidence. It examines different forms of essentialism and argues that some modern formulations are not inherently at odds with evolutionary biology.
1. The document discusses creationism and evolutionism as theories for the origin of living things. Creationism believes species were created as they are now, while evolutionism believes species evolve over time from ancestral forms.
2. Key figures discussed include Linnaeus, Cuvier, Lamarck, Darwin, and Wallace. Lamarck proposed a theory of evolution through inheritance of acquired characteristics and use/disuse of organs. Darwin and Wallace jointly developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
3. The theory of natural selection proposes that species evolve through genetic variation, a struggle for survival, and the survival and reproduction of individuals best adapted to the environment, leading to the emergence of new species over generations.
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This document discusses different concepts and types of species. It begins by outlining the historical conceptions of species from Linnaeus' static view to modern dynamic views incorporating genetics and evolution. It then describes 13 different types of species defined by characteristics like geographical range, morphology, genetics, and reproduction. The document concludes by defining intraspecific categories like subspecies and discussing the concepts of polytypic versus monotypic species.
This document discusses fossils and how they relate to Darwin's theory of evolution. It notes that while fossils provide information about past life, the fossil record does not show the gradual transitions between species that evolution predicts. Instead, species appear abruptly in the fossil record fully formed. It argues this contradicts Darwin's theory and supports the idea that species were created as distinct types. It provides examples of "living fossils" - species that have remained virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions of years - as further evidence against evolution.
human evolution, origin of life, big bang theory, theories on origin of life, evolution of life forms, experimental evidence on theory of chemical evolution, evidences of evolution, homology and analogy, biochemical and biogeographical evidences, adaptive radiation, lamarck's theory of evolution, darwins theory of evolution, mechanism of evolution, hardy weinberg principle, mutations
This document discusses different species concepts in biology. It begins by defining a species as a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. It then discusses four main species concepts:
1. The typological/essentialist concept which views each species as fixed types with essential characteristics.
2. The nominalistic concept which sees species as human constructs with no real existence.
3. The biological species concept which defines a species as groups that can interbreed but are reproductively isolated from other groups.
4. The evolutionary species concept which views species as segments of branching lineages.
It provides details on each concept and their criticisms, focusing most on the biological species concept as the most widely
Delivered this as talk series on Evolution to some of my colleagues interested in systems thinking. It was a great learning for me and will incorporate it into a sequel later.
Updates:
1. Version 2013.11.23 - Reorganized some slides, added images and credits
2. Version 2013.11.25 - Reorganized presentation around three aspects. Added better intro.
3. Version 2013.11.26 - Updated implications aspect for global warming and behavioral sink.
4. Version 2013.11.27 - Updated taxonomy discussion.
5. V 2013.12.05 - Updated natural selection, convergent evolution and punctuated equilibrium. Reorg of slides.
6. V 2013.12.16 - Added chaos and self-organization slides.
7. V 2013.12.21 - Added extinctions and explosions.
8. V2013.12.23 - Added more chaos explanation and Wikipedia logo.
9. V2014.05.05 - Corrected spelling mistakes and cleaned up slides.
FEATURING THE SUMMARY OF SCIENCE 10 UNIT 3 MODULE 3
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
BIODIVERSITY
FOSSILS
RELATIVE DATING METHOD
RADIOMETRIC DATING METHOD
HOMOLOGOUS
ANALOGOUS
THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION
Evolutionary biology seeks to understand the processes of biological evolution. The document outlines key developments in the field, including Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and descent with modification. It describes how evolutionary biology has been used to trace the origins of infectious diseases like Ebola and HIV. The modern evolutionary synthesis integrated genetics with Darwin's theory to become the modern framework for understanding evolution.
The document discusses various concepts and definitions of species in biology. It begins by explaining how species have traditionally been viewed as essential, fixed units but are now understood to evolve and diversify over time. It then examines different species concepts, including the biological species concept which defines a species as a population that can interbreed but is reproductively isolated from other species. The document also discusses concepts like nominalism which questions whether species are "real" categories. It explores recognition, cohesion and evolutionary species concepts, and defines types of species such as cryptic, endemic and polytypic species. Finally, it examines intraspecific categories below the species level like subspecies.
A talk based on my chapter in _Species Problems and Beyond_ (CRC Press, 2022) in which I argue that some concepts are neither model-based as Nercessian argues, nor theory-derived, but come from the operative traditions as they develop out of folk concepts.
Institutional religion is one social coordination solution among many that evolved in large-scale societies exceeding kin relations. The document discusses using phylogenetic inference rather than adaptationism to understand the evolution of religion. It defines religion as social institutions that bind ethnically diverse groups and examines the behavioral foundations of religion in human dominance hierarchies, empathy, and cultural transmission.
Mercier and Sperber's argumentative theory of reasoning proposes that:
1) Reasoning evolved primarily for argumentation, not for personal inference or belief formation. It allows humans to construct arguments to convince others and evaluate arguments from others.
2) Reasoning is thus best seen as a communication faculty rather than a truth-seeking process. It helps increase the sharing of information between individuals.
3) Predictions of this theory include that people are biased in their reasoning to find arguments that support their own views, and reasoning in groups tends to be more effective than alone.
The document discusses the concept of essentialism in biology and its history. It argues that the commonly held view that pre-Darwinian biologists were essentialists is incorrect, and that essentialism has never actually played a significant role in biology. The rise of the idea that essentialism dominated pre-Darwinian thought is traced to certain scientists in the mid-20th century seeking to emphasize Darwin's revolutionary ideas on species and evolution. This established view has persisted despite arguments that essentialism was not actually present in biological thought historically.
This document outlines different styles of systematics and taxonomy that Darwin may have used if he was alive today. It discusses counterfactual history approaches and describes three main styles: phylogenetic systematics which uses character identity and homology; numerical taxonomy which uses character similarity; and evolutionary systematics which uses both homology and adaptation. The document analyzes the logical approaches of each style and the types of diagrams they generate, such as cladograms, phenograms, and phylograms. It also discusses Linnaean taxonomy and George Gaylord Simpson's concept of "adaptive zones".
This document discusses different theories around deep time and catastrophism in geology. It covers Baron Georges Cuvier's theory that catastrophic events caused extinction and were followed by new creations. It also discusses theories of uniformitarianism and debates around vulcanism versus neptunism. Other topics covered include early views of an old earth, the development of ideas around deep time, the Alvarez hypothesis of an asteroid impact causing the K-T extinction event, evidence for this like the Chicxulub crater and tektites, and debates around the role of the Deccan Traps volcanic eruptions.
History of Nature 4a Engineered Landscapes.pdfJohn Wilkins
This document discusses the history of engineered landscapes and how humans have shaped the natural world through agriculture, settlements, fire use, water management structures, and designed spaces like gardens and parks. It provides examples of early villages and fields near resources, Roman aqueducts, Australian Aboriginal "fire-stick farming" and eel traps, Bali's intricate irrigation systems and temples, 18th century geometric gardens in France and the English landscape garden style. The role of botanical gardens in conservation is also mentioned.
History of Nature 3a Voyages of Discovery.pdfJohn Wilkins
The document discusses the history of voyages of discovery from the 15th to 19th centuries. It describes how these voyages led to the rise of global trade in spices, the Columbian Exchange of plants, animals and diseases between the Old World and New World, the development of colonialism and the transatlantic slave trade. Key figures discussed include Darwin, Wallace and Merian, whose voyages contributed to the development of biology, ecology and the theory of evolution through natural selection.
The document discusses the Anthropocene epoch from geological and environmental perspectives. It notes that the term "Anthropocene" has two uses: a general one among social scientists referring to human impacts on the planet, and a specific geological meaning referring to evidence of human activity that will be visible to future geologists. It explores potential dates for the beginning of the Anthropocene, from the extinction of megafauna to the Industrial Revolution. Evidence cited includes rising extinction rates, climate change, plastic pollution, and isotopes from nuclear testing preserved in sediments. The growth of plastic waste polluting oceans is highlighted as a defining feature of the Anthropocene.
History of Nature 10a Repairing Nature.pdfJohn Wilkins
This document discusses various topics related to repairing nature through restoration ecology, rewilding, and de-extinction. It explores definitions of key concepts like invasive species, examines debates around restoration goals and time periods, and questions whether resurrecting extinct species can truly restore ecological roles and functions. The document also raises issues regarding the ethics of large-scale technological interventions in nature through geoengineering and questions about balancing human and environmental rights when repairing ecosystems.
History of Nature 5a Measuring the World.pdfJohn Wilkins
This document discusses the history and development of natural history and related scientific disciplines around 1800. It focuses on the increasing emphasis on precision, quantification, and measurement in natural history during this time period. Key figures discussed include Alexander von Humboldt, who developed the idea of conducting portable laboratory science on explorations and made extensive measurements throughout his travels. The document also describes Humboldt's influence in developing techniques like using isolines on maps to relate different measurements and his role in inventing the modern concept of a unitary nature.
The document discusses several key issues around defining and understanding human nature from an evolutionary perspective:
- Evolutionary explanations of human behavior must avoid observer bias and projecting cultural norms as biological facts.
- It is important to distinguish whether explanations are addressing proximate mechanisms, ontogeny, phylogeny, or adaptive function using Tinbergen's framework.
- Not all traits are directly adaptive - some may be non-adaptive byproducts.
- Understanding human nature requires comparing humans to our nearest relatives like chimpanzees to identify universal ape traits versus uniquely human characteristics.
History of Nature 6a Darwinian Revn.pdfJohn Wilkins
This document provides an overview of Darwin and Wallace's seven main theories of evolution: 1) Evolution itself, 2) Common descent, 3) Struggle for existence, 4) Natural selection, 5) Sexual selection, 6) Biogeography, and 7) Pangenesis. It summarizes each theory concisely, highlighting Darwin and Wallace's key ideas about transmutation, shared ancestry, competition for survival, heritable advantageous variations, mate choice influences, regional distribution of species, and Darwin's failed theory of inheritance. The document traces the development of evolutionary thought leading up to and following Darwin's seminal work.
History of Nature 7a Invention Environmentalism2.pdfJohn Wilkins
This document provides an overview of the history of environmentalism and key related concepts. It discusses how the concept of wilderness evolved in Europe and was defined from a Eurocentric perspective. It also outlines the development of ecology as a field in the late 19th century with contributions from thinkers like Haeckel, Warming, and Elton. The document then discusses the state of the environment in the 19th century due to industrialization, as well as the establishment of the first national parks in the US to protect wilderness areas like Yosemite and Yellowstone. Influential figures like John Muir who advocated for conservation are also mentioned.
History of Nature 8a Human Nature 2.pdfJohn Wilkins
The document discusses theories of human nature from an evolutionary perspective. It covers topics like human evolution, nature versus nurture, morality, cooperation and competition, and theories of human origins. Regarding morality, it discusses perspectives that see morality as either imposed by an external force like God or society, or as having evolved through natural selection as a way to regulate cooperation within social groups. It also summarizes ideas from thinkers like Darwin, Kropotkin, and Trivers about how sympathy, mutual aid, and reciprocal altruism could have evolved and helped humans to survive and thrive through cooperation.
History of Nature 21 2b Sacred Nature.pdfJohn Wilkins
This document discusses various examples of sacred nature throughout history. It mentions sacred groves and trees from ancient Greece and Hindu traditions. It also describes the Norse concept of the world tree Yggdrasil. Several passages provide perspectives on the importance of preserving forests, including quotes from John Muir advocating to stop the damming of Hetch Hetchy Valley. The document concludes by describing modern church forests in Ethiopia that have been preserved for religious and cultural significance.
History of Nature 10b Houston we have a problem.pdfJohn Wilkins
This document discusses various approaches to addressing climate change, including geoengineering techniques that aim to control the climate but face many risks and problems. It notes that rising carbon dioxide levels have led to an uncontrolled experiment with the Earth's climate. While a low-carbon future could help mitigate global warming, current trajectories suggest business as usual. The document raises whether a large-scale coordinated effort like the post-WWII Marshall Plan could help finance solutions to environmental problems globally.
The document discusses the concept of nature and the environment from several perspectives:
1) It explores the history of conservation biology and key thinkers like Aldo Leopold.
2) It examines concepts like ecosystems, novel ecosystems, and urban landscapes in the context of increasing human intervention in nature.
3) It outlines philosophies of nature like deep ecology and their focus on intrinsic value versus human interests.
4) It references the emerging idea of the Anthropocene epoch and the significant impact that human activity now has on the planet.
History of Nature 7b Spaceship Earth.pdfJohn Wilkins
This document discusses the metaphor of the Earth as a spaceship and how thinkers throughout history have used this metaphor. It mentions that the idea of spaceship Earth was discussed as early as 1879 by Henry George in his book Progress and Poverty. Later thinkers like George Orwell and Adlai Stevenson also invoked the metaphor. The document then discusses how systems theory views the Earth's ecosystems, economies, and human systems as interconnected complex networks and emphasizes the need to understand them as such in order to ensure the sustainability and resilience of the whole system.
History of Nature 2a Invention of Nature.pdfJohn Wilkins
Ancient Greece and Rome developed influential concepts of nature that still impact modern understanding. Greeks viewed nature as all-encompassing and perfect in its cycles, though also malleable by outside forces. They distinguished nature from culture and regarded natural order as both descriptive and prescriptive. Romans saw nature as regenerating in a cyclical fashion. Both civilizations regarded uncontrolled wilderness differently than the idealized nature incorporating human presence within cities and cultivated lands. Their ideas of a hierarchical natural order were used to justify social inequalities.
History of Nature 6b The Whole Orang.pdfJohn Wilkins
Orangutans have been adapting to humans for over 70,000 years. While orangutans are typically viewed as vulnerable species dependent on pristine forests, evidence suggests they have shown adaptability in coexisting with humans for thousands of years. Speculation on human origins and links between humans and primates have existed for centuries. Lamarck first proposed in 1809 that humans arose from apes like orangutans, though this was initially seen as absurd. Darwin's work built on these ideas and helped establish evolutionary thinking about human origins.
GlobalLogic Java Community Webinar #18 “How to Improve Web Application Perfor...GlobalLogic Ukraine
Під час доповіді відповімо на питання, навіщо потрібно підвищувати продуктивність аплікації і які є найефективніші способи для цього. А також поговоримо про те, що таке кеш, які його види бувають та, основне — як знайти performance bottleneck?
Відео та деталі заходу: https://bit.ly/45tILxj
"Choosing proper type of scaling", Olena SyrotaFwdays
Imagine an IoT processing system that is already quite mature and production-ready and for which client coverage is growing and scaling and performance aspects are life and death questions. The system has Redis, MongoDB, and stream processing based on ksqldb. In this talk, firstly, we will analyze scaling approaches and then select the proper ones for our system.
The Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) invited Taylor Paschal, Knowledge & Information Management Consultant at Enterprise Knowledge, to speak at a Knowledge Management Lunch and Learn hosted on June 12, 2024. All Office of Administration staff were invited to attend and received professional development credit for participating in the voluntary event.
The objectives of the Lunch and Learn presentation were to:
- Review what KM ‘is’ and ‘isn’t’
- Understand the value of KM and the benefits of engaging
- Define and reflect on your “what’s in it for me?”
- Share actionable ways you can participate in Knowledge - - Capture & Transfer
"What does it really mean for your system to be available, or how to define w...Fwdays
We will talk about system monitoring from a few different angles. We will start by covering the basics, then discuss SLOs, how to define them, and why understanding the business well is crucial for success in this exercise.
Must Know Postgres Extension for DBA and Developer during MigrationMydbops
Mydbops Opensource Database Meetup 16
Topic: Must-Know PostgreSQL Extensions for Developers and DBAs During Migration
Speaker: Deepak Mahto, Founder of DataCloudGaze Consulting
Date & Time: 8th June | 10 AM - 1 PM IST
Venue: Bangalore International Centre, Bangalore
Abstract: Discover how PostgreSQL extensions can be your secret weapon! This talk explores how key extensions enhance database capabilities and streamline the migration process for users moving from other relational databases like Oracle.
Key Takeaways:
* Learn about crucial extensions like oracle_fdw, pgtt, and pg_audit that ease migration complexities.
* Gain valuable strategies for implementing these extensions in PostgreSQL to achieve license freedom.
* Discover how these key extensions can empower both developers and DBAs during the migration process.
* Don't miss this chance to gain practical knowledge from an industry expert and stay updated on the latest open-source database trends.
Mydbops Managed Services specializes in taking the pain out of database management while optimizing performance. Since 2015, we have been providing top-notch support and assistance for the top three open-source databases: MySQL, MongoDB, and PostgreSQL.
Our team offers a wide range of services, including assistance, support, consulting, 24/7 operations, and expertise in all relevant technologies. We help organizations improve their database's performance, scalability, efficiency, and availability.
Contact us: info@mydbops.com
Visit: https://www.mydbops.com/
Follow us on LinkedIn: https://in.linkedin.com/company/mydbops
For more details and updates, please follow up the below links.
Meetup Page : https://www.meetup.com/mydbops-databa...
Twitter: https://twitter.com/mydbopsofficial
Blogs: https://www.mydbops.com/blog/
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What is an RPA CoE? Session 1 – CoE VisionDianaGray10
In the first session, we will review the organization's vision and how this has an impact on the COE Structure.
Topics covered:
• The role of a steering committee
• How do the organization’s priorities determine CoE Structure?
Speaker:
Chris Bolin, Senior Intelligent Automation Architect Anika Systems
AppSec PNW: Android and iOS Application Security with MobSFAjin Abraham
Mobile Security Framework - MobSF is a free and open source automated mobile application security testing environment designed to help security engineers, researchers, developers, and penetration testers to identify security vulnerabilities, malicious behaviours and privacy concerns in mobile applications using static and dynamic analysis. It supports all the popular mobile application binaries and source code formats built for Android and iOS devices. In addition to automated security assessment, it also offers an interactive testing environment to build and execute scenario based test/fuzz cases against the application.
This talk covers:
Using MobSF for static analysis of mobile applications.
Interactive dynamic security assessment of Android and iOS applications.
Solving Mobile app CTF challenges.
Reverse engineering and runtime analysis of Mobile malware.
How to shift left and integrate MobSF/mobsfscan SAST and DAST in your build pipeline.
In our second session, we shall learn all about the main features and fundamentals of UiPath Studio that enable us to use the building blocks for any automation project.
📕 Detailed agenda:
Variables and Datatypes
Workflow Layouts
Arguments
Control Flows and Loops
Conditional Statements
💻 Extra training through UiPath Academy:
Variables, Constants, and Arguments in Studio
Control Flow in Studio
Connector Corner: Seamlessly power UiPath Apps, GenAI with prebuilt connectorsDianaGray10
Join us to learn how UiPath Apps can directly and easily interact with prebuilt connectors via Integration Service--including Salesforce, ServiceNow, Open GenAI, and more.
The best part is you can achieve this without building a custom workflow! Say goodbye to the hassle of using separate automations to call APIs. By seamlessly integrating within App Studio, you can now easily streamline your workflow, while gaining direct access to our Connector Catalog of popular applications.
We’ll discuss and demo the benefits of UiPath Apps and connectors including:
Creating a compelling user experience for any software, without the limitations of APIs.
Accelerating the app creation process, saving time and effort
Enjoying high-performance CRUD (create, read, update, delete) operations, for
seamless data management.
Speakers:
Russell Alfeche, Technology Leader, RPA at qBotic and UiPath MVP
Charlie Greenberg, host
[OReilly Superstream] Occupy the Space: A grassroots guide to engineering (an...Jason Yip
The typical problem in product engineering is not bad strategy, so much as “no strategy”. This leads to confusion, lack of motivation, and incoherent action. The next time you look for a strategy and find an empty space, instead of waiting for it to be filled, I will show you how to fill it in yourself. If you’re wrong, it forces a correction. If you’re right, it helps create focus. I’ll share how I’ve approached this in the past, both what works and lessons for what didn’t work so well.
This talk will cover ScyllaDB Architecture from the cluster-level view and zoom in on data distribution and internal node architecture. In the process, we will learn the secret sauce used to get ScyllaDB's high availability and superior performance. We will also touch on the upcoming changes to ScyllaDB architecture, moving to strongly consistent metadata and tablets.
AI in the Workplace Reskilling, Upskilling, and Future Work.pptxSunil Jagani
Discover how AI is transforming the workplace and learn strategies for reskilling and upskilling employees to stay ahead. This comprehensive guide covers the impact of AI on jobs, essential skills for the future, and successful case studies from industry leaders. Embrace AI-driven changes, foster continuous learning, and build a future-ready workforce.
Read More - https://bit.ly/3VKly70
How information systems are built or acquired puts information, which is what they should be about, in a secondary place. Our language adapted accordingly, and we no longer talk about information systems but applications. Applications evolved in a way to break data into diverse fragments, tightly coupled with applications and expensive to integrate. The result is technical debt, which is re-paid by taking even bigger "loans", resulting in an ever-increasing technical debt. Software engineering and procurement practices work in sync with market forces to maintain this trend. This talk demonstrates how natural this situation is. The question is: can something be done to reverse the trend?
"NATO Hackathon Winner: AI-Powered Drug Search", Taras KlobaFwdays
This is a session that details how PostgreSQL's features and Azure AI Services can be effectively used to significantly enhance the search functionality in any application.
In this session, we'll share insights on how we used PostgreSQL to facilitate precise searches across multiple fields in our mobile application. The techniques include using LIKE and ILIKE operators and integrating a trigram-based search to handle potential misspellings, thereby increasing the search accuracy.
We'll also discuss how the azure_ai extension on PostgreSQL databases in Azure and Azure AI Services were utilized to create vectors from user input, a feature beneficial when users wish to find specific items based on text prompts. While our application's case study involves a drug search, the techniques and principles shared in this session can be adapted to improve search functionality in a wide range of applications. Join us to learn how PostgreSQL and Azure AI can be harnessed to enhance your application's search capability.
Getting the Most Out of ScyllaDB Monitoring: ShareChat's TipsScyllaDB
ScyllaDB monitoring provides a lot of useful information. But sometimes it’s not easy to find the root of the problem if something is wrong or even estimate the remaining capacity by the load on the cluster. This talk shares our team's practical tips on: 1) How to find the root of the problem by metrics if ScyllaDB is slow 2) How to interpret the load and plan capacity for the future 3) Compaction strategies and how to choose the right one 4) Important metrics which aren’t available in the default monitoring setup.
QA or the Highway - Component Testing: Bridging the gap between frontend appl...zjhamm304
These are the slides for the presentation, "Component Testing: Bridging the gap between frontend applications" that was presented at QA or the Highway 2024 in Columbus, OH by Zachary Hamm.
QA or the Highway - Component Testing: Bridging the gap between frontend appl...
Generative conception
1. The Generative
Conception of Species
John S.Wilkins
University of Queensland
What I’m going to do - focus on modern period, and particularly the French and English naturalists
of the 18th and 19th Cs.
2. Outline
The StandardView of the History of Species
Essentialism
Typology
Fixism
Species as Similarity Generation
Classical
Early Natural History
The 18th and 19th Centuries
Conclusions
One Concept (in biology) many Conceptions
Run through an intensive fire of quotations (Churchill - intense versus intensive). This is because the
standard view that I’m going to contradict is so well established that if you know it you may think I
am making this up. We need them to establish what the early view of species actually was.
3. The StandardView:
Essentialism
Mayrian essentialism:
“Western thinking for more than 2,000 years after Plato
was dominated by essentialism. For Plato and his
followers, variable classes of entities consist of imperfect
reflections of a fixed number of constant, discontinuous
eide or essences.
In 1859 Darwin introduced the entirely new concept of
variable populations composed of unique individuals.
Toward a new philosophy of biology 1988:15
4. The StandardView:
Essentialism
Aristotle fingered as the culprit as well, by
Simpson, Mayr and Hull.
Based on the use of eidos (= species or form)
The Standard View developed over a period of about 15 years, beginning with the centenary of the
Origin in 1958
5. The StandardView:
Typology
Mayrian typology:
Species types can mean species essences
[TaNPoB, 407] separated by “bridgeless gaps”
Ideal morphologists’ archetypes can be
descriptive
“Type” plays a role that is somewhat tangential to our story here, except that in conflating the
notions of type and essence, Mayr managed to effectively relegate any use of types by pre-
Darwinian biologists to evidence for his claim that essentialism was pre-evolutionary (and by
implication that any modern biologist who used types was anti-Darwinian.
It should be noted this is not true, as even Darwin used types in his own systematics, and he had to
make an exception from the equation for the ideal morphologists in the early nineteenth century.
6. The StandardView:
Fixism
Mayrian fixism
These essences (natures, eide) are identical for
all the members of a class or species.They are
unchanging, all deviations being “accidents”.This
philosophy, of course, made evolution
impossible. [TaNPoB, 186]
Mayr and Hull hold that essentialism is the motive for fixity of species. Since essences cannot, by
definition, change, if species had essences they wouold be fixed.
7. The StandardView
Essentialism ➔ Typology ➔ Fixism
Species have natures, definitions and are static
Darwin changed all that, with polytypy, history
and individuality.
So, the issues that we will address today are that essentialism leads to fixism, that species have
essential natures that can be captured by definitions, and that it all changed with Darwin. I’m going
to argue that all three claims are in historical fact, false.
To pre-empt a problem that some may have philosophically, I should note that arguments against
species essentialism in the modern literature do not rely upon this historical claim. As I will later
assert, essentialism *is* a problem in modern literature, which I am going to arbitrarily set as 1900,
for reasons I will give then.
What I am claiming here is that there is a shared conception, pretty much from Aristotle to the
mid-19th century, about species that was shaken loose only when the discussions of heredity took
place at that time, and species were reconceived in terms of heredity. Now there are people who use
the metaphysical notions of essences, substance and form throughout this period to conceptualise
species. This was the common heritage of western philosophy and it would be odd if they didn’t.
What is odder still, though, is how *few* people apply these metaphysical notions, or anything
much resembling them, to natural history. I’m going to try to demonstrate that until 1900, people
routinely and overtly differentiated logical species which do have definitions from natural species
which have descriptions and diagnostic criteria.
8. Classical species
Ambiguities about eidos/species and genos/genus
The role of generation of kinds
Genesis 1
Aristotle
Epicureanism
Medieval (Frederick II)
Distinction between logical species, and natural species not around until Ray.
But distinction often made between “natural species” and “formal” species in logic.
Use of terms indifferently depending on what the topic was.
9. Aristotle
Copulation takes place naturally between animals of the same kind [homogenesin]. However,
those also unite whose nature is near akin and whose form [eidei] is not very different, if their
size is much the same and if the periods of gestation are equal. In other animals such cases are
rare, but they occur with dogs and foxes and wolves and jackals; the Indian dogs also spring
from the union of a dog with some wild dog-like animal.A similar thing has been seen to take
place in those birds that are salacious, as partridges and hens.Among birds of prey hawks of
different form [eidei] are thought to unite, and the same applies to some other birds. … And
the proverb about Libya, that Libya is always producing something new, is said to have
originated from animals of different species [homophulē allēlois] uniting with one another in
that country, for it is said that because of the want of water all meet at the few places where
springs are to be found, and that even different kinds unite [homogenē] in consequence.
Of the animals that arise from such union all except mules are found to copulate again with
each other and to be able to produce young of both sexes, but mules alone are sterile, for they
do not generate by union with one another or with other animals.The problem why any
individual, whether male or female, is sterile is a general one, for some men and women are
sterile, and so are other animals in their several kinds, as horses and sheep. But this kind, of
mules, is universally so.The causes of sterility in other animals are several.
[Generation of Animals II.8 746a29–746b22]
Aristotle hardly ever speaks of anything we would now call species of organisms. He uses the terms
gene (genera) and eide (species), because as logical concepts it depends very much on what is
being discussed. If it is something differentiated out of a larger class of things, like organs, he will
speak of the “eidos” of the eye. If it is a class encompassing several subkinds, then he will use the
term “genos” or variants. His student Theophrastus, in the seminal work on botany, is less careful,
and will indifferently use them even in the same paragraph, perhaps for stylistic reasons.
Sometimes Aristotle, as in this passage, will use the term “eidos” simply to mean form.
Of note here is that this passage ties kinds of organisms to their shared generative powers, via
copulation. He is not universal about this because he thinks a good many animals spontaneously
generate, but when they propagate normally, generative propensities are crucial to their kindness.
Note that Aristotle is not, here, a species fixist. He allows in a widely quoted passage from Pliny to
Buffon that new species can form via hybridisation. [Libya is Africa, apart from Egypt]
10. Epicurus/Lucretius
If things could be created out of nothing, any kind of things could be
produced from any source. In the first place, men could spring from the sea,
squamous fish from the ground, and birds could be hatched from the sky;
cattle and other farm animals, and every kind of wild beast, would bear
young of unpredictable species, and would make their home in cultivated
and barren parts without discrimination. Moreover, the same fruits would
not invariably grow on the same trees, but would change: any tree could
bear any fruit. Seeing that there would be no elements with the capacity to
generate each kind of thing, how could creatures constantly have a fixed
mother? But, as it is, because all are formed from fixed seeds, each is born
and issues out into the shores of light only from a source where the right
ultimate particles exist.And this explains why all things cannot be produced
from all things: any given thing possesses a distinct creative capacity. [On the
Nature ofThings Book I. 155-191]
The atomists also had a generative conception of species. This passage from Lucretius is much later
than Aristotle but most commentators think that he is faithfully reporting Epicurus’ views shortly
after or even contemporaneous with Aristotle. Note that Epicurus, however, is denying spontaneous
generation. This is the first clear statement of the generative conception.
11. Medieval
Rarely interested in natural species except for
theological homilies
Exceptions:
Herbals
Animal Breeding Tracts
Frederick II (c1200) – keen falconer (De Arte
Venandi Cum Avibus)
Criticises Aristotle for credulity
Birds are same species if they will interbreed
12. Frederick on species
Inter alia, we discovered by hard-won experience that the deductions of Aristotle, whom
we followed when they appealed to our reason, were not entirely to be relied upon,
more particularly in his descriptions of the characters of certain birds.
There is another reason why we do not follow implicitly the Prince of Philosophers: he
was ignorant of the practice of falconry – an art which to us has ever been a pleasing
occupation, and with the details of which we are well acquainted. In his work “Liber
Animalium” we find many quotations from other authors whose statements he did not
verify and who, in their turn, were not speaking from experience. Entire conviction of the
truth never follows mere hearsay.
...
[It] must be held, then, that for each species, and each individual of the species, Nature
has provided and made, of convenient, suitable, material, organs adapted to individual
requirements. By means of these organs the individual has perfected the functions needful
for himself. It follows, also, that each individual, in accordance with the particular form of
his organs and the characteristics inherent in them, seeks to perform by means of each
organ whatever task is most suitable to the form of that organ.
13. Initial uses of species
among early naturalists
Andreas Cesalpino, 16thC
That according to the law of nature like always produces like and that which
is of the same species with itself. [Quaestionum peripateticarum, libriV, ch 13]
We seek similarities and dissimilarities of form, in which the essence
(‘substantia’) of plants consists, but not of things which are merely accidents
of them (‘quae accidunt ipsis’). [ch 14]
Since science consists in grouping together of like and the distinction of
unlike things, and since this amounts to the division into genera and species,
that is, into classes based on characters (differentiae) which describe the
fundamental nature of the things classified, I have tried to do this in my
general history of plants, … [De plantis]
What have we skipped over in the last 400 years? Universal language project, from Bacon to Wilkins,
but not much natural history. The Reformation got in the way of a lot of natural history, and science
tended to focus on other matters such as medicine and anatomy.
Here it is clear that Cesalpino did think species had a kind of logical essence, but then, the idea of a
natural species was not yet in play. Over the next century, the term species began to be widely
used, first by Bauhin and Fuchs, and eventually by Ray.
14. Robert Hooke
But to refer this Discourse of Animals to their proper
places, I shall add, that though one should suppose, or
it should be prov’d by Observations; that several of
these kinds of Plants are accidentally produc’d by a
casual putrifaction, I see not any great reason to
question, but that, notwithstanding its own production
was as ‘twere casual, yet it may germinate and
produce seed, and by it propagate its own,
that is, a new Species. [Micrographica 1665]
While discussing the spontaneous generation of organisms, still believed in at this time, Hooke
makes some passing comments that indicate the generative conception was still in play.
15. John Ray’s 1686
definition
In order that an inventory of plants may be begun and a classification of them
correctly established, we must try to discover criteria of some sort for
distinguishing what are called “species”.After long and considerable
investigation, no surer criterion for determining species has occurred to me
than the distinguishing features that perpetuate themselves in
propagation from seed.Thus, no matter what variations occur in the
individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same
plant, they are accidental variations and not such as to distinguish a species …
Animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species
permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice
versa. [Historia plantarum generalis.The Latin of the definition is Nulla certior
occurit quam distincta propagations ex semine.]
… the number of species being in nature certain and determinate, as is generally
acknowledged by philosophers, and might be proved also by divine authority,
God having finished his works of creation, that is, consummated the number of
species in six days. [Letter]
16. Linnaeus’ lack of
essentialism
Never defined “species” – seemed to rely on Ray
However, some hints:
Species are most constant, since their generation is a
true continuation. [Species constantissimae sunt, cum
earum generatio est vera continuatio. Systema naturae,
1735]
There are as many varieties as there are different
plants, produced from the seed of the same species.
[Varietates tot sunt, quot differentes plantae ex ejusdem
speciei semine sunt productae. Philosophia Botanica 1751]
17. Maupertuis: the man
who invented evolution
Could we not explain in this manner [of fortuitous
changes] how the multiplication of the most dissimilar
species could have sprung from just two individuals?
They would owe their origin to some fortuitous
productions in which the elementary parts [of
heredity] deviated from the order maintained in the
parents. Each degree of error would have created a
new species, and as a result of repeated deviations the
infinite diversity of animals that we see today would
have come about. [Systèm de la Nature 2:164, 1743]
Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1678-1759) was an interesting man. He devised what we now know as the principle of least
action, and showed that the earth was flattened. Some other things he did, however, changed biology forever.
In 1735, the first edition of Linnaeus' Systema Naturae was published. Linneaus put out at least 13 editions of this in his
lifetime, and the famous 10th edition was adopted in the 19th century as the "gold standard" - if Linnaeus named a species,
that was its name thereafter, and if not, then the first person to name it after the 10th edition, published in 1758, got the credit.
In the course of the work, and other books such as the Fundamenta Botanica, Linnaeus defined species as
There are as many species as the Infinite Being produced diverse forms in the beginning. [Species tot sunt diversae quot
diversas formas ab initio creavit infinitum Ens, Fundamenta botanica No. 157, 1736]
He repeated similar statements in his work elsewhere. This, of course, is a definition of what we might call stasis rather than of
"species". Linnaeus, following John Ray, held that species never changed from how they were created.
Typically, we think this was overturned by Darwin, or, if we have read Darwin's own "Historical Sketch", added to the third
edition of the Origin, we might think that evolution was invented by Lamarck. But in fact the first view of evolution in a scientific
context was devised by Maupertuis, in the context of the Generation Debates that preceded the rise of genetics. Maupertuis
noted that polydactyly, in the form of an extra finger on each hand, was passed on from generation to generation in a particular
family in a 3:1 ratio, and each parent equally contributed. This, mark you, was 120 years before Mendel. In a text published
finally as Venus physique (the physical Venus) in 1743, he speculated
Could we not explain in this manner [of fortuitous changes] how the multiplication of the most dissimilar species could have
sprung from just two individuals? They would owe their origin to some fortuitous productions in which the elementary parts [of
heredity] deviated from the order maintained in the parents. Each degree of error would have created a new species, and as a
result of repeated deviations the infinite diversity of animals that we see today would have come about. [Systèm de la Nature
2:164, quoted in Terrell 2002:338]
We should not make too much of this - Maupertuis was not really aware of the need for a population of individuals with genetic
variance, but it is clear that he allowed there to be two processes - variation in heritable traits that arose by lucky chance, which
we would call an advantageous mutation, and diversification of species from common ancestors. Unlike Lamarck, who thought
each species arose individually from nonliving matter, and subsequently changed in ways that were more or less predetermined,
Maupertuis has species arising by the inheritance of mutations, and diversifying, in a manner very similar to Darwin. He lacks a
theory of selection, but in some ways Maupertuis should be called the Last Common Ancestor of all evolutionists.
One point that is important to note here is that almost as soon as species fixity became the widespread opinion (with Linnaeus -
although Ray had put it out there earlier, it wasn't until Linnaeus became popular, mostly among botanists at first, that species
fixity became the standard view, contrary to many popular histories of biology), evolutionism was offered as an alternative.
There's a good reason for this. Prior to Ray, nobody thought much about whether species were fixed or not. Aristotle held they
could be formed by crossbreeding, and that there were deviations from the "proper" mode of a species. Right through the
middle ages and early renaissance, there was a continuing view that species were wobbly sorts of things, and in the 18th
century it became a fashion to gather species deviants - monsters and curiosities, as they were called - in cabinets to show to
friends. It is simply false that species were always held to be fixed. But evolution, in the sense of a historical series of changes
18. Buffon – non-hybridising
animals (mules)
We should regard two animals as belong to the same
species if, by means of copulation, they can perpetuate
themselves and the likeness of the species; and we should
regard them as belonging to different species if they are incapable of
producing progeny by the same means.Thus the fox will be known to be a
different species from the dog if it proves to be a fact that from the mating
of a male and female of these two kinds of animals no offspring is born;
and even if there should result a hybrid offspring, a sort of mule, this would
suffice to prove that fox and dog are not of the same species – inasmuch
as this mule would be sterile (ne produirait rien). For we have assumed
that, in order that a species might be constituted, there was
necessary a continuous, perpetual and unvarying
reproduction (une production continue, perpétuelle, invariable) – similar, in
a word, to that of other animals. [Histoire naturelleVol. 2 (1749), 10]
19. John Hunter 1787
The true distinction between different species
of animals must ultimately, as appears to me, be
gathered from their incapacity of propagating
with each other an offspring capable again of
continuing itself by frequent propagations: thus
the Horse and Ass beget a Mule capable of
copulation, but incapable of begetting or
producing offspring.
20. Jussieu
... species, [a term] wrongly used in the past, now
more correctly defined as the perennial succession
of like individuals, successively reborn by
continued generation. [Genera plantarum secundum
ordines naturalis disposita (1789)
...in one species are to be assembled all vegetative
beings or individuals that are alike in the highest
degree in all their parts, and that are always similar
[“conformia”] over a continued series of generations...
21. Lamarck – fixed essence
Species: in botany as in zoology, a species is necessarily
constituted of the aggregation of similar individuals which
perpetuate themselves, the same, by reproduction. I understand
similarity in the essential qualities of the species, because the
individuals which constitute it offer frequently accidental
differences which give rise to varieties and sometimes sexual
differences, which belong however to the same species, as the
male and female hemp, in which all the individuals constitute
the cultivated hemp.Thus, without the constant reproduction
of similar individuals, there could not exist a true species.
[Encyclopedie Methodique,Vol. 2, 1786]
22. Lamarck – no such thing as
species
It is not a futile purpose to decide definitely what we mean by the so-called species
among living bodies, and to enquire if it is true that species are of absolutely constancy, as
old as nature, and have all existed from the beginning just as we see them to-day; or if as a
result of changes in their environment, albeit extremely slow, they have not in the course
of time changed their characters and shape.
…
Let us first see what is meant by the name of species.
Any collection of like individuals which were produced by others similar
to themselves is called a species.
This definition is exact: for every individual possessing life always resembles very closely
those from which it sprang; but to this definition is added the allegation that the
individuals composing a species never vary in their specific characters, and consequently
that species have an absolute constancy in nature.
It is just this allegation that I propose to attack, since clear proofs drawn from
observation show that it is ill-founded.
[Zoological philosophy 1809]
23. Lamarck – ... just
parents and children
Thus, among living bodies, nature, as I have already said,
definitely contains nothing but individuals which succeed one
another by reproduction and spring from one another; but the
species among them have only a relative constancy and are only
invariable temporarily. ...
Nevertheless, to facilitate the study and knowledge of so many
different bodies it is useful to give the name species to any
collection of like individuals perpetuated by reproduction
without change, so long as their environment does not alter
enough to cause variations in their habits, character and shape.
[Zoological philosophy 1809]
24. Heredity
Lewes 1856 review online
http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2007/06/lewes_on_heredity_in_1856.php
Shift from Generation to Heredity
Shift from similarity to fertility
Hybridism from Interspecies to Within-Species
Shift from Terata toVariance
25. Conclusions
The Generative Conception ruled from
Aristotle to Just Before Darwin
Aristotle was almost always not the source for
the use of the term after about 1700
“Biological” (Reproductive Isolation)
Conceptions occur from 1740 or so, dealing
with the existence of mules
Pre-Darwinians were good observers