Gcse unit 2 revision-edited for 2014

Year 11 Revision
Booklet
GCSE Geography-Unit 2
Edexcel B
People and the Planet

Exam structure
• The exam will last for 1 hour
• You need to answer ALL questions in
Section A
• The Changing Economy of the UK
question in Section B
• The Challenges of an urban world
question in Section C
DO NOT ANSWER QUESTIONS ON
Changing settlements in the UK OR
the Challenges of a Rural World.

Topic 1: Population Dynamics
What you need to know:
• What has happened to the global population –past, present,
future?
• Which factors affect birth and death rates
• Factors driving recent changes in fertility and mortality rates
• How and why population change varies
• How and why population structures change
• Issues relating to youthful and ageing populations
• Why some countries wish to control their population
• The impact and effectiveness or polices to control
population
• Differing policies that exist to mange migration
• Why countries adopt different migration policies
• Tensions that arise as a result of migrations

What’s happening?
The global population over time
• The world population is growing fast, in 2008 at
least another 65 million people were added to the
global total of 6.6 billion.
• Since 2000 the rate of growth has begun to slow
down.
Exponential Growth has been occurring in the
population growth. That is the amount of time taken
for the population to double . For example, in 1804 it
had taken the population 300 years to double from ½
billion to 1 billion. In 1999 the doubling time had
fallen to 39 years.
Describe the
trends in the
graph
(3 marks)

Why has population been increasing?
Development of modern medicines. This has meant that more and more
people are kept alive due to modern practices.
Introduction of vaccination and immunisation programmes e.g. smallpox
vaccination that helps people to live longer.
Cleaner drinking water and better sewage disposal, a lot more people
have access to clean drinking water than before.
Better healthcare – more doctors, nurses and hospitals, means that
people can be treated and not die.
More hygienic housing.
Better diets, e.g. promoting eating ‘5 a day’
Key terms
Birth rate – the amount of
babies born per 1000 of the
population per year
Death rate - the amount of
deaths per 1000 of the
population per year
Immigrants – people moving
into a country
Emigrants – people moving
out of a country
Migration – movement of
people into and out of an area
or country
Migration balance:
Positive more immigrants than emigrants – increase population,
Negative decrease population – less immigrants than emigrants – decrease
population
Natural increase – birth rate is higher than death rate = population increase
Replacement Level – the amount of babies needed to be born for the
population to remain the same

How and why population change varies
Demographic Transition Model – Fill the gaps
• Stage 1: High fluctuating
• - High birth rate due to no birth control and high infant mortality
• - High death rate due to disease and famine
• Stage 2: Early expanding
• - High _______rate
• - Falling ________ rates due to improved _______care and nutrition
• Stage 3: late expanding
• - Falling birth rates due to birth control and wanting smaller _______
• - Falling ________ rates
• Stage 4: low fluctuating
• - Low _______ and _____ rates due to working women delaying time to
start their ________
• Stage 5: Decline
– Death rate higher than birth rate due to a ______ population

Issues relating to youthful and ageing
populations
Youthful population
- This is when there are a very high percentage of people under the age of 15.
Problems:
Pressure on housing – not enough housing, people living in slums. This is very
common around the big cities (New Delhi), where millions of people live in
shanty towns.
Pressure on schooling – illiterate population. India’s literacy rate is 60%
Pressure on food supplies - famine, food distribution difficulties. Pressure on
health services – a growth in diseases being spread
Ageing population
- This is when a country has a large number of people over the age of 65 in their
country.
Problems:
Health care
Provide more health care e.g. retirement homes, hospital beds, more
undertakers, etc..
Skilled health care workers, e.g. nurses, doctors, etc..
Pensions
3 solutions
Increase tax – not popular
Raise retirement age – not popular
Abolish state pensions – not popular

Contrasting countries Japan vs. Mexico
Ageing Population – Japan Youthful Population - Mexico
Facts Causes Effects
- 20.8% of population
aged +65
- 26.8 million
pensioners
- Birth rate below
replacement level
- People living longer
(79 for men & 85 for
women). Due to
healthy diet and high
GDP
- Birth rate declining
due to increase age of
first child (2006 29.2
years) and number of
marriages has
decreased
- Increase cost of
pensions as fewer
workers
- Government raised
retirement age from
60 to 65
- Increase in numbers
in nursing homes
- Increase cost of
medical care
Facts Causes Effects
- 31% of population
under 15
- Population grew 50
million in 40 years
- Average age in 26
- Low death rate at
4.78 deaths per 1000.
due to vaccinations
and doctors
- falling birth rate but
large % of young
people
- Will take 50 years for
Mexico to loose it’s
youthful population
- Increase need for
school places
- Young people unable
to find work so
emigrate to USA
- Growing
manufacturing
industry
- Strongly catholic but
abortion has been
legalised to reduce
number of children
Exam question:
Describe the causes and
effects of ageing or
youthful populations

Case Study: Anti-Natalist –
China’s one child Policy
Anti –natalist – encouraging people to have fewer
children.
What? Why? Effects
• Introduced in 1970s –
couples not allowed to
have more than one child.
• Couples with one child
were given benefits e.g.
cash bonuses, better
childcare and improved
housing.
• Unauthorised pregnancies
pressured to have
abortions
-High growth rate of
population
- Pressure on land and food
supplies due to large
population
-Birth rate fell from 34 per
1000 in 1970 to 13 per 1000
in 2008
- Annual population growth
rate fell from 2.4% to 0.6%
-Total population grown
from 996 million in 1980 to
1,320 million today
-Chinese tradition to prefer
sons so sex selective
abortions occurred (120
males to 100 females
- Shortage of women at
marrying age
What? Why? Effects
 Introduce ‘mother’s salary’
where women were paid to
have children
- 15 months fully paid
maternity leave
-Estonia became independent
from Russia in 1992
- Falling population due to
fertility rate declining from 2.2
in 1988 to 1.4 in 1998
- People planning fewer
children due to increase
poverty, single lifestyles and
young people migrating
overseas
-By 2006 fertility rate rose to
1.5 (still below replacement
level)
Pro-Natalist: Estonia
Pro-Natalist – Incentives to encourage people to have more children.
Which policy was most successful?
Why?

Differing policies that exist to mange
migration
UK Case Study
Open Door
- Post War immigrants came to UK from colonies in the Caribbean due to an Act of
Parliament giving all Commonwealth (ex-colonial) citizens free entry into the UK.
(1950-1960s ¼ million people came from the Caribbean).
Positive = Met shortage of unskilled and semi-skilled labour
= Helped with the reconstruction of the country post war
Negative = public money spent on meeting needs of the immigrants e.g. housing etc.
= 1970s recession, the immigrants lead to increased unemployment
Point Based system
If you wish to come and work to settle down you need to gain a certain amount of
points. Points are based on skills and jobs where the UK needs people.
Source advantages Host Advantages
 Immigrants send money/remittances
home to their families
 Less than 5% claim any sort of state
benefit
 during the 1970s recession the
immigrants added to the number of
unemployed
 meets need of shortage of unskilled and
semi-skilled labour
 helped to reconstruct UK after the war
 Immigrants contribute to the UK
economy by the taxes they pay
 Immigrants bring skills back to their
country
 Source disadvantages  Host disadvantages
 Loss of working population from
Poland for example
 Less pressure on resources and jobs
in places like Poland etc.
 Immigrants often take mainly low
paid jobs
 public money spent on immigrants e.g.
housing and healthcare
 Increased hostility towards the
immigrants
 Increases culture in the UK
 Decline in birth rate as most migrants
are young men
Complete the table by putting the statements in the correct box.

Topic 2: Consuming Resources
• How resources can be defined and classified
• The impacts of obtaining and consuming one renewable,
sustainable and non-renewable resources
• Inequalities in supply and consumption of one global resource
• Future pressures on both supply and consumption of this
resource in view of recent global economic growth
• Theories about the population-resource equation
• How well these theories stand up to current global resource
supply and demand
• How resource demand might be reduced
• The potential for alternative and renewable resources
• Whether technology can ‘fix’ the problem

How resources can be defined and
classified
There are three main types:
• Natural resources e.g. wood
• Human resources e.g. skills of a population e.g. Doctors
• Material or capital resources e.g. good and equipment already in
society).
You can also define resources via their availability
- Non-renewable resources – cannot be remade because they take
millions of years to form again e.g. coal or oil
- Sustainable resources – Can be deliberately be renewed so that it can
last into the future e.g. planting trees
- Renewable resources – renew themselves so do not need to be
managed e.g. solar and wind power
Resource Benefits Costs
Non-renewable e.g. Tar
Sand oil (Canada) or
Natural gas (Europe)
- Extraction would bring
further money to oil
companies
- could avoid the costs of
switching to other fuels
such as hydrogen
- Extraction uses huge
amounts of water
- only 5 year supply
- need removal of forest to
get to the oil
Sustainable and
renewable e.g. Bio fuels
India
- C02 absorbed when they
are grown
- engines need little
change to cope with bio
fuels
- need huge area of land
to grow the crop
- reduces habitat variety
due to monoculture
Sustainable but limited
e.g. Solar energy or Wind
power (USA)
- Unlimited
- Environmentally friendly
so limited carbon
emissions
- Intermittent as new ways
of storing electricity are
needed
- Current production is
tiny
- Relatively expensive

Inequalities in supply and consumption of one global resource -
Oil
• World reserve of oil (%)
• Saudi Arabia (22.3%)
• Iran (11.2%)
• Kuwait (9.7%)
• UAE (8.3%)
• Venezuela (6.5%)
• Russia (6.3%)
• Kazakhstan (3.4%)
• Libya (3.3%)
• Nigeria (3.0%)
• USA (1.8%)
• China (1.4%)
• Canada (1.4%)
• Qatar (1.3%)
‘peak oil’
production of relatively
cheaply obtained oil has
reached its maximum so
there is now a fall in
production.
Compare and Contrast the maps and graph data. Read the titles carefully.

Theories about the population and resources
Malthus Theory (1766-1834)
• Population increases faster than food
supply so there would come a time
when the world could not cope.
• - Population increases geometrically
(1, 2, 4, 8, and 16)
• - Food supply increases arithmetically
(1, 2, 3, 4, and 5)
• - Population would outgrow the
amount of food available leading to
famine, war and disease
• Malthus argued that there were ways
to prevent population from extending
beyond the food supplies necessary
to support it (optimum population).
This includes a combination of
• 1. ‘Negative’: Methods people
choose to reduce human fertility e.g.
China’s one child policy, sterilisation
• 2.’ Positives’: Anything which
increases mortality: e.g. low living
standards, disease
• Malthus argued that this would kept
the carrying capacity in check the
• Number of plants, animals or human
which can be adequately supported
(carried) by the land
Boserup Theory 1965
• Population growth has a
positive impact on people as
it forces them to invent a way
out of a problem when
resources start to run out e.g.
GM crops
• Overpopulation leads to
innovation and higher
productivity in use of land
(irrigation, weeding, crop
intensification, better seeds)
and labour (tools, better
techniques) e.g. GM Crops
and the Green Revolution
Who was right?
• Malthus was – see famines in
Ethiopia etc.
• Malthus was wrong as food
production has kept up or
surpassed demand
• Boserup was correct also e.g.
GM crops
Outline the main differences between
Malthus Theory and Boserup’s Theory

How resource demand might be reduced
Reducing the dependence on oil
• Plastic water bottles are made from oil and then oil is used to transport
them across great distances.
• Now carrying refillable bottles of water and recycling the bottle
• Switch to hydrogen run cars as they release no harmful emissions. E.g.
The Ford Edge car is first alternative fuel car to be able to travel similar
distances to traditional petrol cars.
Individual action
• changing habits e.g. using public transport and switching to energy
efficient light bulbs et
• Recycling and conservation –
• Buying food from local farm shops to reduce ‘food miles’
Corporate (business) Action:
• Google Headquarters uses hydrogen cars which are renewable and also
provides a bus shuttle to pick up its employers to reduce their car
usage
Can you explain
how the pictures
could reduce the
demand for oil?

How resource demand might be reduced-Cont’
The aim is to achieve ‘SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT’:
‘This is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’
The potential for alternative and renewable resources
• In 1995 the UK generated 2% of its electricity from renewable
sources compared with the EU average of 14%.
• The government set its target of reaching 10% by 2010.
• This they believe is achievable as the average costs for wind, hydro,
landfill gas and waste-burning fell dramatically during the 1990s.
• However, UK government achieved only 6% by 2010.
• There is still however a huge market for the UK to switch towards
more renewable resources of energy.
The potential for alternative and renewable resources
• In 1995 the UK generated 2% of its electricity from renewable
sources compared with the EU average of 14%.
• The government set its target of reaching 10% by 2010.
• This they believe is achievable as the average costs for wind, hydro,
landfill gas and waste-burning fell dramatically during the 1990s.
• However, UK government achieved only 6% by 2010.
• There is still however a huge market for the UK to switch towards
more renewable resources of energy.
Whether technology can ‘fix’ the problem
• Technological fix is the idea that we can resolve problems we might
have by inventing solutions to them.
• The problem of finding alternative fuels to replace ‘cheap’ oil would
need high amounts of effort from governments, corporations and
researchers to cope with the issue of ‘peak oil’.

Topic 3: Globalisation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3oTLyPPrZE4&safe=active
Globalisation and the growth of the global economy
have led to huge changes in the pattern of employment
around the world. As countries develop, so the type of
work available and the working conditions change.
Trade and financial direct investment fuel the growth of
the global economy, along with the activities of the key
players, the Trans National corporations.

You need to know:
• 3.1 How does the economy of the
globalised world function in
different places?
• 3.2 What changes have taken
place in the flow of goods and
capital?

Key term Definition
Automation The use of machinery rather than people, in
manufacturing and data processing
Deindustrialisati
on
Factories closing down in the 1980’s
Employment
Structure
The proportion of people working in each of the primary,
secondary and tertiary sector
Flows A system of linkages between objects, places or
individuals
Foreign direct
Investment
a direct investment into production or business in a
country by an individual or company of another country.
Global Economy The international spread of goods and services,
especially in recent decades, across national boundaries
and with minimal restrictions by governments.
Global Shift Cross border i0nteractions between nations, businesses
and people
Globalisation The movement of objects, people and ideas between
places.
Industrialisation Where a mainly agricultural society changes and begins
to depend on manufacturing industries instead.

Key term Definition
Informal Sector Forms of employment that are not officially
recognised e.g. People working for themselves on
the streets of developing cities.
International
Monetary Fund
A US based organisation that raises funds from
the worlds wealthier countries, to help countries
which become economically unstable like
Greece.
Merger When one country takes over another one
Networks Expanding travel networks communication
technologies easily connect manufactures and
overseas buyers
Newly
Industrialised
Countries
Like China, India and Brazil
Outsourcing A process in which a company subcontracts part
of its business to another company
Players Individuals and groups who are interested in and
affected by a decision making process
Primary sector People extract raw material from the land or sea
e.g. farming

Key term Definition
Quaternary
Sector
Provide information and expert help e.g. IT
Secondary
Sector
People are involved in manufacturing e.g. house building
sweatshops A factory where workers are expected to work very long
hours, with low pay and poor working conditions.
Teleworking Also called: telecommuting the use of home computers,
telephones, etc, to enable a person to work from home
while maintaining contact with colleagues, customers, or
a central office.
Tertiary Sector provide a services e.g. selling goods or nursing
TNC’s Trans National Corporations - a giant company operating
in many countries
WTO World Trade Organisation

Globally LEDC’s such as Nigeria and Kenya have high amounts of primary industries
due to the fact that there is a lack of education and they are mainly subsidence
farmers. MEDC's such as UK and USA tend to focus on Tertiary activities due to
higher education rates and tertiary jobs are higher paid. Primary is low due to the
fact that most MEDC’s have taken to importing food stuffs etc as it is cheaper.
Economies start to
develop and incomes
rise = demand for
manufactured goods
increase =
secondary industry
grows
Incomes continue
to rise, people start
to consume more
services = tertiary
sector grows
Tertiary services support
and promote quaternary
services
In the pre-industrial
stage low-income
countries are mainly
employed in primary
production, middle
income countries are
focused on secondary
industries and finally
high-income countries
are dominated by the
tertiary sector.
This model tell us how
employment changes
over time and how the
balance of
employment changes
as a country develops.
However it does
assume that there is a
simple straight
development path
from LEDC’s to
MEDC’s.
Key Idea 1:
Why are there changing employment structure in countries at
different stages of development.
The Clarke Fisher Employment Structure Model

Named example 1 - Contrast working
conditions in different countries - Ghana
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5EHS_hFpR8E - Watch
this to help you understand this.

Named example 1 - Ghana
Ghana is a pre
industrial economy
The percentages of
each employment
sector are:
Primary 50%
Secondary 16%
Tertiary 33%
What jobs do people
do?
Many people are still
employed on small
scale farms in
agriculture (
subsistence farming).
There is little
commercial farming -
mainly growing
Cocoa a major export
crop.
The secondary sector
is small and jobs are
mainly filled by men.
Many people are also
still employed in
Informal jobs - which
means that they are
not formally
recognised and
therefore employees
do not pay any taxes
What are Ghana’s
biggest exports and
why do they not earn
much from these
exports?
Cocoa, Diamonds,
timber and flowers are
Ghana's main exports
–but these are often
raw materials and not
the more expensive
finished manufactured
products.
What are working
conditions like?
Working conditions are
tough particularly on the
farms where the work is
often hard manual labour
because there has been a
lack of mechanisation and
there are often harsh
physical conditions.
People who work in the
informal sector – Mostly
women and children are
likely to suffer abuse and
exploitation.
Which sector will be
important to Ghana
in the future and in
particular which
industry will provide
many of the jobs?
In the future there
will be an increase in
tertiary jobs
specifically in the
tourist sector.

Named example 2 – China Working
conditions
Watch the clip below:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sgbxUDvncko&safe=active

Named example 2 - China
China is an
Industrial country
The percentages of
each employment
sector are:
Primary 48%
Secondary 25%
Tertiary 18%
What jobs do people
do?
Many people are still
employed in China’s
growing
manufacturing
Industries in large
factories.
China’s Primary sector
is also still important
and it is not just
agriculture but also
Mining particularly for
coal.
The rapid growth of
town and cities is
being accompanied
by a rapidly growing
service sector
China’s biggest exports
are:
Coal
Natural Gas
Iron ore and tin
Manufactured Goods
like mobile phones.
China can earn a lot of
money from these
products.
What are working
conditions like?
Working conditions in
factories are tough.
Workers often work long
hours in unsafe,
unpleasant conditions.
These workers are both
men and women but they
can earn a lot more than
in the rural areas.
Workers (often men) that
work in the mines have a
very hazardorous
occupation.
China has been able
to develop so quickly
because it has an
abundance of energy
resources and a large
working population.
China’s labour force is
an important factor
because it is very hard
working and many are
quick to learn new
skills as well as being
ambitious to become
part of a consumer
society.

Named example 3 - UK
The UK is a post
industrial country
The percentages of
each employment
sector are:
Primary 1%
Secondary 18%
Tertiary 81%
There are also new
ways of working
emerging – Like
Teleworking,
telecottaging and
telecommuting.
Today more than 2
million people are self
employed and work
from home – this is
particularly thanks to
the broadband
network
Working Conditions in all
employment sectors are
good thanks to strict
Health and Safety
Regulations and the
existence of Trade
Unions.
There is also a national
Minimum wage (currently
£6.31)
Why have employment
patterns changed?
Over the last 50 years,
the UK has
deindustrialised. It has
lost much of its
traditional manufacturing
like iron and steel, Ship
building, car making and
textiles.
As a result of a global
shift these industries
have located elsewhere.
The UK continues some
manufacturing but it is
mostly high tech, work in
state of the art factories.
There has also much
automation – workers are
replaced by machines.
Online banking and ATM’s
for example mean there
are fewer banks.
The UK’s biggest
exports are:
Aircraft technology
Finance and banking
Electronics like Dyson.
.

IMF
http://www.yout
ube.com/watch?
v=BhWKUbnlLeo
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an organisation of 188
countries, working to raise global monetary (money) cooperation,
secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high
employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty
around the world. It does this through watching the global
economy and the member countries, lending to countries with
payment difficulties and giving practical help to members.
United Nations
http://www.yout
ube.com/watch?
v=QoIafzc0k74
Through UN efforts, governments have concluded many agreements
that make the world a safer, healthier place with greater
opportunity and justice for all of us. This comprehensive body of
international law, including human rights law, is one of the UN's
great achievements. It has close links with UNESCO, WHO, UNICEF,
FAO.
World Trade
Organisation
WTO deals with the rules of trade between countries. Its main
function is to ensure that trade flows as freely as possible. They are
often called in to deal with disputes between countries that have
previously made trade agreements. The goal is to help producers of
goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business
without exploitation.
World Bank The World Bank is a financial institution which provides loans to
developing countries for capital programs (money making). Its
official goal is the reduction of poverty, with all its decisions being
guided through a commitment to the promotion of foreign
investment and international trade, as well as the facilitation of
capital investment.
Trans national
Company
http://www.yout
ube.com/watch?
v=jDASb6DfRqE
A company with its headquarters in one country owns factories in
one or more other countries and sells its products globally. The
main priorities of a TNC are profit driven. They are always looking
for the highest profit margins. This often means their factories are in
LEDC’s to make the most of low wages and often have headquarters
in MEDC’s.
Key Idea 2: The role of global institutions

Key idea 3 – What is the affect of Globalisation on different
groups of people
Impact on men in the developed
world
Impact on women in the developed
world
In the UK, fewer full time jobs in
secondary industries, and more part time
tertiary jobs than 50 years ago
Men in the East end of London have
reduced access to secondary jobs in car
manufacturing that their fathers did
Women in developed countries have
increased access to flexible work
compared to 50 years ago when more
jobs were labour intensive- so now
women are more equal
Impact on men in the developing world Impact on women in the developing
world
Many men in developing countries have
to leave their rural homes and children
with elderly relatives in countries like
China, to work in factories in urban
centres
Many men in developing nations feel
work is better paid and more consistent
in factories compared to farming which
can be affected by the weather
Women and men in the developing world
have access to urban secondary and
tertiary jobs
Many women in countries like
Bangladesh work in ‘sweatshops’ for
TNCs, stitching clothes for minimal pay,
in tough conditions with limited or no
breaks
Women and men in the developing world
have access to urban secondary and
tertiary jobs
Women in the developing world have
increased access to education
Has meant thousands of women in Kenya
have access to land which previously
they did not under Kenyan law

Key Idea 4: Globalisation is a wonderful thing or is it?
Arguments for Arguments against
• Helps LEDC’s develop and have efficient
economies.
• More MEDC’s; more countries can
become more powerful and shares the
worlds wealth more equally
• LEDC’s become more industrialized –
have control of their own economies
• When TNC’s set up a factory in a country
local people are getting more money, not
a lot but still more.
• More countries can benefit from a more
diverse culture e.g. Bollywood
• Learning new skills
• TNC’s pay taxes in countries which help
LEDC’s infrastructure
• Improving working conditions in LEDC’s –
many big companies have ethical trading
codes (e.g. Accessorise and Body Shop)
• Sharing good practises
• Quite often they are taking jobs that
people don’t want to do in MEDC’s
• Breaking down barriers between countries
and promoting multicultural societies
• TNC’s have provided clean water supply
and electricity in the local area.
• LEDC workers can now afford to send their
children to school
• Stops/squashes originalities and different
cultures within countries.
• Why does poverty still exist if LEDC’s are
developing more efficient economies?
• Causing damage to the environment e.g.
plastic bags
• Most profits return back to the TNC
countries and branches in LEDC’s are not
benefiting.
• LEDC’s don’t have much chance to
develop their own industries.
• TNC’s Invests in countries and then move
away and create short term benefits but
more poverty in the long run
• In LEDC’s workers are learning new skills
that aren’t really helping and are dumbing
down clever people, semi-skilled,
unskilled jobs.
• In MEDC’s people are losing their jobs
because companies are moving to places
where wages are cheaper
• Wages are so low their not really
benefiting.
• TNC’s are not always investing in host
country their just in it for themselves.
• Poor working conditions in LEDC’s
• - Long hours and a long working week
- No health and safety
- Low wages
- No unions
- limited rights
- Many people are available to work so the
TNC can fire and rehire anyone they want
- Dorms are shared by 20+ workers and
disease/illness can spread very quickly

Key Idea 5: How & why have patterns of
international trade and Foreign
Investment changed over time?
International trade is the movement of goods and services (e.g.
workers / banking) across borders and therefore between
countries.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is when a company invests
capital (spends its money / uses its resources e.g. workers &
expertise) in a different country by either building facilities (e.g.
factories) or buying other companies. (e.g. Walmart in the USA
now owns ASDA in the UK.)
Goods & services are the products that are traded between
between different countries e.g. cars, electronics, food or
financial services like insurance e.g. Toyota cars manufactured in
Japan are sold in the UK.
Capital flows are the movement of capital between countries
e.g. American companies (Nike) spend money building factories
in China so they can get their products manufactured cheaply.

Why has international trade grown so
rapidly?
Lower and Faster Transport Costs.
Containerisation - Most goods now
arrive from Asia in containers which are
easier to transport to ports, to load onto
ships and then unload at the other end.
Each container is bar-coded so
machines rather than people can identify
its contents and where it needs to go
Shipping – ships transport over 90% of
our goods and have become much larger
yet only need small crews. They are also
extremely fuel efficient reducing fuel
consumption
Aircraft – Transport by aircraft is more
expensive than by ship so only 0.2% are
transported by Air. However more high
value goods like electronics, medical
supplies and fruit and veg is transported
by Air as it is much faster.

Global trade has also increased
because of the growth of these (TNCs)!

Named Example 4: Nike a Secondary TNC and
an example of a TNC who has merged with
other companies.
Nike started in 1964 when Phillip Knight began importing running
shoes from Japan, where labour was cheap. Today is valued at over
$10billion.
Nike has its head Office in the USA and all design is carried out at the
Oregon head Office but though decision making are kept in the USA
most Asian outsourcing countries get the less profitable production
activities.
South Korea, Taiwan 1970’s : Nike was attracted by cheap labour so
instead of owning its own factories it outsourced production to these
countries.
China 1980’s: Nike began production in China to take advantage of
cheap labour
Thailand and Indonesia late 1980’s: South Korean companies, with whom
Nike had developed a long term relationships moved operations south to
Thailand and Indonesia in search of cheap labour.
Vietnam 2000: Now that China’s currency is worth more , it is cheaper to
make many items in Vietnam. Nike bought Converse in 2001 due to Converse
going bankrupt and Umbro in 2007 – This is know as a Merger.

Since 2000, many
campaigners have
encouraged Nike to
improve working
conditions for workers
in ‘sweatshops’. Nike
now publishes data
about supplier
inspections on its
websites.
It is important to
bear in mind
that one of the
reasons Nike
and other TNC’s
are attracted to
these South East
Asian countries
is because these
countries
already had
reasonably good
infrastructure.
Also the labour
force is often
very hard
working and
many are quick
to learn new
skills. There are
also no trade
unions or few
workers rights
so it is easy for
workers to
become
exploited.

Named example 5: A state-led
company and its investment
Sinopec is a Chinese oil & gas company founded
in 2000
In 2009 it was ranked the 7th largest
company in the world
In 2013 they bought (invested) $3.1 billion in
exploring oil & gas in Egypt
In 2004 Sinopec invested heavily in offshore
oil & gas exploration in Gabon (Africa)
In 2005 Sinopec bought oil fields in Sudan
and began exporting oil back to China
In 2012 Sinopec invested $2.45 billion in 20
oil fields in Nigeria

Named Examples 6: TNCs in Tertiary Sector
Case study on BT (a TNC in the tertiary sector)
BT is a British based
company it is one
of the worlds
largest
telecommunication
s companies in the
world.
It operates
in over 170
countries
BT is an example of
Footloose
company because
it can locate
anywhere as long
as it has access to
high quality
communication
links.
Outsourcin
g is when
services are
moved to a
location
where
wages are
lower
It outsources :
Call centres in India
Software
development in
Bangalore and Delhi
Company Accounting
– Silicone Valley in
Bangalore
However has
lead to
unemployment
in the UK as call
centres are
located abroad.
Creates jobs for
English
Speaking
graduates and
in turn attracts
other
companies to
locate there so
the whole area
benefits form
the multiplier
effect.

Named Study 7: Impact of
Deindustrialisation on the UK.
Reasons for
De-
Industrialisation
Greater competition
from countries such as
China and India
Reduced demand for
traditional products
due to new
technologies
Mechanisation has increased
productivity and reduced the number
of workers needed
Deindustrialisation is the decline in manufacturing (secondary) industry
and the growth in tertiary and quaternary industries.
Economic impacts Social Impacts Environmental Impacts
- Used to be a large
shipbuilding area but has
declined over the years
- Loss of personal income
- Loss of taxes to national
and local governments
- Rising demand for
income support services
-Loss of income in the local
areas due people’s lack of
spending power (cant
afford to buy things)
-Changes employment
structure of an area as
there are more jobs in the
tertiary and quaternary
sector
- Family breakdown
- Alcoholism and crime
- Permanent
unemployment
Positive:
- More available land
- Less water used in
industrial processes
- Less energy required for
machines
- Reduced traffic
congestion
- Reduced noise and air
pollution
Negative
- Empty factory buildings
- Good manufactured
further away = transport
issues

Globalisation – past questions
1. Suggest one reason why countries with a high percentage of
people working in secondary sectors also have a high GDP per
capita (2)
2. Describe the relationship between GDP per capita and the
percentage of people working in secondary sectors (2)
3. Explain why international trade has grown so rapidly over the
last 50 years (6)
4. Explain how the growth of secondary sector employment in
developing countries can bring both benefits and problems
(4)
5. Describe the negative impacts of globalisation on people in
the developing world (4)
6. Examine the positive and negative impacts of globalisation on
different groups of people (6)
7. Toyota opened a car factory in Derby in the UK in 1992.
Suggest two benefits this may have brought to the local
people (2)
8. Toyota’s research and development sites are mostly in
developed countries and why Toyota locates some factories
in developing countries (4)

Topic 4:Development
Dilemmas
• Economic development can lead to regional economic
differences in developing countries
• Disparities can develop between urban and rural areas in
the same country
• Development models in developing countries are usually
‘top-down’ or ‘bottom-up’
• The impact of top-down development in a developing
country
• Characteristics of bottom up development
• Impacts of bottom up development in a developing country
• The characteristics of sustainable development in rural areas
• Are top-down or bottom-up schemes more appropriate for
rural areas in developing countries in future?
Development
Means growth or change –
for people and the economy.
It benefits some and not
others.

Need houses, water and
services
Growth continues and
settlement and
economy expand
Demand for more
workersWorkers need to build
and provide these
Need
Food
Shops open, more
services needed
Needs
workforce
People move
there
Growth of industry
Investment
Economic development can lead to regional economic differences in developing
countries
Development means improvement for people and the economy. Within a country there
tends to be disparity between the core areas (urban areas with the majority of people
and services) and the periphery (rural remote countryside).
Upward spiral caused by Multiplier effect
How We Measure Development:
1) Economic Wealth
Measured as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita = the total value of goods and services
in a nation measured over a year
2) Human Development Index (HDI) gives a country a score between 0 and 1 and is based on
life expectancy, education and income.
3) Birth rates – The number of babies born per thousand per year
4) Death rate - The number of deaths per thousand per year
5) Infant mortality rate – The numbers of babies who die before the age of 5 per thousand
per year
6) Access to clean water
7) % rural population – The amount of people who live in peripheral/countryside areas
8) Types of employment – amount/percentage of people employed in primary, secondary,
tertiary etc.
9) Level of literacy – the numbers/amount of people who can read and write
Consider this diagram in terms of
what has happened in Ashford in
the last 10-15 years
Choose any two of these and explain
how they help us measure
development

The Development Gap
The Brandt Line 1980
What’s Changed?
MICs (Middle Income Countries) developed in South America
through the sale of resources such as iron ore. This attracted
money from MEDC’s and made the MICs wealthier.
In the 1990s South East Asia began to develop, these
countries were known as the Asian Tigers, their growth
doubled in 8 years. These are now known as NICs (Newly
Industrialised Countries)
Then in the 2000s Russia, Brazil , India and China became
known as the BRICs (Rapidly Industrialised Countries)

Barriers to Progress in Sub Saharan
Africa
Why is Malawi Poor?
1. It’s landlocked, it has no port
to import and export goods.
There is only one very slow
single track railway
1. HIV and AIDS
• Over 10% of Malawi’s
population has HIV or AIDS.
• This means that a large
number of people cannot
work.
• It also means many people
are carers for the sick.
• This leads to less work being
completed on farms and
further poverty.
• There are half a million
orphans in Malawi, living
with grandparents who are
therefore less able to work.
≫
3. Trade-Malawi uses the
WTO to trade its coffee
beans. It could make
more money if it
roasts them first, but the
EU and the USA add taxes
to roasted beans, so the
price increases.

How do Countries Develop?
Rostow’s Theory:
See model diagram.
Rostow believed that
poverty was the
reason why some
countries overthrew
their governments
e.g. China and
became communists.
His theory therefore
was based on the
experiences of
Europe, N America
and Oceania.
Frank’s Dependency Theory
Frank believed development was
tied to two types of global region –
core and periphery.
Low value materials are traded
between the periphery and the core.
The core process these into higher
value products and becomes
wealthier by selling to other core
areas. With these rules poor
countries will never develop or
become wealthy.

Disparities between urban and rural areas in the same country: India
Core area: Maharashtra
Is India’s richest core region with the highest GDP and contains India’s largest
city, Mumbai. It has grown due to various reasons:
•Services e.g. banking, IT and call centres. Mumbai’s universities produce
English speakers who are employed by large Western companies e.g. BT.
•Manufacturing: cotton, food processing, steel, engineering and cement are
commonly exported.
•Entertainment: Mumbai has the world’s largest film industry- Bollywood
•Leisure and business services – hotels and restaurants
Periphery area: Bihar
Bihar is India’s poorest state with 86% of population live in rural areas with most
working in farming.
•Average incomes are only 6000 rupees (£75) per person per year. This is 33% of
India’s average income
•55% of households live below the poverty line and 80% of people work in low-
level jobs
•It gets very little investment from companies because its people cant afford
basic services
•In 2003, only 58.5% had electricity and 12% water-flushed toilets
•School attendance is low with only 35% of children attending primary school
and 8% reached upper primary.
Draw up a table to
compare and contrast
“Rich” Maharashtra
and “poor” Bihar
Consider:
• Location in India
• Access to ports
• Economic
indicators
• Industry

• Irrigation for 1.8 million hectares of land
Problems Caused by the Scheme
• 234 villages drowned so far. 320 000 people forced to move
• Few villages can afford the electricity, only cities benefit
• Silt no longer deposited (because it is trapped behind the dam) on flood plains to fertilise farmland
• The area has a history of earthquakes, the weight of large dams can trigger earthquakes
• Good quality farmland has been submerged

Impacts of bottom up development in a developing country:
Biogas India
Problems in rural India are:
Lack of time – collecting fuel, cleaning, preparing and cooking food, fetching water,
tending animals – all before any paid work is done.
Fuelwood problems
Families need 25-30kg of wood a week. Takes a long time to collect. As the
population increases wood becoming more and more scarce. Cow dung used more
and more. This can have health concerns and the dung could be better used on the
fields as fertilisers.
Lack of education
Women responsible for food and the home and one third of all paid work. Young
girls have to help with chores, so they have little education. Therefore they marry
early and are trapped in the poverty cycle.
Solution to these issues? COW DUNG!!
BIOGAS
Used for cooking and for powering
electricity generators.
It works by putting cow dung into a brick and
clay lined pit. The pit is sealed by a metal
dome under which the dung ferments to
create methane. As more gas builds up it is
piper to homes
Benefits
Smoke and ash free kitchen. Better for
health
Women and children can use extra time for
education
Extra time also allows them to earn more
money.
Cattle kept in a compound instead of
roaming the forests where they eat saplings
stopping regeneration of the forest.
Slurry left behind from biogas can be used as
fertiliser
Co2 emissions cut by 277 tonnes
Can be used to power an electricity
generator which can be used to pump water
for drinking and irrigation.
Which of the schemes
“bottom up Biogas” or
“Top Down the Narmada
Dam” do you think are
best?
Justify your answer
Fixed dome type Biogas

The characteristics of sustainable development in rural areas
Nature-small overall impact
on the natural environment
Social – long term benefits
for the local population e.g.
education, energy etc.
Appropriate technology –
method and equipment used
are at a level people can
understand and use
Local Decision making –
local people involved in all
stages of planning and
choice
Affordable – initial cost and
maintenance is low enough
for local people to afford
them
FEATURES OF
SUSTAINABLE
SCHEMES
Are top-down or bottom-up schemes more appropriate for rural areas in
developing countries in future?
Subsistence farming
Little or no surplus
farm produce
No investment in
land improvement,
machinery or
materials
Little or no income
Achieving sustainable development can become a problem for developing countries as they are
stuck in a cycle of poverty. Large top-down schemes that focus on national problems (e.g.
Narmada Dam) may overlook the rural poor and do very little to improve the lives of local
people living in the periphery. Small-scale, bottom-up schemes are often more appropriate and
more sustainable in the long term. DEFINE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
.
Cycle of Poverty

Sustainability of India’s Development
Sustainable development – meets the needs of the present without affecting
future generation’s ability to meet their own needs.
Tree Planting in Gujarat – Trees planted on poor farmland
Benefits:
People work together to cut and sell the trees
Creates jobs
Food for people and animals
Wood for village industries e.g. craft and building
Kerala State India – Focus on a bottom up approach
Land given to people which created a motivated rural workforce.
Focus on health and education – Money invested here for all.
Lots of money from tourism and migrant workers (who work in the Middle East),
they send money home (remittance payment).
Kerala v Rest of India
Best services such as roads, schools, hospitals and banks
Women and children treated well and have best health and education levels
Most babies are hospital delivered
Low birth rate
But high rates of water borne diseases.
Quality of life
indicator
Kerala India Low income
countries
USA
Adult Literacy % 91 61 39 96
Life Expectancy
Males
69 67 59 74
Life expectancy
females
75 72 80
Infant mortality
per 1000
10 33 80 7
Birth rate per
100
17 22 40 16
Pick out three differences between
Kerala and India and explain why they
are important to Kerala’s development

Topic 5:The Changing Economy
of the UK
• Describe what has happened to primary and
secondary employment in the UK in the last 50 years.
• Explain why there has been rapid growth in tertiary
and quaternary sectors in the UK in the last 50 years.
• Describe the major changes in the nature of
employment in the UK over the last 50 years.
• Investigate the differences in industrial structure and
workforce between two contrasting regions in the UK
(the North East and the South East)
• Describe the environmental impacts of de-
industrialisation and economic diversification in a UK
urban area.
• Use examples to compare the costs and benefits of
development on greenfield and brownfield sites.
• Explain what new economic opportunities exist for the
UK economy (the digital economy, education and
research and green employment).
• Describe how people in the UK may work in the future
(IT and tele-working, flexible working, and self-
employment)

Key terms
Automated Using machinery rather than people in manufacturing and data processing
Knowledge economy Based on knowledge and mental skills
Biotechnology Application of science to global problems [examples on p 221]
Household income Total income earned by everyone in a household, after paying tax.
Public sector Local and national government organisations, e.g. NHS
Domino effect A chain reaction that occurs when a small change causes a similar change
nearby, which then causes another similar change, and so on in linear
sequence.
Economic Diversification Creating varied industries and economic activities ; then if one fails, it won’t
affect the others
Brownfield site An area of land that has been built on before and can be built on again
Greenfield site An area of land which has not previously been built upon
Digital economy Based on digital technology
Green employment Jobs that are created to improve the environment - e.g. building wind
turbines
Deprived area An area in which there is a damaging lack of the material benefits that are
considered to be basic necessities e.g. employment, housing etc.
Derelict land Land on which factories or houses have been demolished
Employment structure The proportions of people who work in primary, secondary, tertiary or
quaternary jobs
Formal sector Work where people are formally employed, with permanent jobs and
regular pay
Informal sector Forms of employment that are not officially recognised e.g. people working
for themselves on the streets of developing cities
Regeneration Growth in areas that have experienced decline in the past
Telecommuter Person who works away from the office through the use of the internet

How and why is the economy changing?
Industrial change in the UK
Employment in some UK industries has changed as the country has de-
industrialised. There are many reasons for these changes, but two key
ones are globalisation and changes in government policy.
Reasons for the decrease in manufacturing in the UK?
Rising wages and rising land prices have made it expensive to produce
in the UK and we can’t compete with the lower wages and cheaper
land from industrial producers in developing countries.
There hasn’t been enough investment into the industry in order to
innovate and develop new high quality products.
Automation has meant fewer jobs needed in some industries.
Industrial
Sector
Employment change
1960-2010
Explanation
Coal
mining
Fell from 600,000 miners
to only 6000
As UK mines became deeper, they became too costly to
safely maintain. Cheaper imported coal from Russia,
Colombia and the USA . The coal industry was
government owned from 1946, but loss-making mines
were closed in the 1980s and the industry was privatised
in 1994.
Iron and
Steel
Fell from 250,000 iron
and steel workers to
20,000
Suffered from strikes in the 1960s and 1970s and
privatised in 1988 to prevent further losses to the
government. Steel made in South Korea and Europe was
cheaper than steel produced in the UK.
Footwear,
textiles and
clothing
Fell from 1 million in 1960
to 100,000 today
From the 1950s onwards, cheaper textiles were made in
Taiwan, India and Bangladesh, often by using old mill
machines exported from the UK. Globalisation and
cheaper transport costs made global exports and
imports of textiles cheaper.

Changes in tertiary and quaternary industry in the
UK
There has been big growth in the importance of tertiary and quaternary industry in the
last 50 years.
Tertiary industries (also called service industries), including education, health,
retailing, transport and financial services have grown with the decline of secondary
industries.
Quaternary industries, including high-tech services such as ICT and research, have
grown particularly in the last 10 years because firms are investing more in research
departments to develop new products, e.g. mobile phones, computer technologies and
robot machinery.
This is an important sector because:
The jobs are highly skilled, highly paid and employ university graduates
Research and development can invent new products that the UK can export
Many hi-tech companies are global TNCs that can quickly invest in new products
Many innovative companies are ‘start-ups’ set up by young entrepreneurs with a new
idea or product that can be exported globally
Employment Structure Change
As well as changes in the economic sectors people work in, there have been major
changes in the nature of employment in the last 50 years.
Change 1960-2010 Explanation
Total workforce In 1960 about 24 million people were employed,
growing to 27 million by 2010
The UK’s population increased by 10 million, but more young
people stay on in education until 18 or 21, and there are
more elderly people who do not work
Average wages Average weekly full-time wages in 2010 were
£450, up from £14 (worth about £220 today) in
1960
Unskilled and skilled manual jobs are now rare. Most
workers have some qualifications and skills; higher average
earning s reflects this.
Women in the workforce Women make up 49% of the workforce now, up
from 35% in 1960.
Women receive over 50% of university degrees, up from 20%
in 1960. Women are more independent, marry later in life,
have fewer children and focus more on careers.
Part-time jobs In 1960 only about 5% of people worked part-
time, now 25% of people work part-time
The UK workforce is more flexible than in 1960, and people
move jobs more often. Part-time work suits many people
with families.
Working hours For all workers the average working week has
fallen from 42 hours to 32 hours (37 for full-time
workers)
The change partly reflects the fact that more people work
part-time, and do some work at home; rigid ‘9 to 5’ jobs are
less common today.

UK regions and employment
You need to investigate the differences in industrial structure and workforce between two contrasting
regions of the UK.
The North was once heavily industrial, but these manufacturing industries have declined due to de-
industrialisation
The South has an economy based on services (especially finance) and increasingly quaternary
industries.
North East England
• Industry once dominated by coal mining,
iron and steel production, shipbuilding and
chemicals but declined rapidly in 20th and
21st centuries due to foreign competition
and high land and labour costs
• The chemicals industry is still important,
but employs fewer people due to
automation and improved technology. It is
a centre for biofuel research.
• The Nissan car factory in Sunderland is an
important part of the recovery of the area.
Other newer industries include the
manufacture of North Sea oil and gas
platforms.
• Some government departments were
relocated to the area.
• Sunderland is becoming a centre for
quaternary industry, science and high
technology.
• Unemployment is fairly high (10.3% )
South East England
• Centre for service industries, e.g. health,
education and transport.
• Important oil refineries at Southampton.
• New, light industries in the M4 corridor,
e.g. electronics and light-engineering
• Car production, e.g. at Oxford
• Many financial and business service
industries.
• Unemployment is low (6.0% in 2013)
Reasons for these differences
The South East:
• Has good communication links to Europe and
the rest of the UK
• Has a large pool of skilled and educated people
– people migrate to the area from other parts of
the UK/world as it provides better job
opportunities.
• Is less affected by decline in industrialisation
because there were fewer heavy industries.

What is the impact of changing work on people and places?
Environmental impact of de-industrialisation and economic diversification
Named Example: UK
As regions and urban areas move through the Clark-Fisher model the type of industry in these areas
changes. The factories used for secondary industry close and are replaced by the offices, retail units
and science parks of tertiary and quaternary industries (economic diversification). These changes
have environmental impacts:
Economic impacts Social Impacts e.g. Glasgow Environmental Impacts
- UK use to be a large
shipbuilding area but has
declined over the years
- Loss of personal income
- Loss of taxes to national and
local governments
- Rising demand for income
support services
- Loss of income in the local
areas due people’s lack of
spending power (cant afford to
buy things)
- Family breakdown
- Alcoholism and crime
- Permanent unemployment
Positive:
- More available land
- Less water used in industrial
processes
- Less energy required for
machines
- Reduced traffic congestion
- Reduced noise and air pollution
Negative
- Derelict Land
- Empty factory buildings
- Good manufactured further away
= transport issues
De-industrialisation brings
many environmental
benefits, as heavy
industry is usually very
polluting. On the other
hand, many jobs are lost.
New jobs – often service
or quaternary sector jobs
– want to locate out of
old, congested city
centres and on greenfield
sites at the edge of the
city, although this creates
urban sprawl and the
gradual loss of the
countryside.

Identify the potential for regeneration and environmental change on
Brownfield sites
Brownfield site = an area of land which
has been built on before and is suitable
for redevelopment
Greenfield site = an area of land that has
not previously been built on before
Developing Brownfield sites does have
some negatives:
Often more expensive to develop because
of clean-up costs
Regulations for reclaiming the sites can
often be a barrier to new development
Some of these sites can be important
wildlife habitats
Named Example: Birmingham – Fort Dunlop
The West Midlands Regional Development Agency has helped to support the regeneration of the
city areas affected by industrial decline.
Fort Dunlop in its prime employed 12,000 people and in 1816 a village
known as ‘tyretown’ was developed around the site to meet the worker’s
needs. The factory closed in 1980s when Dunlop moved its manufacturing
abroad. It was empty for 20 years and then in 2002 it received planning
permission to redevelop into a mixed-use sustainable 24-hr community.
Opened in 2006, it now includes a 100-bed hotel, a business park with
office and retail space, as well as places to eat and drink. It’s a good
example of how a brownfield site can be regenerated to provide both
employment and leisure, and improve the local environment.
Greenfield sites – positives and negatives
Size and Shape Often large and regularly shaped; easy to build large buildings
Construction All infrastructure (electricity, sewers, access roads) has to be built from scratch
Construction costs are lower than brownfield
Access On the edge of cities so there is good road/motorway access
Environment May destroy habitats it hedgerows, trees and local ponds have to be removed
Local people and environmentalists often object
May encourage car travel as people commute to and from work
Valuable farmland is lost
Greenfield sites? Named Example: Solihull
Solihull (also in the West Midlands) is desperately short of housing and in 2010 wanted to build
10,500 new homes on greenfield sites. Clearly, there are costs and benefits of doing this:

Identify the potential for future growth in the UK economy.
The digital economy is based on
digital technology. With rapidly
growing online shopping and
banking, the UK leads the world in
digital spending per person. The
government is investing £700 million
to help 90% of people to get access
to superfast broadband, which
should help the digital economy.
Education and research: A
knowledge economy needs an
educated workforce. Within
companies and universities, research
and development (R&D) benefits the
UK economy hugely.
Without it, where would the next generation of TVs come from, or drug treatments, or new
seeds for growing larger amounts of food? By encouraging young people to study engineering,
science and computing at university, the skilled workforce the quaternary sector needs will
develop.
EU countries (including the UK) have pledged to reduce the carbon footprint of their
economies. This should create new jobs in green industries.
Green employment is ‘attempts to improve air and water quality, recycle and reduce waste,
promote conservation and to improve the environment’. It includes the following: Making
‘green’ products from natural renewable materials or recycled goods
Constructing green buildings that use less energy, recycle water and are built from natural
materials
Renewable energy: wind turbines, HEP, fitting solar panels, etc.
Offering ‘green’ services e.g. ecotourism
Green transport: designers, engineers
Quaternary services e.g. architects designing green buildings
foreign workers can also be a source of economic growth
• Immigration can help plug skills gaps, when suitably qualified UK citizens are not available.
• Entrepreneurs with new ideas can come to the UK to set up new businesses.
• Lower skilled workers can provide a low cost workforce and offset the UK’s ageing
population.

Changing Work Practices
As well as changes in the type of job people do in the UK, there have been
changes in the way people work, who they work for and where they work.
Type of work Change
Teleworking (or telecommuting)
means people work from home, or
work ‘on the road’
About 3.7 million UK workers sometimes work from
home, with about 1 million mostly working from home
(but who are not self-employed). In the 1980s this
number was about 100,000.
Home working means people are
based at home all of the time
Home working has risen from 3.1 million people in 2001
to 3.8 million in 2011, with 66% of home workers being
men.
Self-employment means working for
yourself (setting up your own
business)
Self-employed people numbered 4.5 million in 2011, up
from 3.3 million in 2002.
Flexible working includes working
part-time, job sharing, starting and
finishing at different times
The number of part-time UK workers increased from 6.5
to 7.9 million during 1997-2011; about 40% work flexibly
at some point in their career.
Positives and Negatives of Flexible Working
Telecommuting reduces commuting and therefore saves fuel and creates less
pollution
 Part-time and/or flexible work does suit come people like young parents and older
people.
People can choose when and where to work, fitting their work in with other
commitments.
Being self-employed or ‘freelance’ brings with it the extra stress of looking for
work all the time.
There could be family tensions if homes are also workplaces for parents.
There are fewer benefits like statutory sick pay or paid holidays.
Part-time work pays less, so some people can struggle to get enough income to
pay for living costs and their children.

• Describe global and regional trends in urbanisation and
explain reasons for growth (migration and internal growth).
• Contrast the economic activities, spatial growth and
population of ‘megacities’ in the developed and developing
world.
• Examine urban challenges in the developed world, including
food, energy, transport and waste disposal demands that
may lead to concentrated resource consumption.
• Examine urban challenges in the developing world,
including slum housing, the informal economy and urban
pollution, which lead to low quality of life.
• Investigate why eco-footprints vary from city to city and
assess how one named city in the developed world is
lessening its eco-footprint by reducing energy consumption
and waste generation (LONDON).
• Analyse the potential for more sustainable transport in a
named city in the developed world (LONDON).
• Consider the success of strategies to improve quality of life
in cities in the developing world: self-help schemes, the
work of NGOs, urban planning (CURITIBA)
• Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of attempts to
develop less-polluted cities (MASDAR CITY or MEXICO CITY)
Topic 7: The Challenges of an
Urban World

Key terms
Urbanisation The rise in the percentage of people living in urban areas, in
comparison with rural areas.
Rural-urban migration The movement of people from the countryside to cities.
Natural increase (internal
growth)
The birth rate minus the death rate for a place. In cities this helps to
drive up the population.
Megacities Cities with a population of over 10 million people.
Spatial growth City growth in space (where they grow)
Conurbations When cities merge with other growing cities nearby.
Informal economy Refers to jobs that have little, or no, job security (e.g. street trading). No
tax is paid.
Formal economy Refers to jobs with contracts of employment and more job security.
Hyperurbanisation Where the urban population is growing so fast that the city can’t cope
with people’s needs.
Concentrated Resource
Consumption
Cities represent 2% of the Earth’s surface, but consume 75% of its
resources.
Counter-urbanisation Where people migrate out of cities to live in rural areas
Eco-footprint Measures the area of land needed to provide all the resources and
services consumed and absorb all the waste produced (measured in
global hectares per person [gha])
Retro-fitting Adding new energy-saving and energy-efficiency features to existing
homes and public buildings
Congestion charge A fee for motorists travelling within a city. The main aims are to reduce
traffic congestion and to raise funds for investment in the city’s transport
system. London’s congestion charge was one of the first to be
introduced.
Quality of life About more than how much money people have. It can include things
like housing, employment, the environment, access to services and so
on.
Favela The words used in Brazil for shanty town (area of slum housing)
NGOs Non-governmental Organisations – develop small scale sustainable
solutions to local problems in developing countries e.g. Oxfam, the Red
Cross, and WaterAid are examples of NGOs
Maternal death The death of a woman during pregnancy or shortly after childbirth.
Urban planning Determining and drawing up plans for the future physical arrangement
and condition of a community.

How have cities grown?
Urbanisation means an increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas
(towns and cities). In 2007, the number of people worldwide living in urban areas
exceeded the number of people living in rural areas for the first time.
The world’s population is becoming
increasingly urbanised and cities in
developing countries are growing at a
particularly fast rate. Globally the
trend is upward, and 67% of people
are expected to live in urban areas by
2050. However there are differences
regionally:
In Europe and North America the
number of urban people has more or
less stabilised.
In South America and Sub-Saharan
Africa urban populations are still
growing.
In Asia, there has been enormous
population growth in cities and this is
expected to continue.

Draw a table like this:
Type Urban Rural
MEDC
LEDC
 High densities of people
 High number of services
 Very high densities of people
 High proportion of urban poor
 Higher car ownership
 Fewer shops and services
 Very poor public transport
 Many employed in agriculture
 Lower density of transport
services
 Good public transport
 Significant proportion of urban
poor
 Quieter
 Poverty common
 Illegal settlements
 High speed Broadband
 Lower speed internet access
 Disease and poor educational
facilities
 Some range of services in
central areas
 Less transport infrastructure
 Limited or no access to
services
 Range of informal and formal
jobs
 Some public transport
Decide whether each
factor is a
PU – Push or a
PL - Pull
Put the statements in the correct box
e.g. High densities of people is a
characteristic of MEDC urban areas.

PUSH and PULL factors (together with high natural increase due to young age of
migrants so more births and fewer deaths due to improved medical care) lead to the
development of Squatter settlements
What is a squatter settlement?
- An area of makeshift housing with poor living conditions
- Often no running water and people have to buy from water sellers
- Lack of sanitation (getting rid of sewage and dirty water) so diseases like
diarrhoea develop.
- May lack other services like schools; health centres and public transport
- Houses are often built illegally so people do not feel secure.
However there is a major advantage: housing is cheap and affordable for the
urban poor
Developed e.g. London; Tokyo Developing e.g. Mumbai (India); Johor
Bahru (Malaysia)
Regeneration projects e.g. London
Docklands have attracted young ,often
single people back into London. New,
modern housing / flats have been built. The
jobs that have replaced the old industrial
jobs (e.g. in the docks ; food processing ) are
in business and financial services e.g. in
Canary Wharf. This has resulted in
REURBANISATION of city centres.
Cities like Mumbai and Bangalore in India have
attracted new industry e.g. outsourcing of service
functions e.g. call centres. This has acted as a
catalyst for attracting new migrants to the city in
search of jobs. Mumbai is the financial capital of
India and new jobs have been created in the
financial sector.
In Johor Bahru the Malaysian government has
created a free trade zone. This has attracted
foreign manufacturing TNC’s e.g. Dyson which in
turn has created jobs and attracted new migrants.
Urban areas have a concentration of
services and amenities e.g. Universities;
theatres; high order retail facilities;
hospitals
Indian cities have poor public transport systems so
workers need to live in the city.
(Although Mumbai has developed a metro and
Bangalore is planning one)
Household sizes have declined and there are
more actual households in the UK and this
pushes up demand for new housing.
Attraction of health; education ‘bright lights’
In Europe and North America counter-urbanisation is
taking place. This is where people migrate out of cities
to live in rural areas – often commuting to work in the
city. This is one reason why rates of urbanisation here
have slowed.

Megacities
Developing world megacities Developed world megacities
Spatial growth
As cities grow in population – they also grow in
space – spatial growth. Developing world cities
are growing rapidly (e.g. Karachi in Pakistan is
growing by 4.9% a year) due to
industrialisation. Industries are often attracted
by low tax rates. But with little tax income,
governments don’t have money to provide
essential services. Many people end up living
in overcrowded, unplanned slums and
shantytowns (like Dharavi) often found on land
that no-one else wants.
Spatial growth
Megacities in developed countries are growing much
more slowly (e.g. Tokyo in Japan is growing by just
.6% a year).
They have grown recently as a result of:
 Merging with other growing cities nearby to
form conurbations (e.g. Tokyo’s population now
includes Yokohama and Kawasaki)
 Sprawling, this results in low population
densities (e.g. Los Angeles). Most of the sprawl
is caused by people moving out to the suburbs,
where housing is cheaper and there’s more
space.
Economic activity
All megacities act as service centres, by those in
the developing world are often also important
manufacturing centres. In developing world
megacities, thousands of people work in the
informal economy.
Economic activity
Most people in developed countries work in the
formal economy, with relatively few people working
in the informal economy.

Urban Challenges in the Developed World
A high rate of resource consumption leads to many issues in MEDC cities
An eco-footprint measures the area of land needed to:
Provide all the resources and services consumed,
Absorb all the waste produced.
It is measured in global hectares per person (gha). London’s eco-footprint is 5.5 gha, almost
twice the global average. London needs an area over 200 times the size of the city itself to
support it.

Urban challenges in the Developing World
Developing world cities often grow so quickly that the government simply cannot keep up
with the demand for housing, water supply, power, transport and jobs. This leads to serious
challenges:
Increasing levels of pollution. Pollution of air, land and water is a major problem in most
developing world cities. There are few laws to protect the environment Furthermore, the
hidden economy can add to the levels of pollution as small, unlicensed industries are set up
in people’s homes or on rooftops. These industries release their pollutants into the air, land
and water.
Collapsing Infrastructure. Increased volume of traffic on poorly maintained roads. The
water supply can also become polluted as inadequate sewerage facilities allow the spread of
harmful bacteria. Indeed, death from water-borne disease is one of the biggest causes of
high infant mortality rates.
Inadequate housing and services. On arrival at the city, it is most likely that the migrant will
find him having to create his own shelter, live on the streets or rent a single room. In
Calcutta, "Hotbed Hotels" rent rooms on an eight hour basis, whilst in Mexico City, over ten
million live in shanty towns.
The shanty town is likely to be found on inappropriate land. Maybe it is prone to flooding
or is very steeply sloping, increasing the chances of a landslip. It could be on a piece of land
that has been badly polluted by a neighbouring industry. The shelters made of wood and
high population densities increase the risk of fire.
The services will be non-existent or incapable of maintaining a basic standard of living.
The lack of basic services like a clean water supply, rubbish collection and sewerage disposal
mean that the risks of disease are very high.
A lack of employment means that people have to look for other ways of earning money. In
Manila, children scavenge on refuse sites collecting cans for recycling. As well as being
unpleasant, the risk of injury is high and any cuts will become infected. Drugs have also
taken a grip in many shanty towns. In Rio's favelas, there are often gun battles between rival
gangs.

How far can these challenges be managed?
Named Example: London – reducing energy and waste
Key Facts:
- Only 1% of London’s energy comes from renewable sources
- Up to 60% of energy is lost in homes due to poor insulation
- Londoners produce 3.4 million tonnes of rubbish each year
- Up to 80% of our waste could be recycled, re-used or composted
What is London doing?
Eco-communities – these new eco-towns are to be built on brownfield sites out of town. E.g. BedZED
near Croydon, Greater London, is the largest carbon-neutral eco-community in the UK. It is built on
reclaimed land and promotes energy conservation.
BedZED – key characteristics
- Buildings have been built from natural, recycled or reclaimed materials
- Houses have been built facing south to allow for the use of solar power
- Producing as much renewable energy as that consumed
- Using heat from cooking for space heating
- Providing homes with roof gardens, rain water harvesting and waste water recycling
- Community layout promotes walking, cycling and public transport use
How could London reduce its waste?
Direct Variable charging – where recyclables are collected free of charge and ‘pay-as-you-throw’
policies are applied to everything else. However, this could encourage ‘fly-tipping’.
Polluter pays principle – where the company that produced the waste items are charged. However
the cost for this is likely to the transferred to the customer.

Sustainable urban transport
There are various solutions to reduce the amount of cars, Lorries etc. on UK roads.
1) Converting cars to LPG (Liquid propane Gas) instead of petrol or diesel. It is much
cleaner and cheaper than petrol and grants are available for the cost of the
conversion.
2) Using hybrid cars which are powered by electric batteries as well as petrol.
London has introduced hybrid buses which emit 50% of the pollution of a diesel
bus; London aims to have 1000 of these by 2016. London aims to have 1300
charging points for electric vehicles by 2013.
3) Super-trams e.g. Manchester – aim to reduce congestion and improve air quality
4) Bus lanes help speed up the journeys to and from the city centres and would
there reduce air pollution as more people are encouraged to use them
5) Congestion charging e.g. In London a congestion charge of £8 pre-paid or £10 on
the day applies to Central London, with an additional low emission zone charge of
£100-200 per day for large lorries. (Since 2003 there has been a 21% fall in traffic in
central London, a 43% increase in the amount of bus passengers and 43% increase
in cyclists).
6) Park and ride schemes – help reduce the amount of people entering the city
centres and reduce congestion
7) Encouraging bicycles – In 2010 the ‘Boris Bike’ bicycle hire scheme was
introduced. In 2012 there were 8000 bikes to hire from 570 ‘docking stations’. Four
‘Cycle Superhighways’, dedicated cycle lanes, have been built, with two more
planned. The scheme however was expensive to set up and does not make a profit.
It costs a minimum of £2 to hire a bike and £90 for annual access – but it could
become cheaper and profitable if it expands.
Sustainable developing city living -What does it look like?
• All waste recycled for reuse
• Organic waste from urban sewage systems to be used as fertilisers
• More parks and green space
• Solar panels to be used to heat water and provide some electricity
• Public transport to be powered by electricity gained
• from renewable sources
• Industries would be required to clean its waste to
prevent pollution.

Named Case study: Curitiba, Southern Brazil -Key ideas:
• Population = 2.2 million
• Using Urban Planning - Main idea was to create an ‘Integrated
Transportation Network’ in which there were 3 high speed, one-way designated
bus lanes which were connected through terminals which allow them to run
every 90 seconds.
• Five rapid transit bus lanes radiate out from the centre, providing cheap single-
fare bus transport. There are over 400 km² of parks and forest.
• The system transports 2.6 million people every day and is used by 70% of the
city’s population
• Buses use alternative fuel e.g. natural gas to cut down on pollution levels
• The ‘Green Exchange’ programme gives free food and bus tickets to poor families
in exchange for their garbage and recycling waste.

Other ideas- Favelas and Bustees
Self-help schemes CORP (an NGO) Urban planning
Strategy Rocinha is a favela (slum)
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
with a population of
+100,000. By self-help,
the wooden shacks of the
1950s have been slowly
upgraded to brick and
concrete homes with
water and electricity;
people have rebuilt their
homes a few bricks at a
time when they could
afford to. In some cases
the city government and
NGOs gave residents
bricks and cement, and
residents made their own
improvements
The Indian NGO
Community
Outreach
Programme (CORP)
was set up in 1977.
It runs 20
community centres
in Mumbai,
including in the
Dharavi slum.
CORP’s work focuses
on education,
helping street
children, skills
training for adults
(jewellery making,
tailoring), health
and nutrition
As far back as 1997
there have been plans
to redevelop Dharavi,
to demolish the slums
and rebuild in a
planned way. The
most recent plan, the
Dharavi
Redevelopment
Project, could cost $3
billion.
Success? Because Rocinha was
never planned, it has no
roads, only paths. This
means access is poor and
it is very cramped. The
maze of paths is hard to
police, and crime is a
serious problem.
Nevertheless, homes are
much better than 30 or 40
years ago because of self-
help, despite this being a
very slow process.
NGOs can only help
a small number of
people and rely on
donations for
funding. In 2012
CORP spent £1.3
million and helped
29,000 people out of
about 9 million slum
dwellers in Mumbai.
Dharavi’s residents are
against the
redevelopment. They
fear new apartments
will be too expensive,
and established
businesses and
factories will be forced
to move. Residents
who arrived in Dharavi
after 2000 will not be
rehoused.
:

Greener Developing Cities?
Mexico City and its surrounding areas have a strict “Hoy no circula” (“Today you can’t drive”
or “Day without a Car”) program. The program is intended to reduce air pollution from
vehicle emissions.
The graphic shows the major rules for most
vehicles. With few exceptions, these rules
apply to all tourist vehicles as well as
Mexican-plated vehicles. The scheme was
extended to Saturdays in 2008. As a result,
air pollution has fallen and is now similar to
pollution in Los Angeles (whereas in 1992,
the UN named Mexico City ‘the most
polluted city on the planet’). However:
Advantages Disadvantages
Greenfield Development: planned from scratch so
it is possible to design very efficient transport,
water and waste systems. These are costly and
difficult to install in existing cities
Test-bed: new cities can be used to try out and
adapt new low-pollution technology, which can
then be used more widely.
Quality of life: air quality, housing quality, rapid
transport and public services can all be designed
into a new city to ensure everyone has a good
quality of life.
Cost: Masdar is expected to cost up to $20 billion,
but can only house 50,000 people.
Complexity: many new cities use untested
technology which is expensive and does not
always deliver what is promised.
Land: an undeveloped area of land is needed and
people nearby object to the huge new
development – this is one of the reasons the UK’s
eco-towns failed.
•Wealthy people have been accused of second car ownership, to get around the restrictions.
•Because the city is still growing rapidly, the number of vehicles is still rising
•Mexico City has recently invested in better public transport, especially its Metro system,
which
•has had a bigger impact on reducing pollution and congestion.
Alternatively, in order to develop less polluted cities, you could build new cities from scratch.
Building new cities is not cheap and the plans are inevitably affected by economic and
political change.
Examples include Dongtan (the eco-city planned by the Chinese outside of Shanghai) and
Masdar
(the eco-city planned in Abu Dhabi):

Practice Exam Questions
Topic 5: The Changing Economy of the UK
• Suggest reasons for the decline in the number of coal miners in the
UK (3 marks)
• Outline the importance of changes in the way in which people work
in the UK, such as home-working and self-employment (6 marks + 3
marks SPAG)
• For two contrasting areas of the UK, explain the differences in their
industries and workforce (8 marks + 3 SPAG)
• Outline the positive environmental impacts of deindustrialisation for
a named urban area in the UK (3 marks)
• Describe one feature of a greenfield site (2 marks)
• Explain the increasing importance of the ‘green’ employment sector
to the UK economy (8 marks + 3 marks SPAG)
Topic 7: The Challenges of an Urban World
• What is meant by ‘urbanisation’? (2 marks)
• Explain the processes that have led to the rapid growth of megacities
in some parts of the world (6 marks + 3 SPAG)
• Explain how cities in the developed world are trying to solve one of
the problems they face (3 marks)
• What is meant by the term ‘informal economy’? (2 marks)
• For a named city in the developed world, explain how it is trying to
reduce its energy and waste (6 marks + 3 SPAG)
• Using examples from the developing world, explain how some cities
are trying to improve the quality of life for their residents (8 marks +3
SPAG)

Case Study Challenge
List as many case studies as you can remember
Topic 1 Population Dynamics
Topic 2 Consuming Resources
Topic 3 Globalisation
Topic 4 Development Dilemmas
Topic 6 Changing Economy of the UK
Topic 7 The Challenges of an Urban World

List as many case studies as you can remember
Fast Facts – 3 facts about each case study……..Go!

Which case study for which question???
Question Case Study
By referring to examples explain the factors
that can lead to a population increase or
decrease.
Describe the methods governments can use
to control population size.
Using examples describe how different
countries try to control its number of
immigrants
Explain why some people believe that the
worlds resources will rune out soon, while
others think that it will not happen
Using examples, explain how renewable
energies could replace the world’s
dependency on fossil fuels
Using examples, explain how rural areas are
trying to improve rural services.
Using examples, explain how bottom-up
schemes have benefited developing
countries.
Using examples, explain the potential for
growth of the ‘green’ employment sector.
Using examples, explain why some rural
areas are under pressure from urban
populations.
Using examples, compare the success of
bottom-up and top-down development
projects.
For a named rural area, explain how it could
develop more sustainably in the
future.
For a named developing country, explain the
differences between the urban cores
and the rural periphery.

1. Using one of the handy facts or key facts sheets
complete a sheet for your weakest case study.
2. Do the same for your strongest
3. How do they compare?
Strengths and Weaknesses

Knowledge Top up……
1. Go to the Edexcel website
www.edexcel.org.uk
Click : Qualifications> GCSE
from 2009> Geography B>
Question papers
Select People and the planet
higher or foundation
Revision:
• Case study work on
handy facts or key
fact sheets
• Use revision guide to
revise
• Exam questions from
the case study
challenge sheet
• Exam papers

Case Studies
Population Dynamics:
Aging / Youthful
populations – Japan &
Mexico
Anti-Natalist – China, one
child policy
Pro Natalist – Estonia,
Singapore
Migration – UK, Open
Door – Point based
system
Consuming Resources:
Supply and Consumption
of a resource – Oil
Malthus
Boserup

Case Studies
Globalisation
Clark Fisher Model
FDI
TNC’s – Coca Cola,
Nike, BT
Global institutions
that help the
economy
IMF
WTO
Development Dilemmas
Dispariites in countries:
LEDC, India Maharashtra
(core area) v Bihar
(periphery).
Top down development
Narmada River Scheme,
India.
Bottom up development
Biogas, India.
Sustainable
Development
Tree Planting, Gujarat,
India.
Kerala State, India –
Health and education.

Case Studies
Changing Economy
of the UK
• North East v
South East
England
• Glasgow
• Fort Dunlop
• Solihull
The Challenges of an Urban
World– Mexico City
London
• BedZED
• Eco-communities
Greener Growth in Cities
LEDC – Curitiba, Brazil

Gcse unit 2 revision-edited for 2014

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