From Teacher
To assist you with preparing the Week 7 assignment, I am providing a few additional resources. Attached is a slide deck I created on coding textual data, and below are links to a video on coding and an article on identifying themes in qualitative data. Also, some learners find the Week 8 lecture helpful to this assignment, so I have attached it here as well.
As you prepare this assignment, closely follow the directions in the PSY 850 Assignments Document. Because it asks you to inductively code the data, I will expect to see that each of you have developed your own codes and themes. That means do not use the codes and themes from the Clark and Springer (2007) article. However, you should compare and contrast your findings with theirs in the recommendations section.
Submit one paper in APA format with the required subsections delineated in the Assignments Guide: Introduction, Sample, Instruments, Data Analysis, Results, and Recommendations. Include a references list. You must complete all three tables in the Tables for Assignment 7 document and include those tables as an Appendix in your document. Do not submit them as a separate document nor embed them within the text of the paper.
Please use this space to ask additional questions about the assignment.
Thanks and happy coding,
Paula
Video on Coding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRL4PF2u9XA
GCU Recommended article on Techniques to Identify Themes in Qualitative Data
http://www.analytictech.com/mb870/Readings/ryan-bernard_techniques_to_identify_themes_in.htm
Attached FilesPSY-850-L8.pdfCoding Textual Data.pptx
Dr. Paula Thompson
Senior Doctoral Adjunct Chair
College of Doctoral Studies
[email protected]
Schedule meetings with me at: http://meetme.so/PaulaThompson
problem12.13
Techniques to Identify Themes in Qualitative Data
Gery W. Ryan
RAND
1700 Main Street
P.O. Box 2138
Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138
H. Russell Bernard
Department of Anthropology
1350 Turlington Hall
University of Florida
Gaineville, FL 32611
Key Words: Theme Identification, Exploratory Analysis, Open Coding, Text Analysis, Qualitative Research Methods
Abstract
Theme identification is one of the most fundamental tasks in qualitative research. It also one of the most mysterious. Explicit descriptions of theme discovery are rarely described in articles and reports and if so are often regulated to appendices or footnotes. Techniques are shared among small groups of social scientists and are often impeded by disciplinary or epistemological boundaries. During the proposal-writing phase of a project, investigators struggle to clearly explain and justify plans for discovering themes. These issues are particularly cogent when funding reviewers are unfamiliar with qualitative traditions. In this article we have outlined a dozen techniques that social scientists have used to discover themes in texts. The techniques are drawn from across epistemological and disciplinary boundaries. They ...
This document discusses qualitative data analysis (QDA). It defines QDA as interpreting qualitative data such as interviews, field notes, videos and documents to explain phenomena. The analysis is usually interpretive and examines symbolic meaning. Common techniques include identifying themes in transcripts and writing analytical memos. Rigor requires maintaining openness, reflecting on biases, and triangulating perspectives. Effective analysis also requires understanding participants' language nuances.
Strategies on How to Infer & Explain Patterns and Themes from DataNoMore2020
A research that we presented and submitted to our teacher, Mrs. Lopez. I uploaded this because I wanted to help other students in the ABM track especially to Senior High Students who have Reseach in Daily Life in their subjects.
CLASSIFYING RESEARCHObjective Following completion of this cour.docxmonicafrancis71118
CLASSIFYING RESEARCH
Objective: Following completion of this course, the student will understand the general classification schema for research.
There are several ways to categorize different kinds of research. Please view the schematic that you’ll find in the section on quantitative research. One of the most fundamental is basic versus applied. By far, the preponderance of educational research is applied. We generally think of basic research as it more frequently occurs in the sciences. Examining the theoretical foundations of the beginning of the universe, trying to validate Darwin’s Theory of Evolution,
Item#6 in your study
Your study!
and other such projects are certainly worthy endeavors, leading to simple expansion of knowledge rather than of some immediately applied benefit. However, in education, we’re more interested and involved in solving problems. Just how much does a certain math software package do in terms of facilitating mastery of multiplication and division? Is mainstreaming effective in countering self-image problems of special education students? Will mandatory retention of third-graders who cannot read affect eventual graduation rates? These are examples of applied research, answers to which allow us to immediately make improvements in some aspect of education.
Research can be classified as either quantitative or qualitative. You will use both in the research project to be completed in this class. The former, quantitative, requires the use of statistics for analysis of data. Look at the schematic on the preceding page and locate descriptive under the quantitative heading. You will design and carry out a descriptive pilot studythis semester; it will require some basic statistical analysis skills which you master in a subsequent assignment. Look at the arrow on the schematic on page 50. That is what you’ll be doing, a combination quantitative and qualitative study..
Qualitative research does not require the use of statistics. It is sometimes termed ethnographic research, coming from long-time use by anthropologists and relies upon such as observation of behaviors in a natural setting, interpretation of documents or records, interviews, and open-ended questions used in surveys. Details on techniques of qualitative analysis and writing will be addressed later in this text.
Additional reading
Dominowski, R. L. (1980). Research methods. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Firth, R. (1984). Ethnographic research: a guide to general conduct. Orlando: Academic Press.
Schmuck, R. (2006). Practical action research for change. Thousand Oaks,
Calif.: Corwin Press.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Objective: Following completion of this course, the student will have the basic skills necessary for doing qualitative research and will understand the process.
You might recall reading about Margaret Mead, a famous anthropologist who lived among primitive societies and wrote of their lifestyles and habits. While her work has .
The document provides guidance on conducting an effective literature review. It discusses that the purpose of a literature review is to establish the context and terms, survey previous work on the topic, explore how others have addressed similar questions, and identify gaps. The document emphasizes critical analysis of existing research to understand strengths and weaknesses. It provides tips for planning, reading, analyzing, drafting and revising a literature review. It also covers proper citation formats and avoiding plagiarism when incorporating outside information.
15 methods of qualitative data analysis are summarized. These include typology, taxonomy, constant comparison/grounded theory, analytic induction, logical analysis/matrix analysis, quasi-statistics, event analysis/microanalysis, metaphorical analysis, domain analysis, hermeneutical analysis, discourse analysis, semiotics, content analysis, phenomenology/heuristic analysis, and narrative analysis. Each method has a distinct approach and process for categorizing and interpreting qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. References are provided for further information on each analysis technique.
FINDING YOUR STORY DATA ANALYSISCH. 7 Finding Your Story Data MerrileeDelvalle969
FINDING YOUR STORY: DATA ANALYSIS
CH. 7 Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
Glesne, C. (2016). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (5th ed.). Pearson.
Chapter 7
Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
I can no longer put off the inevitable. I’ve been home three weeks, and I’ve found as many distractions as I could to avoid coding. I’ve organized my files, I’ve set up the study and done a major reorganization so I can spread out the stacks that will soon pile up. I’m reading, I’m thinking, and as a way of really beginning, I took out the prospectus I wrote in November. During the last months at my site, I put a few Post-it notes into the prospectus file with other BIG looming ideas, ones that showed me I would have to tinker with the planned structure. Today I thought I’d just print out a sheet of the tentative chapter structure to put up on the wall (and delay coding once again?). I began typing it, and what did I find? It’s all wrong, it doesn’t capture the way I’ve been thinking at all. The power of the shift hit me head on. I tried to reorganize the chapters, but I found that wouldn’t work either. So instead I wrote out the big themes I have been thinking about in my sleep, while I drive, when I cook Passover food . . . and that’s where I’ll have to start.
(Pugach, personal correspondence, March 31, 1994)
Data analysis involves organizing what you have seen, heard, and read so you can figure out what you have learned and make sense of what you have experienced. Working with the data, you describe, compare, create explanations, link your story to other stories, and possibly pose hypotheses or develop theories. How you go about doing so, however, can vary widely. Linguistic traditions, for example, focus upon words and conversations, treating “text as an object of analysis itself” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and may use procedures such as formal narrative analysis, discourse analysis, or linguistic analysis as tools for making sense of data. Researchers from sociological traditions tend to treat “text as a window into human experience” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and use thematic analysis procedures to deal with data through coding and segregating data for further analysis, description, and interpretation. Thematic analysis, the approach most widely used in ethnographic work, receives primary attention in this chapter, but for comparison, several other forms of data analysis are introduced as well.
Varying Forms of Analysis
The form of analysis you use is linked to your methodology, research goals, data collection methods, and so on. This chapter does not attempt to explain the multiple approaches to data analysis that are available, but four different approaches are presented to introduce how and why analysis procedures may vary. Read more widely on modes that resonate with you, and on data analysis in general. This section begins with an introduction to thematic analysis, the kind of data analysis focused upon throughout th ...
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of a particular individual or small group. The document outlines the history, purposes, types (e.g. illustrative, exploratory), and process of conducting case studies including data collection, analysis, reporting, and addressing issues of validity and reliability. Key aspects of case studies discussed include collecting qualitative data through methods like interviews and observations and analyzing data for patterns and meanings.
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of a particular individual or small group. The document outlines the history, purposes, types (e.g. illustrative, exploratory), and process of conducting case studies including data collection, analysis, and reporting. Key aspects of case studies discussed include collecting qualitative data through methods like interviews and observations; analyzing data for patterns and meaning; and providing rich descriptive reports that contextualize the conclusions. Issues of validity, reliability and generalizability are also addressed.
This document discusses qualitative data analysis (QDA). It defines QDA as interpreting qualitative data such as interviews, field notes, videos and documents to explain phenomena. The analysis is usually interpretive and examines symbolic meaning. Common techniques include identifying themes in transcripts and writing analytical memos. Rigor requires maintaining openness, reflecting on biases, and triangulating perspectives. Effective analysis also requires understanding participants' language nuances.
Strategies on How to Infer & Explain Patterns and Themes from DataNoMore2020
A research that we presented and submitted to our teacher, Mrs. Lopez. I uploaded this because I wanted to help other students in the ABM track especially to Senior High Students who have Reseach in Daily Life in their subjects.
CLASSIFYING RESEARCHObjective Following completion of this cour.docxmonicafrancis71118
CLASSIFYING RESEARCH
Objective: Following completion of this course, the student will understand the general classification schema for research.
There are several ways to categorize different kinds of research. Please view the schematic that you’ll find in the section on quantitative research. One of the most fundamental is basic versus applied. By far, the preponderance of educational research is applied. We generally think of basic research as it more frequently occurs in the sciences. Examining the theoretical foundations of the beginning of the universe, trying to validate Darwin’s Theory of Evolution,
Item#6 in your study
Your study!
and other such projects are certainly worthy endeavors, leading to simple expansion of knowledge rather than of some immediately applied benefit. However, in education, we’re more interested and involved in solving problems. Just how much does a certain math software package do in terms of facilitating mastery of multiplication and division? Is mainstreaming effective in countering self-image problems of special education students? Will mandatory retention of third-graders who cannot read affect eventual graduation rates? These are examples of applied research, answers to which allow us to immediately make improvements in some aspect of education.
Research can be classified as either quantitative or qualitative. You will use both in the research project to be completed in this class. The former, quantitative, requires the use of statistics for analysis of data. Look at the schematic on the preceding page and locate descriptive under the quantitative heading. You will design and carry out a descriptive pilot studythis semester; it will require some basic statistical analysis skills which you master in a subsequent assignment. Look at the arrow on the schematic on page 50. That is what you’ll be doing, a combination quantitative and qualitative study..
Qualitative research does not require the use of statistics. It is sometimes termed ethnographic research, coming from long-time use by anthropologists and relies upon such as observation of behaviors in a natural setting, interpretation of documents or records, interviews, and open-ended questions used in surveys. Details on techniques of qualitative analysis and writing will be addressed later in this text.
Additional reading
Dominowski, R. L. (1980). Research methods. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Firth, R. (1984). Ethnographic research: a guide to general conduct. Orlando: Academic Press.
Schmuck, R. (2006). Practical action research for change. Thousand Oaks,
Calif.: Corwin Press.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Objective: Following completion of this course, the student will have the basic skills necessary for doing qualitative research and will understand the process.
You might recall reading about Margaret Mead, a famous anthropologist who lived among primitive societies and wrote of their lifestyles and habits. While her work has .
The document provides guidance on conducting an effective literature review. It discusses that the purpose of a literature review is to establish the context and terms, survey previous work on the topic, explore how others have addressed similar questions, and identify gaps. The document emphasizes critical analysis of existing research to understand strengths and weaknesses. It provides tips for planning, reading, analyzing, drafting and revising a literature review. It also covers proper citation formats and avoiding plagiarism when incorporating outside information.
15 methods of qualitative data analysis are summarized. These include typology, taxonomy, constant comparison/grounded theory, analytic induction, logical analysis/matrix analysis, quasi-statistics, event analysis/microanalysis, metaphorical analysis, domain analysis, hermeneutical analysis, discourse analysis, semiotics, content analysis, phenomenology/heuristic analysis, and narrative analysis. Each method has a distinct approach and process for categorizing and interpreting qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. References are provided for further information on each analysis technique.
FINDING YOUR STORY DATA ANALYSISCH. 7 Finding Your Story Data MerrileeDelvalle969
FINDING YOUR STORY: DATA ANALYSIS
CH. 7 Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
Glesne, C. (2016). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (5th ed.). Pearson.
Chapter 7
Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
I can no longer put off the inevitable. I’ve been home three weeks, and I’ve found as many distractions as I could to avoid coding. I’ve organized my files, I’ve set up the study and done a major reorganization so I can spread out the stacks that will soon pile up. I’m reading, I’m thinking, and as a way of really beginning, I took out the prospectus I wrote in November. During the last months at my site, I put a few Post-it notes into the prospectus file with other BIG looming ideas, ones that showed me I would have to tinker with the planned structure. Today I thought I’d just print out a sheet of the tentative chapter structure to put up on the wall (and delay coding once again?). I began typing it, and what did I find? It’s all wrong, it doesn’t capture the way I’ve been thinking at all. The power of the shift hit me head on. I tried to reorganize the chapters, but I found that wouldn’t work either. So instead I wrote out the big themes I have been thinking about in my sleep, while I drive, when I cook Passover food . . . and that’s where I’ll have to start.
(Pugach, personal correspondence, March 31, 1994)
Data analysis involves organizing what you have seen, heard, and read so you can figure out what you have learned and make sense of what you have experienced. Working with the data, you describe, compare, create explanations, link your story to other stories, and possibly pose hypotheses or develop theories. How you go about doing so, however, can vary widely. Linguistic traditions, for example, focus upon words and conversations, treating “text as an object of analysis itself” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and may use procedures such as formal narrative analysis, discourse analysis, or linguistic analysis as tools for making sense of data. Researchers from sociological traditions tend to treat “text as a window into human experience” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and use thematic analysis procedures to deal with data through coding and segregating data for further analysis, description, and interpretation. Thematic analysis, the approach most widely used in ethnographic work, receives primary attention in this chapter, but for comparison, several other forms of data analysis are introduced as well.
Varying Forms of Analysis
The form of analysis you use is linked to your methodology, research goals, data collection methods, and so on. This chapter does not attempt to explain the multiple approaches to data analysis that are available, but four different approaches are presented to introduce how and why analysis procedures may vary. Read more widely on modes that resonate with you, and on data analysis in general. This section begins with an introduction to thematic analysis, the kind of data analysis focused upon throughout th ...
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of a particular individual or small group. The document outlines the history, purposes, types (e.g. illustrative, exploratory), and process of conducting case studies including data collection, analysis, reporting, and addressing issues of validity and reliability. Key aspects of case studies discussed include collecting qualitative data through methods like interviews and observations and analyzing data for patterns and meanings.
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of a particular individual or small group. The document outlines the history, purposes, types (e.g. illustrative, exploratory), and process of conducting case studies including data collection, analysis, and reporting. Key aspects of case studies discussed include collecting qualitative data through methods like interviews and observations; analyzing data for patterns and meaning; and providing rich descriptive reports that contextualize the conclusions. Issues of validity, reliability and generalizability are also addressed.
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of a particular individual or small group. The document outlines the history, purposes, types (e.g. illustrative, exploratory), and process of conducting case studies including data collection, analysis, and reporting. Key aspects of case studies discussed include collecting qualitative data through methods like interviews and observations; analyzing data for patterns and meaning; and providing rich descriptive reports that contextualize the conclusions. Issues of validity, reliability and generalizability are also addressed.
Data Management in Legal Research: Data Organisation and AnalysisPreeti Sikder
Lesson Objective: After completing this lesson students will be able to:
a) learn the process of transcribing data;
b) understand the data analysis process in qualitative research
This document provides an overview of 22 qualitative data analysis methods: Typology, Grounded Theory, Analytic Induction, Logical Analysis, Quasi-Statistics, Narrative Event Analysis, Domain Analysis, Taxonomic Analysis, Thematic Analysis, Metaphorical Analysis, Hermeneutical Analysis, Content Analysis, Conversation Analysis, Discourse Analysis, Semiotic Analysis, Phenomenology, Heuristic Inquiry, Ethnography, Case Study Research, Historical Analysis, Action Research, and Feminist Research. Each method is briefly defined and includes a reference for further information. The document aims to help students, practitioners, and academics with their qualitative research projects.
Here is an in-depth presentation that overviews twenty two (22) qualitative data methods that can be used in marketing research. For more great FREE resources, join us on facebook today at www.facebook.comb2bwhiteboard.
Or visit our website: www.b2bwhiteboard.com
The document provides an overview of key concepts related to research including defining research, the different types of research problems, developing research questions, conducting a literature review, choosing a research design, and addressing ethical considerations. It discusses qualitative and quantitative research methods and outlines steps for developing a feasible research problem such as ensuring it is relevant, measurable, clear, and does not pose ethical risks. The document emphasizes the importance of a thorough literature review in developing a research problem and identifying gaps to address in a study.
The document discusses several techniques for identifying themes in qualitative research data, including looking at local terms, metaphors, analogies, linguistic connectors, similarities and differences, transitions, missing data, and theory-related material. It also discusses processing techniques such as cutting and sorting, multi-dimensional scaling (MDS), and analyzing words and key words in context.
5Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research Statistical.docxtroutmanboris
5
Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research
Statistical Method
What is measured by this method
Circumstances for Use
Examples of use in Research Studies
Qualitative Content Analysis
Analyzes narrative data, and in-depth interviews. Can evaluate large volumes of data with intent to identify recurring themes and patterns. Attempts to break down elements of data into clusters. May be concurrent or sequential (Polit &Beck, 2017).
Good method for evaluating personal histories, perspectives, experiences. Best method for studying personal, sensitive situations (Sauro, 2015).
Examples of this methodology include evaluation of the experience of a rape victim, what it feels like to have an abortion, how it feels to have lived through a disaster.
Ethnographic analysis
Evaluates cultural phenomena, patterns, perspectives. Requires “participant observer” technique. No preconceived hypothesis. May take months or years to complete. Maps and flowcharts are tools to help illustrate findings (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method to “acquire a deep understanding of the culture being studied” (Polit & Beck, 2017 p. 538).
An example of ethnographic analysis could include a research study with ethnographers integrating with Native Americans living on a reservation while observing everyday life seeking to extrapolate overlying cultural issues.
Phenomenologic Analysis
Attempts to understand the essence of experiencing a particular phenomenon by observation, interviews, and outside research. Descriptive analysis
Method for understanding individual perspectives of experiencing a certain phenomenon. Seeks to extrapolate commonalities and themes among subjects (Sauro, 2015).
Conducting interviews with persons who have experienced hallucinations, with the intent to understand their perspective and experience of the phenomenon, is an example of this method of research.
Grounded Theory Analysis
Aim is to provide theories and explanations for phenomena based on previously coded information Uses interviews and previous accepted research. Unlike Qualitative content analysis, which seeks to break down information, Grounded theory strives to put information back together (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method for development of theories, Could be used meta-analyses or systematic reviews.
An example of a grounded theory analysis is” Beck’s (2002) model of mothering twins” as cited in Polit & Beck (2017).
Focus Group Analysis
Analyzes group data in relation to a specific topic. Group interviews, recordings, and field notes .are instruments for conducting this type of research.
May be used for evaluation of a potential survey tool, consensus on a new product. Researchers seek to extrapolate recurring themes.
An example of a focus group analysis might be to evaluate perceptions of a new product being marketed to test for general consensus of its desirability.
Quasi-statistics: a tabulation of the frequency with which certain themes or insights are supported by the data
Qualitat.
Literature Review and Research Related ProblemsChris Okiki
This document provides guidance on conducting a literature review. It discusses what a literature review is, the major reasons for doing one, and the search process. A literature review establishes the context and rationale for a study. It involves reviewing previous research to learn about research design and how a project can contribute to the field. The search process involves identifying a topic, reviewing secondary sources to get an overview, developing search terms to identify primary sources through databases and libraries, checking references, and networking with others in the field.
This document provides guidance for students analyzing data and writing an academic report on learning a new literacy through producing a digital media artifact. It discusses options for emergent or theory-guided data analysis and coding. It also offers tips for structuring the report, discussing findings, and integrating literature. Students are asked to examine how patterns in their data relate to concepts like affinity spaces, participatory culture, and distributed expertise.
This document discusses the literature review and ethical concerns related to social research methods. It defines key terms like "related literature" and "study". It describes the purpose of reviewing related literature, including identifying gaps and avoiding duplicating previous work. Sources of literature are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary. Characteristics of effective literature include recency, objectivity, and relevance. The conclusion reiterates that a literature review evaluates and integrates previous research to position a study in a field of inquiry. Ethical concerns in social research involve informed consent, privacy, and truthfully collecting and reporting data.
Qualitative research involves in-depth exploration and description to understand individuals' experiences and meanings. It focuses on understanding viewpoints rather than generalization. Key characteristics include naturalistic inquiry, an emphasis on interpretation over causation, and the researcher being embedded in the research. Common qualitative methods include ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, action research, and case studies. Data collection involves interviews, observations, and documents, while analysis identifies patterns and themes through coding and interpreting data. Ensuring quality requires justifying interpretations, verifying findings, spending prolonged time in the field, and reflecting on the researcher's role.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in formulating and conducting research, including defining hypotheses, variables, and assumptions. It discusses developing a research design that includes determining data sources, instruments, and procedures. It also addresses analyzing and treating data, as well as documenting the study through literature reviews, bibliographies, note-taking, and structuring final reports and proposals. The document offers guidance on all stages of the research process.
This document outlines the required sections and formatting for a thesis or dissertation. It includes preliminaries like the title page, recommendation page, and abstract. It also describes the typical chapters which cover the introduction/problem statement, literature review, research methodology, results and discussion, and conclusions. Key sections and subsections are defined, such as defining terms, theoretical frameworks, data collection sources and procedures. Formatting guidelines are provided for citations, appendices, and curricula vitae.
Respond using one or more of the following approachesmickietanger
Respond
using one or more of the following approaches:
Ask a probing question, substantiated with additional background information, and evidence.
Share an insight from having read your colleagues’ postings, synthesizing the information to provide new perspectives.
Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research
Statistical Method
What is measured by this method
Circumstances for Use
Examples of use in Research Studies
Qualitative Content Analysis
Analyzes narrative data, and in-depth interviews. Can evaluate large volumes of data with intent to identify recurring themes and patterns. Attempts to break down elements of data into clusters. May be concurrent or sequential (Polit &Beck, 2017).
Good method for evaluating personal histories, perspectives, experiences. Best method for studying personal, sensitive situations (Sauro, 2015).
Examples of this methodology include evaluation of the experience of a rape victim, what it feels like to have an abortion, how it feels to have lived through a disaster.
Ethnographic analysis
Evaluates cultural phenomena, patterns, perspectives. Requires “participant observer” technique. No preconceived hypothesis. May take months or years to complete. Maps and flowcharts are tools to help illustrate findings (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method to “acquire a deep understanding of the culture being studied” (Polit & Beck, 2017 p. 538).
An example of ethnographic analysis could include a research study with ethnographers integrating with Native Americans living on a reservation while observing everyday life seeking to extrapolate overlying cultural issues.
Phenomenologic Analysis
Attempts to understand the essence of experiencing a particular phenomenon by observation, interviews, and outside research. Descriptive analysis
Method for understanding individual perspectives of experiencing a certain phenomenon. Seeks to extrapolate commonalities and themes among subjects (Sauro, 2015).
Conducting interviews with persons who have experienced hallucinations, with the intent to understand their perspective and experience of the phenomenon, is an example of this method of research.
Grounded Theory Analysis
Aim is to provide theories and explanations for phenomena based on previously coded information Uses interviews and previous accepted research. Unlike Qualitative content analysis, which seeks to break down information, Grounded theory strives to put information back together (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method for development of theories, Could be used meta-analyses or systematic reviews.
An example of a grounded theory analysis is” Beck’s (2002) model of mothering twins” as cited in Polit & Beck (2017).
Focus Group Analysis
Analyzes group data in relation to a specific topic. Group interviews, recordings, and field notes .are instruments for conducting this type of research.
May be used for evaluation of a potential survey too ...
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods, including data collection and analysis. It discusses the key principles of qualitative inquiry, such as understanding multiple realities and natural contexts. Common sources of qualitative data are interviews, observations, and documents. The goal of analysis is to uncover themes and patterns to understand phenomena. Five common qualitative research designs are described: case study, phenomenology, ethnography, narrative research, and mixed methods. The document contrasts the qualitative paradigm with the quantitative paradigm.
This document provides guidance on conceptual and theoretical frameworks, literature reviews, hypotheses, and definitions of terms for research. It discusses that frameworks provide perspectives and models used by researchers to organize their work. Theoretical frameworks apply theories to explain phenomena, while conceptual frameworks graphically present concepts and relationships. Literature reviews help establish connections to prior work, theories, and accuracy of research questions. Hypotheses tentatively explain variable relationships and must be testable. Definitions of terms clarify meanings within a study. Organization and criteria are outlined for effective literature reviews.
The document provides an introduction to research methods and tools, outlining objectives for understanding what constitutes research, the types and importance of educational research, the research process, quantitative and qualitative characteristics and designs, ethical issues, needed skills, and general tools including libraries, computers, measurement, and human cognition.
This chapter discusses methods for managing and analyzing qualitative data such as text from various sources. It describes techniques for collecting words or phrases from respondents, such as free lists, pile sorts, and frame elicitations. It also discusses approaches for analyzing these data, including componential analysis to identify cultural domains, taxonomies to show hierarchical relationships, and mental maps using multidimensional scaling. The chapter then covers methods for analyzing free-flowing text, including keywords-in-context, word counts, and approaches that code text into categories like grounded theory, content analysis, and ethnographic decision models.
Critical Qualitative Research Designpages 70–76Related to un.docxwillcoxjanay
Critical Qualitative Research Design
pages 70–76
Related to understanding your goals as a researcher is the development of the rationale of the study. A rationale is the reason or argument for why a study matters and why the approach is appropriate to the study. Rationales can range from improving your practice and the practice of colleagues (as in practitioner research), contributing to formal theory (e.g., where there may be a gap in or lack of research in an area), understanding existing research in a new context or with a new population, and/or contributing to the methodological literature and approach to an existing corpus of research in a specific area or field. Thinking about and answering the questions in Table 3.1 can aid in this process. Considering these kinds of questions is central to developing empirical studies, and it is important to understand that these rationales and goals will also lead you to conduct different types of research, guiding your many choices—from the theories used to frame the study to the selection of various methods to the actual research questions as well as designs chosen and implemented.
There are many strategies for engaging in a structured inquiry process and through it an exploration of research goals and the overall rationale of a study. These strategies can include the writing of various kinds of memos, structured dialogic engagement processes, and reflective journaling. Across these strategies, creating the conditions and structures for regular dialogic engagement with a range of interlocutors is an absolutely vital and necessary part of refining your understanding of the goals and rationales for the research. We describe each of these strategies in the subsequent sections.
Memos on Study Goals and Rationale
Memos are important tools in qualitative research and tend to be written about a variety of different topics throughout the phases of a qualitative study. Memos are a way to capture and process, over time, your ongoing ideas and discoveries, challenges associated with fieldwork and design, and analytic sense-making. Depending on your research questions, memos can also become data sources for a study. There is no “wrong” way of writing memos, as their goal is to foster meaning making and serve as a chronicle of emerging learning and thinking. Memos tend to be informal and can be written in a variety of styles, including prose, bullet points, and/or outline form; they can include poetry, drawings, or other supporting imagery. The goals of memos are to help generate and clarify your thinking as well as to capture the development of your thinking, as a kind of phenomenological note taking that captures the meaning making of the researcher in real time and then provides data to refer back and consider the refinement of your thinking over time (Maxwell, 2013; Nakkula & Ravitch, 1998). While we find writing memos to be a useful and generative exercise, both when we write and share them in our indep.
Explain how firms can benefit from forecastingexchange rates .docxhanneloremccaffery
Explain how firms can benefit from forecasting
exchange rates
Describe the common techniques used for
forecasting
Explain how forecasting performance can be
evaluated
explain how interval forecasts can be applied
APA format, minimum 3 sources
Paper will be a minimum of 650 and a maximum of 900 words.
(This includes title section, content, and references…in other
words the entire paper)
.
•POL201 •Discussions •Week 5 - DiscussionVoter and Voter Tu.docxhanneloremccaffery
• POL201 • Discussions • Week 5 - Discussion
Voter and Voter Turnout
Prepare: Prior to completing this discussion question, review Chapters 10, 11, and 12 in American Government and review Week Five Instructor Guidance. Also read the following articles: How Voter ID Laws Are Being Used to Disenfranchise Minorities and the Poor (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., Fraught with Fraud (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., and Proof at the Polls (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
Reflect: The U.S. has one of the lowest voter turnout rates among modern democratic political systems. One study ranks the U.S. 120th on a list of 169 nations compared on voter turnout (Pintor, Gratschew, & Sullivan, 2002). During the last decade, many initiatives have been undertaken to increase voter participation, yet concerns about the possibility of election fraud have also increased. Additionally, some political interests feel threatened by the increase in turnout among some traditionally low-turnout ethnic minorities. Several states have recently passed legislation imposing new registration and identification requirements. This has sparked debate about whether these are tactics intended to suppress turnout or to prevent fraud. Think about the media’s role in the election process and how both mass media and social media can impact the election process.
Write: In your initial post, summarize recent developments in several states enacting voter ID laws. Analyze and describe the pros and cons on both sides of the debate about these laws. Is voter fraud a major problem for our democracy or are some groups trying to make it harder for some segments of society to vote? What impact has the media (mass and social) had in influencing public opinion regarding voter ID laws? Draw your own conclusion about the debate over voter ID laws and justify your conclusions with facts and persuasive reasoning. Fully respond to all parts of the prompt and write your response in your own words. Your initial post must be at least 300 words. Support your position with at least two of the assigned resources required for this discussion, and/or peer reviewed scholarly sources obtained through the AU Library databases. Include APA in-text citations (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. in the body of your post and full citations on the references list (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. at the end. Support your position with APA citations from two or more of the assigned resources required for this discussion. Please be sure that you demonstrate understanding of these resources, integrate them into your argument, and cite them properly.
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5
Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research
Statistical Method
What is measured by this method
Circumstances for Use
Examples of use in Research Studies
Qualitative Content Analysis
Analyzes narrative data, and in-depth interviews. Can evaluate large volumes of data with intent to identify recurring themes and patterns. Attempts to break down elements of data into clusters. May be concurrent or sequential (Polit &Beck, 2017).
Good method for evaluating personal histories, perspectives, experiences. Best method for studying personal, sensitive situations (Sauro, 2015).
Examples of this methodology include evaluation of the experience of a rape victim, what it feels like to have an abortion, how it feels to have lived through a disaster.
Ethnographic analysis
Evaluates cultural phenomena, patterns, perspectives. Requires “participant observer” technique. No preconceived hypothesis. May take months or years to complete. Maps and flowcharts are tools to help illustrate findings (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method to “acquire a deep understanding of the culture being studied” (Polit & Beck, 2017 p. 538).
An example of ethnographic analysis could include a research study with ethnographers integrating with Native Americans living on a reservation while observing everyday life seeking to extrapolate overlying cultural issues.
Phenomenologic Analysis
Attempts to understand the essence of experiencing a particular phenomenon by observation, interviews, and outside research. Descriptive analysis
Method for understanding individual perspectives of experiencing a certain phenomenon. Seeks to extrapolate commonalities and themes among subjects (Sauro, 2015).
Conducting interviews with persons who have experienced hallucinations, with the intent to understand their perspective and experience of the phenomenon, is an example of this method of research.
Grounded Theory Analysis
Aim is to provide theories and explanations for phenomena based on previously coded information Uses interviews and previous accepted research. Unlike Qualitative content analysis, which seeks to break down information, Grounded theory strives to put information back together (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method for development of theories, Could be used meta-analyses or systematic reviews.
An example of a grounded theory analysis is” Beck’s (2002) model of mothering twins” as cited in Polit & Beck (2017).
Focus Group Analysis
Analyzes group data in relation to a specific topic. Group interviews, recordings, and field notes .are instruments for conducting this type of research.
May be used for evaluation of a potential survey tool, consensus on a new product. Researchers seek to extrapolate recurring themes.
An example of a focus group analysis might be to evaluate perceptions of a new product being marketed to test for general consensus of its desirability.
Quasi-statistics: a tabulation of the frequency with which certain themes or insights are supported by the data
Qualitat.
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Respond using one or more of the following approachesmickietanger
Respond
using one or more of the following approaches:
Ask a probing question, substantiated with additional background information, and evidence.
Share an insight from having read your colleagues’ postings, synthesizing the information to provide new perspectives.
Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research
Statistical Method
What is measured by this method
Circumstances for Use
Examples of use in Research Studies
Qualitative Content Analysis
Analyzes narrative data, and in-depth interviews. Can evaluate large volumes of data with intent to identify recurring themes and patterns. Attempts to break down elements of data into clusters. May be concurrent or sequential (Polit &Beck, 2017).
Good method for evaluating personal histories, perspectives, experiences. Best method for studying personal, sensitive situations (Sauro, 2015).
Examples of this methodology include evaluation of the experience of a rape victim, what it feels like to have an abortion, how it feels to have lived through a disaster.
Ethnographic analysis
Evaluates cultural phenomena, patterns, perspectives. Requires “participant observer” technique. No preconceived hypothesis. May take months or years to complete. Maps and flowcharts are tools to help illustrate findings (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method to “acquire a deep understanding of the culture being studied” (Polit & Beck, 2017 p. 538).
An example of ethnographic analysis could include a research study with ethnographers integrating with Native Americans living on a reservation while observing everyday life seeking to extrapolate overlying cultural issues.
Phenomenologic Analysis
Attempts to understand the essence of experiencing a particular phenomenon by observation, interviews, and outside research. Descriptive analysis
Method for understanding individual perspectives of experiencing a certain phenomenon. Seeks to extrapolate commonalities and themes among subjects (Sauro, 2015).
Conducting interviews with persons who have experienced hallucinations, with the intent to understand their perspective and experience of the phenomenon, is an example of this method of research.
Grounded Theory Analysis
Aim is to provide theories and explanations for phenomena based on previously coded information Uses interviews and previous accepted research. Unlike Qualitative content analysis, which seeks to break down information, Grounded theory strives to put information back together (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method for development of theories, Could be used meta-analyses or systematic reviews.
An example of a grounded theory analysis is” Beck’s (2002) model of mothering twins” as cited in Polit & Beck (2017).
Focus Group Analysis
Analyzes group data in relation to a specific topic. Group interviews, recordings, and field notes .are instruments for conducting this type of research.
May be used for evaluation of a potential survey too ...
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods, including data collection and analysis. It discusses the key principles of qualitative inquiry, such as understanding multiple realities and natural contexts. Common sources of qualitative data are interviews, observations, and documents. The goal of analysis is to uncover themes and patterns to understand phenomena. Five common qualitative research designs are described: case study, phenomenology, ethnography, narrative research, and mixed methods. The document contrasts the qualitative paradigm with the quantitative paradigm.
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Critical Qualitative Research Designpages 70–76Related to un.docxwillcoxjanay
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pages 70–76
Related to understanding your goals as a researcher is the development of the rationale of the study. A rationale is the reason or argument for why a study matters and why the approach is appropriate to the study. Rationales can range from improving your practice and the practice of colleagues (as in practitioner research), contributing to formal theory (e.g., where there may be a gap in or lack of research in an area), understanding existing research in a new context or with a new population, and/or contributing to the methodological literature and approach to an existing corpus of research in a specific area or field. Thinking about and answering the questions in Table 3.1 can aid in this process. Considering these kinds of questions is central to developing empirical studies, and it is important to understand that these rationales and goals will also lead you to conduct different types of research, guiding your many choices—from the theories used to frame the study to the selection of various methods to the actual research questions as well as designs chosen and implemented.
There are many strategies for engaging in a structured inquiry process and through it an exploration of research goals and the overall rationale of a study. These strategies can include the writing of various kinds of memos, structured dialogic engagement processes, and reflective journaling. Across these strategies, creating the conditions and structures for regular dialogic engagement with a range of interlocutors is an absolutely vital and necessary part of refining your understanding of the goals and rationales for the research. We describe each of these strategies in the subsequent sections.
Memos on Study Goals and Rationale
Memos are important tools in qualitative research and tend to be written about a variety of different topics throughout the phases of a qualitative study. Memos are a way to capture and process, over time, your ongoing ideas and discoveries, challenges associated with fieldwork and design, and analytic sense-making. Depending on your research questions, memos can also become data sources for a study. There is no “wrong” way of writing memos, as their goal is to foster meaning making and serve as a chronicle of emerging learning and thinking. Memos tend to be informal and can be written in a variety of styles, including prose, bullet points, and/or outline form; they can include poetry, drawings, or other supporting imagery. The goals of memos are to help generate and clarify your thinking as well as to capture the development of your thinking, as a kind of phenomenological note taking that captures the meaning making of the researcher in real time and then provides data to refer back and consider the refinement of your thinking over time (Maxwell, 2013; Nakkula & Ravitch, 1998). While we find writing memos to be a useful and generative exercise, both when we write and share them in our indep.
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Explain how firms can benefit from forecastingexchange rates .docxhanneloremccaffery
Explain how firms can benefit from forecasting
exchange rates
Describe the common techniques used for
forecasting
Explain how forecasting performance can be
evaluated
explain how interval forecasts can be applied
APA format, minimum 3 sources
Paper will be a minimum of 650 and a maximum of 900 words.
(This includes title section, content, and references…in other
words the entire paper)
.
•POL201 •Discussions •Week 5 - DiscussionVoter and Voter Tu.docxhanneloremccaffery
• POL201 • Discussions • Week 5 - Discussion
Voter and Voter Turnout
Prepare: Prior to completing this discussion question, review Chapters 10, 11, and 12 in American Government and review Week Five Instructor Guidance. Also read the following articles: How Voter ID Laws Are Being Used to Disenfranchise Minorities and the Poor (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., Fraught with Fraud (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., and Proof at the Polls (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
Reflect: The U.S. has one of the lowest voter turnout rates among modern democratic political systems. One study ranks the U.S. 120th on a list of 169 nations compared on voter turnout (Pintor, Gratschew, & Sullivan, 2002). During the last decade, many initiatives have been undertaken to increase voter participation, yet concerns about the possibility of election fraud have also increased. Additionally, some political interests feel threatened by the increase in turnout among some traditionally low-turnout ethnic minorities. Several states have recently passed legislation imposing new registration and identification requirements. This has sparked debate about whether these are tactics intended to suppress turnout or to prevent fraud. Think about the media’s role in the election process and how both mass media and social media can impact the election process.
Write: In your initial post, summarize recent developments in several states enacting voter ID laws. Analyze and describe the pros and cons on both sides of the debate about these laws. Is voter fraud a major problem for our democracy or are some groups trying to make it harder for some segments of society to vote? What impact has the media (mass and social) had in influencing public opinion regarding voter ID laws? Draw your own conclusion about the debate over voter ID laws and justify your conclusions with facts and persuasive reasoning. Fully respond to all parts of the prompt and write your response in your own words. Your initial post must be at least 300 words. Support your position with at least two of the assigned resources required for this discussion, and/or peer reviewed scholarly sources obtained through the AU Library databases. Include APA in-text citations (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. in the body of your post and full citations on the references list (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. at the end. Support your position with APA citations from two or more of the assigned resources required for this discussion. Please be sure that you demonstrate understanding of these resources, integrate them into your argument, and cite them properly.
.
•No less than 4 pages causal argument researched essay •In.docxhanneloremccaffery
•
No less than 4 pages causal argument researched essay
•
Includes an interview with an expert from a university
•
Includes survey question with students concerning the topic
•
Includes arguments from official sources from the library
.
•Focus on two or three things in the Mesopotamian andor Ovids ac.docxhanneloremccaffery
•Focus on two or three things in the Mesopotamian and/or Ovid's account of creation that differ from Genesis. How do they differ? What is the significance of these differences?
•Focus on two or three things in the Mesopotamian and/or
Ovid's account of the flood that differ from Genesis. How do they differ? What is the significance of these differences
.
•Langbein, L. (2012). Public program evaluation A statistical guide.docxhanneloremccaffery
•Langbein, L. (2012). Public program evaluation: A statistical guide (2nd ed.). Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe. ◦Chapter 7, “Designing Useful Surveys for Evaluation” (pp. 209–238)
•McDavid, J. C., Huse, I., & Hawthorn, L. R. L. (2013). Program evaluation and performance measurement: An introduction to practice (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ◦Chapter 4, “Measurement for Program Evaluation and Performance Monitoring” (pp. 145–185)
•Geddes, B. (1990). How the cases you choose affect the answers you get: Selection bias in comparative politics. Political Analysis, 2(1), 131–150. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/~clthyn2/PS671/Geddes_1990PA.pdf
•Levitt, S., & List, J. (2009). Was there really a Hawthorne effect at the Hawthorne plant? An analysis of the original illumination experiments. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w15016.pdf
•Urban Institute. (2014). Outcome indicators project. Retrieved from http://www.urban.org/center/cnp/projects/outcomeindicators.cfm
•Bamberger, M. (2010). Reconstructuring baseline data for impact evaluation and results measurement. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPOVERTY/Resources/335642-1276521901256/premnoteME4.pdf
•Parnaby, P. (2006). Evaluation through surveys [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.idea.org/blog/2006/04/01/evaluation-through-surveys/
•Rutgers, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. (2014). Developing a survey instrument. Retrieved from http://njaes.rutgers.edu/evaluation/resources/survey-instrument.asp
•MEASURE Evaluation. (n.d.). Secondary analysis of data. Retrieved February 24, 2015, from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/measure/our-work/secondary-analysis/secondary-analysis-of-data
•Zeitlin, A. (2014). Sampling and sample size [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/2.%20Sampling%20and%20Sample%20Size_AFZ3.pdf
Now that you have thought through a logical model or framework for your Final Project, it is time to develop preliminary input, output, and outcome indicators. For this Assignment, use the guidelines from the Urban Institute resource and consult relevant Optional Resources from this week.
Submit a 2- to 3-page paper which describes your input, output, and outcome program indicators, including the following:
•Describe the variables and the data you will be using.
•Provide a realistic discussion of the availability of research data.
•Provide an analysis of intended data collection strategies.
◦If a sample or sample survey will be used, discuss the sampling frame or the sampling strategy you intend to use.
.
•Chapter 10 Do you think it is possible for an outsider to accura.docxhanneloremccaffery
•Chapter 10: Do you think it is possible for an outsider to accurately discern about the underlying cultural values of an organization by analyzing symbols, ceremonies, dress, or other observable aspects of culture in comparison to an insider with several years of work experience? Select a percentage (e.g., 10%, 70%, etc.) and explain your reasoning.
•Chapter 11: A noted organization theorist once said, "Pressure for change originates in the environment. Pressure for stability originates within the organization." Do you agree?
•Chapter 12: If managers frequently use experience and intuition to make complex, non-programmed decisions, how do they apply evidence-based management (which seems to suggest that managers should rely on facts and data)?
•Chapter 13: In a rapidly changing organization, are decisions more likely to be made using the rational or political model of organization?
•What biblical implications should be included/addressed?
•How can/should a biblical worldview be applied?
Group Discussion Board Forum Thread Grading Rubric
Criteria
Points Possible
Points Earned
Thread
0 to 30 points
All questions associated with Part 1 are provided in a thread.
At least 4 peer-reviewed references are included in the thread.
The thread is 1200 words.
The thread is posted by the stated deadline.
Spelling and grammar are correct.
Sentences are complete, clear, and concise.
Total
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· Bakit Di gaanong kaganda ang pagturo sa UST sa panahon.docxhanneloremccaffery
·
Bakit
Di gaanong kaganda ang pagturo sa UST sa panahon ni Jose Rizal
·
bakit
Merong diskriminasyon; minamaliit ang mga Pilipinosa panahon ni Jose Rizal
·
bakit
Galit sa kay Jose Rizal ang mga Dominikano dahil sa pagtatatag ng Companerismo (Fraternity)
·
bakit
Gustong gamutin ni Jose Rizal ang ina niya
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·YOUR INDIVIDUAL PAPER IS ARGUMENTATIVE OR POSITIONAL(Heal.docxhanneloremccaffery
·
YOUR INDIVIDUAL PAPER IS ARGUMENTATIVE OR POSITIONAL
(Healthcare Information Technology)
THIS is NOT and information paper so please read this carefully
Individual Writing Assignment
This Individual Writing Assignment is worth 20 points, and it is due at the end of Week 5.
The purposes of this assignment are to a) help you effectively use research resources through library data bases and search engines to complete course requirements; b) improve your critical thinking skills, and c) develop your effectiveness in writing about topics relevant to course objectives and healthcare information systems. The paper explores, in greater detail than the required readings and class discussion, any healthcare information system topic identified in the course text or syllabus. Your job is to select a current issue in healthcare information systems, provide the necessary background and your position, along with a conclusion and future direction. I encourage you to select a subject in which you have interest and approach this assignment as a potential publishable work.
Position Paper
Your final paper is 15 pages double-spaced (excluding the executive summary, footnotes, and references) with a 10 or 12 point font. Tables, graphics, and diagrams must be placed in the paper as attachments. They do not count in the page length. This is a guide to help you organize your content and what is expected in each section. The page counts are suggested, however, where they have a limit, that must be adhered to.
·
Cover Page:
APA Style (1 Page, not included in page count)
·
Table of Contents:
(not included in page count)
·
Executive Summary:
Bottom line up front (1 page, no more)
·
Introduction
: (1/2 to 1 page)
·
Background
: Information on the topic that provides context so readers can understand the background leading into your statement and analysis of the issue (up to 2 pages, no more)
·
Analysis of the issue
: This is the problem you see with the current state of your topic supported by evidence and literature that brings validity to the issue or problem you are stating exists. Then describe the factors contributing to the issue /problem broken down by (2-3 pages)
People
Processes
Technology
·
Position
: Now that the reader understands the problem broken down by people, process, and technology, provide a clear statement of what your position is on the issue and why. (1/2 to 1 page)
·
Rationale
: Now that the reader clearly understands your position and why you will detail your position with supporting evidence and literature to persuade the reader your position is the most valid. You should address opposing views with counter arguments here also. Your position should have evidence directly addressing the issues you stated above broken down by the same (3-4 pages)
People
Process
Technology
·
Recommendation
: Now that you have convinced the reader on your position being the best way forward, you need to provide 3-5 discrete recommen.
·Write a 750- to 1,Write a 750- to 1,200-word paper that.docxhanneloremccaffery
·
Write
a 750- to 1,
Write
a 750- to 1,200-word paper that addresses the following:
Define religion.
Describe the theory of animism.
Explain the influence of religion on cultures.
Identify the seven major religions of the world.
Describe any four types of theism.
Format
your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
Include
a minimum of five references.
Limit
direct quotes to less than 10% of the total manuscript.
Criteria for grading
·
Introduction provides sufficient background on the topic and previews major points
·
Define religion
·
Describe the theory of animism
·
Explain the influence of religion on cultures (e.g., architecture, art, politics, social norms, etc.)
·
Identify the seven major religions of the world and provide one or two sentences about each
·
Describe any four types of theism (e.g., atheism, monotheism, ditheism, polytheism, pantheism, etc.) and provide an example of each
·
Conclusion
.
[Type here]Ok. This school makes me confused. The summary of t.docxhanneloremccaffery
[Type here]
Ok. This school makes me confused. The summary of this week they posted like this:
SUMMARY:
This week introduced you to grand theories and middle-range theories that serve to articulate the voice of nursing within healthcare.
Here are the key points covered:
Grand theories are comparatively more abstract than middle-range theories since they are at a higher level of abstraction. Compared to grand theories, middle-range theories are made up of limited number of concepts that lend themselves to empirical testing. All theories help to explain human health behavior.
· Sister Callista Royï's adaptive model theory is built on the conceptual foundation of adaptation. It identifies the positive role that nursing plays in the promotion and enhancement of client adaptation to environments that facilitate the healing process.
· Leiningerï's culture care theory is pertinent in the current multicultural healthcare environment where nurses are exposed to diverse cultures.
· Penderï's health promotion and disease prevention theory can be called as a "direction setting exercise" for nursing professionals. It believes in fostering the spirit of health promotion and disease and risk reduction.
From the chapter, Models and Theories Focused on Nursing Goals and Functions, read the following:The Health Promotion Model: Nola J. Pender
From the chapter, Models and Theories Focused on a Systems Approach, read the following:
The Roy Adaptation Model
From the chapter, Models and Theories Focused on Culture, read the following:
Leininger's Cultural Care Diversity and Universality Theory and Model
SO, THAT IS WHY I ASSUMED THAT HAS TO BE ONE OF THEM (Pender, Roy Adaptaion or Leininger)
ANYWAY, I AM PUTTING INFORMATION TOGETHER.
Week 4 Chapter 17
Models and Theories Focused on Nursing Goals and Functions
The Health Promotion Model: Nola J. Pender
Background
Nola J. Pender was born in 1941 in Lansing, Michigan. She graduated in 1962 with a diploma in nursing. In 1964, Pender completed a bachelor’s of science in nursing at Michigan State University. By 1969, she had completed a doctor of philosophy in psychology and education. During this time in her career, Pender began looking at health and nursing in a broad way, including defining the goal of nursing care as optimal health.
In 1975, Pender published a model for preventive health behavior; her health promotion model first appeared in the first edition of the text Health Promotion in Nursing Practice in 1982. Pender’s health promotion model has its foundation in Albert Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory (which postulates that cognitive processes affect behavior change) and is influenced by Fishbein’s (1967) theory of reasoned action (which asserts that personal attitudes and social norms affect behavior).
Pender’s Health Promotion Model
McCullagh (2009) labeled Pender’s health promotion model as a middle-range integrative theory, and rightly so. Fawcett (2005) decisively presented the differenc.
{
Discrimination
*
GENERAL DISCRIMINATION
+
RACIAL DISCRIMINATION
RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION
(on freedom of religion)
DISCRIMINATION ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION
(still weak protection)
GENDER DISCRIMINATION
(CEDAW)
TYPES OF DISCRIMINATION
NON-DISCRIMINATION in INT’L LAW
A. GENERAL DISCRIMINATION
Arts 1 & 2 Universal Declaration on Human Rights
Arts. 2 & 26 ICCPR
Art. 14 ECHR & Add. Protocol 12
B. RACIAL DISCRIMINATION
Int’l Convention against All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)
Art . 2: (1). Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
(2). States to take the necessary steps to adopt laws and measures to give effect to art. 2;
(3). States to ensure effective remedy, determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent authority and enforce such remedies.
Art. 26: non-discrimination before the law and equal protection by the law
ICCPR
*
Justification for differential treatment
General Comment 18 HRC
Not every differentiation of treatment will constitute discrimination:
if the criteria are reasonable and objective
and the aim is to achieve the purpose which is legitimate
ICCPR cont.
*
“Racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life (art. 1)
States Parties particularly condemn racial segregation and apartheid and undertake to prevent, prohibit and eradicate all practices of this nature in territories under their jurisdiction (art. 3)
RACIAL DISCRIMINATION-
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
Direct discrimination: Indirect discrimination
Formal equality: Substantive equality
Discrimination in law: Discrimination in practice
Non-discrimination: negative protection
Equality: positive obligations -> special measures
Is there a hierarchy in the protection of discrimination?
Racial Discrimination (prohibition Jus Cogens);
gender based discrimination?
Religious-based discrimination??
Discrimination based on sexual orientation???
Discrimination (forms & grounds)
= Affirmative action/ positive action
Article 1.4 of ICERD:
Special measures taken for the sole purpose of securing adequate advancement of certain racial or ethnic groups or individuals requiring such protection as may be necessary in order to ensure such groups or in.
`HISTORY 252AEarly Modern Europe from 1500 to 1815Dr. Burton .docxhanneloremccaffery
`HISTORY 252A
Early Modern Europe from 1500 to 1815
Dr. Burton Van Name Edwards (Van)
Tuesday – Thursday 3:30-4:45
Unistructure 247
Third Paper Assignment
Due Tuesday, December 13th
The third paper will be based on a book in the list at the end of the syllabus. These works are generally works of literature, with some concerned with philosophy or politics. The student’s task will be to show how the chosen work reflects or shows the influence of conditions and events in Europe that were operating at the time of the writing of the work. This is not a book report. I am not interested in plots or descriptions of the general argument of a given work. Instead, I am looking for an analysis of specific sections of the chosen work that may illuminate social and economic attitudes or contemporaneous conditions.
The paper should be 7-8 pages long.
You will be expected to give a 5-10 minute oral report based on your finding in the third paper. This oral report will be a significant part of your class participation grade.
.
^ Acadumy of Management Journal2001. Vol. 44. No. 2. 219-237.docxhanneloremccaffery
^ Acadumy of Management Journal
2001. Vol. 44. No. 2. 219-237.
A SOCIAL CAPITAL THEORY OF CAREER SUCCESS
SCOTT E. SEIBERT
MARIA L. KRAIMER
•̂ ' ' ' Cleveland State University
ROBERT C. LIDEN
University of Illinois at Chicago
A model integrating competing theories of social capital with research on career
success was developed and tested in a sample of 448 employees with various occupa-
tions and organizations. Social capital was conceptualized in terms of network struc-
ture and social resources. Results of structural equation modeling showed that net-
work structure was related to social resources and that the effects of social resources
on career success were hilly mediated by three network benelits: access to information,
access to resources, and career sponsorship.
Organizational researchers have begun to de-
velop increasingly comprehensive models of career
success using demographic, human capital, work-
family, motivational, organizational, and industry
variables (e.g., Dreher & Ash, 1990; Judge & Bretz,
1994: Judge, Cable. Boudreau, & Bretz. 1995; Kirch-
meyer, 1998). Although this work has provided
considerable evidence regarding the determinants
of career outcomes, the roles of informal interper-
sonal behaviors have not been fully explored (Judge
& Bretz, 1994; Pfeffer, 1989). Popular advice for
getting ahead in one's career rarely fails to mention
the importance of networking for the achievement
of career goals (e.g., Bolles, 1992; Kanter, 1977).
Indeed, Luthans, Hodgetts, and Rosenkrantz (1988)
found that the most successful managers in their
study spent 70 percent more time engaged in net-
working activities and 10 percent more time en-
gaged in routine communication activities than
their less successful counterparts. Recent advances
in social capital theory (Coleman, 1990) have begun
to provide a finer-grained analysis of the ways in-
dividuals' social networks affect their careers in
organizations (Burt, 1992, 1997; Ibarra, 1995;
Podolny & Baron, 1997; Sparrowe & Popielarz,
1995). This theoretical perspective has the poten-
Data were collected and the manuscript was submitted
and processed while Scott E. Seibert was in the Manage-
ment Department at the University of Notre Dame and
Maria L. Kraimer was a graduate student at the Univer-
sity of Illinois at Chicago. Support for this project was
provided by the Management Department at the Univer-
sity of Notre Dame and the Alumni Office of the Univer-
sity of Notre Dame. The current investigation is part of a
larger study of career success.
tial to considerably enhance scholars' knowledge of
the role of social processes in career success.
The first purpose of the current study was to
integrate the current conceptualizations of social
capital as they pertain to career success. Tbree dif-
ferent theoretical approaches—weak tie theory
(Granovetter, 1973), structural hole theory (Burt,
1992), and social resource theory (Lin, 1990)—
focus on different network properties as r.
`
Inclusiveness. The main difference that can distinguish a happy employee from disgruntled employee. As with all decisions that are made, there is always an audience that the decision will affect. When employees are privy and organizational decisions are inclusive to employees this can greatly increase their level of fulfillment. Whether or not the end user of the decision will be content with the outcome or not, there will always be critics. Which leads us to discuss key characteristics and the importance of involving employees in relative organizational decision making.
It is not uncommon to find that during strategic organizational planning that top-level management will include their employees to engage and provide their input on complex processes. Human capital, whether the organization is large or small, corporate ran or small business managed is key to an organization’s success. Employee satisfaction level drives productivity and is what increases revenue for the company. Happy employees equal happy customers.
What does it take to keep employees motivated? A critical and important element for employers to keep their employees happy and content is clear communication. It is critical that an organization’s objective and vision for future growth is communicated clearly throughout all levels. Top-level management must be skilled at delivering the company’s mission and values to every tier within their organization. Each tier within the organization with healthy communication should be able to open-mindedly accept the message and freely provide any feedback positive or negative without fear of repercussion. Keeping an open line of communication within an organization is key to building the foundation for success.
As we move away from the golden days of traditional office operations consisting of fax machines, telephones, paper, pencils, etc. and move towards a more technologically repertoire, we lose the personable face to face interaction with one another. We spend most of the day behind our computer screen at our desk. The need to sustain job satisfaction amongst employees could not be ever more present than now. To maintain the morale amongst employees, organizations should be able to keep them challenged and motivated. Take technology for example. If the increase of new technology isn’t daunting enough, consider the challenge to remain current with technology all the while maintaining a competitive advantage in the industry? Reach internally to our internal resource, human capital. Employees must be given the opportunity to share their knowledge, skills, and abilities. When empowered to provide input concerning highly visible organizational decisions, employee morale is boosted. Not only is this beneficial for employees but also the employer as they receive ideas and input that could possibly lead to the solution. Employee engagement boosts the overall welfare of the organization.
According to.
__MACOSX/Sujan Poster/._CNA320 Poster Presentation rubric.pdf
__MACOSX/Sujan Poster/._CNA320+Poster+Template (1).ppt
__MACOSX/Sujan Poster/._Helpful Hints for the Poster Presentation.docx
Sujan Poster/Poster Abstract - Aspiration pneumonia (1).docx
Title: Aspiration pneumonia: Best practice to avoid complications
Background
Aspiration pneumonia is a lung infection due to inhaled contents; this is a relevant topic because aspiration pneumonia is prevalent and accounts for up to 15% of all pneumonia cases and is particularly common in older people, and thus it is important for nurses to be aware of how to manage the condition particularly as the population is ageing so this will be of more concern (Kwong, Howden & Charles 2011).
Target Audience
The target audience for this presentation is experienced Registered Nurses and thus the presentation has been designed for this group.
Main Findings
Aspiration pneumonia is an infection within the lungs that occurs after a person aspirates either liquid, vomit or food into the larynx and lower respiratory tract; this can occur when an individual inhales their gastric or oral contents. Patients at risk include individuals who are elderly or those who have a marked disturbance of consciousness such as that resulting from a drug overdose, seizures, a massive cerebrospinal accident, dysphagia or dysphasia (Kwong, Howden & Charles 2011). Aspiration pneumonia can quickly develop into respiratory failure, abscess and empyema and this requires supportive care, which is the main form of therapy, however prophylactic antimicrobial therapy is also often prescribed (Joundi, Wong & Leis 2015). Best practice suggests suctioning, supplemental oxygen to keep O2 above 90%, septic shock therapy, management of hypotension and antibiotic therapy for 7-10 days. Sputum cultures should be taken so that antibiotics can be tailored appropriately (McAdams-Jones & Sundar 2012).
Implications for Practice
These findings are important for registered nurses to be aware of so that aspiration pneumonia can be managed appropriately and complications can be avoided, which could cause increased hospital stay and costs. Nurses need to be aware of the best practice recommendations such as oxygen supplementation, sit up while eating, provide thickened foods and drinks, dental care and about taking sputum cultures when managing aspiration pneumonia so that treatment can be tailored appropriately and recovery can occur quickly.
Feedback from marker (Teacher)
Thank you for your abstract.
You have just managed a pass grade, your work is very basic and you will need to engage with the basic practice literature to ensure you have a comprehensive understanding of this topic in your poster.
I am also unclear on your focus, is this about prevention of aspiration or management once it has occurred or both?
Kind regards Andrea
Sources of Evidence
Joundi, R, Wong, B & Leis, J 2015, "Antibiotics “Just-In-Ca.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
spot a liar (Haiqa 146).pptx Technical writhing and presentation skills
From TeacherTo assist you with preparing the Week 7 assignment.docx
1. From Teacher
To assist you with preparing the Week 7 assignment, I am
providing a few additional resources. Attached is a slide deck I
created on coding textual data, and below are links to a video on
coding and an article on identifying themes in qualitative data.
Also, some learners find the Week 8 lecture helpful to this
assignment, so I have attached it here as well.
As you prepare this assignment, closely follow the directions in
the PSY 850 Assignments Document. Because it asks you to
inductively code the data, I will expect to see that each of you
have developed your own codes and themes. That means do not
use the codes and themes from the Clark and Springer (2007)
article. However, you should compare and contrast your
findings with theirs in the recommendations section.
Submit one paper in APA format with the required subsections
delineated in the Assignments Guide: Introduction, Sample,
Instruments, Data Analysis, Results, and Recommendations.
Include a references list. You must complete all three tables in
the Tables for Assignment 7 document and include those tables
as an Appendix in your document. Do not submit them as a
separate document nor embed them within the text of the paper.
Please use this space to ask additional questions about the
assignment.
Thanks and happy coding,
Paula
Video on Coding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRL4PF2u9XA
2. GCU Recommended article on Techniques to Identify Themes in
Qualitative Data
http://www.analytictech.com/mb870/Readings/ryan-
bernard_techniques_to_identify_themes_in.htm
Attached FilesPSY-850-L8.pdfCoding Textual Data.pptx
Dr. Paula Thompson
Senior Doctoral Adjunct Chair
College of Doctoral Studies
[email protected]
Schedule meetings with me at: http://meetme.so/PaulaThompson
problem12.13
Techniques to Identify Themes in Qualitative Data
Gery W. Ryan
RAND
1700 Main Street
P.O. Box 2138
Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138
H. Russell Bernard
Department of Anthropology
1350 Turlington Hall
University of Florida
Gaineville, FL 32611
Key Words: Theme Identification, Exploratory Analysis, Open
Coding, Text Analysis, Qualitative Research Methods
3. Abstract
Theme identification is one of the most fundamental tasks in
qualitative research. It also one of the most mysterious. Explicit
descriptions of theme discovery are rarely described in articles
and reports and if so are often regulated to appendices or
footnotes. Techniques are shared among small groups of social
scientists and are often impeded by disciplinary or
epistemological boundaries. During the proposal-writing phase
of a project, investigators struggle to clearly explain and justify
plans for discovering themes. These issues are particularly
cogent when funding reviewers are unfamiliar with qualitative
traditions. In this article we have outlined a dozen techniques
that social scientists have used to discover themes in texts. The
techniques are drawn from across epistemological and
disciplinary boundaries. They range from quick word counts to
laborious, in-depth, line-by-line scrutiny. Some methods work
well for short answers to open-ended questions while others are
more appropriate for rich, complex narratives. Novices and non-
native speakers may find some techniques easier than others. No
single technique is does it all. To us, these techniques are
simply tools to help us do better research.
Authors’ Statement
Gery W. Ryan is an Associate Behavioral Scientist at RAND in
Santa Monica, California. H. Russell Bernard is professor of
anthropology at the University of Florida. The research on
which this article is based is part of a National Science
Foundation Grant, on "Methods for Conducting Systematic Text
Analysis" (SRB-9811166). We wish to thank Stephen Borgatti
for his helpful suggestions and two anonymous reviewers for
their invaluable comments on earlier drafts of this paper.
Introduction
At the heart of qualitative data analysis is the task of
discovering themes. By themes, we mean abstract, often fuzzy,
constructs which investigators identify before, during, and after
data collection. Where do these themes come from?
4. They come from reviewing the literature, of course. Richer
literatures produce more themes. They come from the
characteristics of the phenomena being studied. And they come
from already-agreed-upon professional definitions, from local
common-sense constructs, and from researchers’ values,
theoretical orientation, and personal experience with the subject
matter (Bulmer 1979; Strauss 1987; Maxwell 1996).
Mostly, though, researchers who consider themselves part of the
qualitative tradition in social science induce themes from texts.
This is what grounded theorists call open coding, and what
classic content analysts call qualitative analysis (Berleson
1952) or latent coding (Shapiro and Markoff 1997). There are
many variations on these methods. Unfortunately, however, they
are (a) scattered across journals and books that are read by
disparate groups of specialists; and (b) often entangled in the
epistemological wars that have divided the social sciences. Our
goal in this paper is to cross these boundaries and lay out a
variety of theme-dredging methods so that all researchers who
deal with texts can use them to solve common research
problems.
We outline here a dozen helpful techniques for discovering
themes in texts. These techniques are based on: (1) an analysis
of words (word repetitions, key-indigenous terms, and key-
words-in contexts); (2) a careful reading of larger blocks of
texts (compare and contrast, social science queries, and
searching for missing information); (3) an intentional analysis
of linguistic features (metaphors, transitions, connectors); and
(4) the physical manipulation of texts (unmarked texts, pawing,
and cut and sort procedures).
The list is by no means exhaustive. Social scientists are an
enterprising lot. Over the last century they have invented
solutions to all kinds of problems for managing and analyzing
texts, and they will continue to do so. These bursts of
methodological creativity, however, are commonly described
perfunctorily, or are relegated to footnotes, and get little notice
by colleagues across disciplines. The dozen methods we
5. describe here come from across the social sciences and have
been used by positivists and interpretivists alike.
1. Word repetitions
We begin with word-based techniques. Word repetitions, key-
indigenous terms, and key-words-in-contexts (KWIC) all draw
on a simple observation—if you want to understand what people
are talking about, look at the words they use.
Words that occur a lot are often seen as being salient in the
minds of respondents. D'Andrade notes that "perhaps the
simplest and most direct indication of schematic organization in
naturalistic discourse is the repetition of associative linkages"
(1991:294). He observes that "indeed, anyone who has listened
to long stretches of talk, whether generated by a friend, spouse,
workmate, informant, or patient, knows how frequently people
circle through the same network of ideas" (1991:287).
Word repetitions can be analyzed formally and informally. In
the informal mode, investigators simply read the text and note
words or synonyms that people use a lot. For example, while
conducting multiple in-depth interviews with Tony, a retired
blue collar worker in Connecticut, Claudia Strauss (1992) found
that Tony repeatedly referred to ideas associated with greed,
money, businessmen, siblings, and "being different." These
repetitions indicated to Strauss that these ideas were important,
recurring themes in Tony’s life. Strauss displayed the
relationships among these ideas by writing the concepts on a
page of paper and connecting them with lines and explanations.
Computer programs such as ATLAS.ti and Nud*ist let you do
this kind of connect-the-dots exercise by computer.1
A more formal analysis of word frequencies can be done by
generating a list of all the unique words in a text and counting
the number of times each occurs. Computers can easily generate
word-frequency lists from texts and are a quick and easy way to
look for themes. Ryan and Weisner (1996) asked fathers and
mothers of adolescents: "Describe your children. In your own
words, just tell us about them." Ryan and Weisner produced a
list of all the unique words in the set of responses and the
6. number of times each word was used by mothers and by fathers.
Mothers were more likely than fathers to use words like friends,
creative, time, and honest; fathers were more likely than
mothers to use words like school, good, lack, student, enjoys,
independent, and extremely. Ryan and Weisner used this
information as clues for themes that they would use later in
actually coding the texts.
2. Indigenous categories
Another way to find themes is to look for local terms that may
sound unfamiliar or are used in unfamiliar ways. Patton
(1990:306, 393-400) refers to these as "indigenous categories"
and contrasts them with "analyst-constructed typologies."
Grounded theorist refer to the process of identifying local terms
as in vivo coding (Strauss 1987:28-32, Strauss and Corbin
1990:61-74).
Understanding indigenous categories and how they are
organized has long been a goal of cognitive anthropologists.
The basic idea in this area of research is that experience and
expertise are often marked by specialized vocabulary. For
example, Spradley (1972) recorded conversations among tramps
at informal gatherings, meals, card games, and bull sessions. As
the men talked to each other about their experiences, there were
many references to making a flop.
Spradley combed through his recorded material and notes
looking for verbatim statements made by informants about his
topic. On analyzing the statements, he found that most of the
statements could fit into subcategories such as kinds of flops,
ways to make flops, ways to make your own flop, kinds of
people who bother you when you flop, ways to make a bed, and
kinds of beds. Spradley then returned to his informants and
sought additional information from them on each of the
subcategories. For other classic examples of coding for
indigenous categories see Becker’s (1993) description of
medical students use of the word crock, and Agar’s (1973)
description of drug addicts’ understandings of what it means to
shoot up.
7. 3. Key-words-in-context (KWIC)
Key-words-in-context (KWIC) are closely associated with
indigenous categories. KWIC is based on a simple observation:
if you want to understand a concept, then look at how it is used.
In this technique, researchers identify key words and then
systematically search the corpus of text to find all instances of
the word or phrase. Each time they find a word, they make a
copy of it and its immediate context. Themes get identified by
physically sorting the examples into piles of similar meaning.
The concept of deconstruction is an abstract and often
incomprehensible term used by social scientists, literary critics
and writers in the popular press. Jacques Derrida, who coined
the term, refused to define it. To Derrida, the meaning of any
text is inherently unstable and variable. Wiener (1997) was
curious as to how the concept of deconstruction was used in the
popular press. He used a text-based data set (such as
Lexis/Nexis), to find instances of the word in popular
publications. He found the term used in by everything from
Entertainment Weekly to the American Banker. Wiener
concludes that:
Most often writers use "deconstruction" as a fancy word for
"analysis" or "explanation," or else as an upscale synonym for
"destruction." But in some genres, like rock music writing, the
term isn't negative at all; it has become a genuinely floating
signifier, a verbal gesture that implies a kind of empty
intellectual sophistication.
Word-based techniques are typically a fast and efficient ways to
start looking for themes. We find that they are particularly
useful at early stages of theme identification. These techniques
are also easy for novice researchers to apply. Nothing, however,
beats a careful scrutiny of the texts for finding themes that may
be more subtle or that don’t get signified directly in the lexicon
of the text. Scrutiny-based techniques are more time-intensive
and require a lot of attention to details and nuances.
4. Compare and contrast
The compare and contrast approach is based on the idea that
8. themes represent the ways in which texts are either similar or
different from each other. Glazer and Strauss (1967:101_116)
refer to this as the "constant comparison method." [For other
good descriptions of the technique see Glazer (1978:56_72) and
Strauss and Corbin (1990:84_95).] Typically, grounded theorists
begin by conducting a careful line-by-line analysis. They read
each line or sentence and ask themselves, "What is this about?"
and "How does it differ from the preceding or following
statements?" This kind of detailed work keeps the researcher
focused on the data themselves rather than on theoretical flights
of fancy (Charmaz 1990).
This approach is like interviewing the text and is remarkably
similar to the ethnographic interviewing style that Spradley
talks about using with his informants (1979:160_172).
Researchers compare pairs of texts by asking "How is this text
different from the preceding text?" and "What kinds of things
are mentioned in both?" They ask hypothetical questions like
"What if the informant who produced this text had been a
woman instead of a man?" and "How similar is this text to my
own experiences?" Bogdan and Biklen (1982:153) recommend
reading through passages of text and asking "What does this
remind me of?" Like a good journalist, investigators compare
answers to questions across people, space, and time.
5. Social science queries
Besides identifying indigenous themes—themes that
characterize the experience of informants—researchers are
interested in understanding how textual data illuminate
questions of importance to social science. Spradley (1979:199–
201) suggested searching interviews for evidence of social
conflict, cultural contradictions, informal methods of social
control, things that people do in managing impersonal social
relationships, methods by which people acquire and maintain
achieved and ascribed status, and information about how people
solve problems. Bogdan & Bilken (1982:156-162) suggested
examining the setting and context, the perspectives of the
informants, and informants’ ways of thinking about people,
9. objects, processes, activities, events, and relationships.
"Moving across substantive areas," says Charmaz, "fosters
developing conceptual power, depth, and comprehensiveness"
(1990:1163).
Strauss and Corbin (1990:158_175) urge investigators to be
more sensitive to conditions, actions/interactions, and
consequences of a phenomenon and to order these conditions
and consequences into theories. To facilitate this, they offer a
useful tool called the conditional matrix. The conditional matrix
is a set of concentric circles, each level corresponding to a
different unit of influence. At the center are actions and
interactions. The inner rings represent individual and small
group influences on these actions, and the outer rings represent
international and national effects.
Querying the text as a social scientist is a powerful technique
because investigators concentrate their efforts on searching for
specific kinds of topics – any of which are likely to generate
major social and cultural themes. By examining the data from a
more theoretical perspective, however, researchers must be
careful that they do not overfit the data – that is, find only that
for which they are looking. There is a trade-off between
bringing a lot of prior theorizing to the theme-identification
effort and going at it fresh. Prior theorizing, as Charmaz says
(1990), can inhibit the forming of fresh ideas and the making of
surprising connections. Assiduous theory-avoidance brings the
risk of not making the connection between data and important
research questions. Novice researchers may be more
comfortable with the tabula rasa approach. More seasoned
researchers, who are more familiar with theory issues, may find
the social science query approach more compatible with their
interests.
6. Searching for missing information
The final scrutiny-based approach we describe works in reverse
from typical theme identification techniques. Instead of
identifying themes that emerge from the text, investigators
search for themes that are missing in the text.
10. Much can be learned from a text by what is not mentioned. As
early as 1959, propaganda analysts found that material not
covered in political speeches were sometimes more predictive
that material that was covered (George 1959). Sometimes
silences indicate areas that people are unwilling or afraid to
discuss. For instance, women with strong religious convictions
may fail to mention abortion during discussions of birth control.
In power-laden interviewers, silence may be tied to implicit or
explicit domination (Gal 1991). In a study of birth planning in
China, Greenhalgh (1994) surveyed 1,011ever-married women,
gathered social and economic histories from 150 families. She
conducted in-depth interviews with present and formal officials
(known as cadres), and collected documentary evidence from
local newspapers, journals and other sources. Greenhalgh notes
that "Because I was largely constrained from asking direct
questions about resistance, the informal record of field notes,
interview transcripts, and questionnaire data contains few overt
challenges to state policy (1994:9)." Greenhalgh concludes,
however, that
I believe that in their conversations with us, both peasants and
cadres made strategic use of silence to protest aspects of the
policy they did not like. Cadres, for example were loathe to
comment on birth-planning campaigns; peasant women were
reluctant to talk about sterilization. These silences form one
part of the unofficial record of birth planning in the villages.
More explicit protests were registered in informal
conversations. From these interactions emerged a sense of
profound distress of villagers forced to choose between a
resistance that was politically risky and a compliance that
violated the norms of Chinese culture and of practical reason
(1994:9).
Other times, absences may indicate primal assumptions made by
respondents. Spradley (1987:314) noted that when people tell
stories, they assume that their listeners share many assumptions
about how the world works and so they leave out information
that "everyone knows." He called this process abbreviating.
11. Price (1987) takes this observation and builds on it. Thus, she
looks for what is not said in order to identify underlying
cultural assumptions. Price finds the missing pieces by trying to
translate what people say in the stories into something that the
general public would understand.
Of all the scrutiny-based techniques, searching for missing
information is the most difficult. There are many reasons people
do not mention topics. In addition to avoiding sensitive issues
or assuming investigator already knows about the topic, people
may not trust the interviewer, may not wish to speak when
others are present, or may not understand the investigator’s
questions. Distinguishing between when informants are
unwilling to discuss topics and when they assume the
investigator already knows about the topic requires a lot of
familiarity with the subject matter.
In addition to word- and scrutiny-based techniques, researchers
have used linguistic features such as metaphors, topical
transitions, and keyword connectors to help identify themes.
7. Metaphors and analogies
Schema analysts suggest searching through text for metaphors,
similes, and analogies (D’Andrade 1995, Quinn and Strauss
1997). The emphasis on metaphor owes much to the pioneering
work by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and the observation that
people often represent their thoughts, behaviors, and
experiences with analogies.
Naomi Quinn (1997) has analyzed hundreds of hours of
interviews to discover concepts underlying American marriage
and to show how these concepts are tied together. She began by
looking at patterns of speech and at the repetition of key words
and phrases, paying particular attention to informants' use of
metaphors and the commonalities in their reasoning about
marriage. Nan, one of her informants, says that "marriage is a
manufactured product." This popular metaphor indicates that
Nan sees marriages as something that has properties, like
strength and staying power, and as something that requires work
to produce. Some marriages are "put together well," while
12. others "fall apart" like so many cars or toys or washing
machines (Quinn 1987:174).
The object is to look for metaphors in rhetoric and deduce the
schemas, or underlying principles, that might produce patterns
in those metaphors. Quinn found that people talk about their
surprise at the breakup of a marriage by saying that they
thought the couple’s marriage was "like the Rock of Gibraltar"
or that they thought the marriage had been "nailed in cement."
People use these metaphors because they assume that their
listeners know that cement and the Rock of Gibraltar are things
that last forever.
But Quinn reasons that if schemas or scripts are what make it
possible for people to fill in around the bare bones of a
metaphor, then the metaphors must be surface phenomena and
cannot themselves be the basis for shared understanding. Quinn
found that the hundreds of metaphors in her corpus of texts fit
into just eight linked classes that she calls: lastingness,
sharedness, compatibility, mutual benefit, difficulty, effort,
success (or failure), and risk of failure. For example, Quinn’s
informants often compared marriages (their own and those of
others) to manufactured and durable products ("it was put
together pretty good") and to journeys ("we made it up as we
went along; it was a sort of do-it-yourself project"). Quinn sees
these metaphors, as well as references to marriage as "a lifetime
proposition," as exemplars of the overall expectation of
lastingness in marriage.
Other examples of the search for cultural schemas in texts
include Holland’s (1985) study of the reasoning that Americans
apply to interpersonal problems, Kempton’s (1987) study of
ordinary Americans’ theories of home heat control, and Claudia
Strauss’s (1997) study of what chemical plant workers and their
neighbors think about the free enterprise system.
8. Transitions
Another linguistic approach is to look for naturally occurring
shifts in thematic content. Linguistic forms of transition vary
between oral and written texts. In written texts, new paragraphs
13. are often used by authors to indicate either subtle or abrupt
shifts in topics. In oral speech, pauses, change in tone, or
particular phrases may indicate thematic transitions. Linguists
who have worked with precisely recorded texts in Native
American languages have noticed the recurrence of elements
like "Now," "Then," "Now then," and "Now again." These often
signal the separation of verses and "once such patterning has
been discovered in cases with such markers, it can be discerned
in cases without them" (Hymes 1977:439).
For example, Sherzer (1994) presents a detailed analysis of a
two-hour performance by Chief Olopinikwa of a traditional San
Blas Kuna chant. The chant was recorded in 1970. Like many
linguistic anthropologists, Sherzer had taught an assistant,
Alberto Campos, to use a phonetic transcription system. After
the chant, Sherzer asked Campos, to transcribe and translate the
tape. Campos put Kuna and Spanish on left- and right-facing
pages (1994:907). By studying Campos’s translation against the
original Kuna, Sherzer was able to pick out certain recurrent
features. Campos left out the chanted utterances of the
responding chief (usually something like "so it is"), which
turned out to be markers for verse endings in the chant. Campos
also left out so-called framing words and phrases (like "Thus"
at the beginning of a verse and "it is said, so I pronounce" at the
end of a verse). These contribute to the line and verse structure
of the chant. Finally, "instead of transposing metaphors and
other figurative and allusive language into Spanish" Campos
"explains them in his translation" (Sherzer 1994:908).
Researchers
In two-party and multiparty speech, transitions occur naturally.
Conversation or discourse analysts closely examine linguistic
features such as turn-taking and speaker interruptions to
identify transitions in speech sequences. For a good overview,
see Silverman (1993:114-143).
9. Connectors
A third linguistic approach is to look carefully at words and
phrases that indicate relationships among things. For example,
14. causal relationships are often indicated by such words and
phrases as, because, since, and as a result. Words such as if or
then, rather than, and instead of often signify conditional
relationships. The phrase is a is often associated with taxonomic
categories. Time-oriented relationships are expressed with
words such as before, after, then, and next. Typically negative
characteristics occur less often than positive characteristics.
Simply searching for the words not, no, none, or the prefix non
may be a quick way to identify themes. Investigator can
discover themes by searching on such groups of word and
looking to see what kinds of things the words connect.
What other kinds of relationships might be of interest to social
scientists? Casagrande and Hale (1967) suggest looking for:
attributes (e.g., X is Y), contingencies (e.g., if X, then Y),
functions (e.g., X is a means of affecting Y), spatial
orientations (e.g., X is close to Y), operational definitions (e.g.,
X is a tool for doing Y), examples (e.g., X is an instance of Y),
comparisons (e.g., X resembles Y), class inclusions (X is a
member of class Y), synonyms (e.g., X is equivalent to Y),
antonyms (e.g., X is the negation of Y), provenience (e.g., X is
the source of Y), and circularity (e.g., X is defined as X). [For
lists of kinds of relationships that may be useful for identifying
themes see Burton and Kirk (1980:271), Werner and Schoepfle
(1987) and Lindsay and Norman (1972).]
Investigators often use the linguistic features described above
unconsciously. Metaphors, transitions, and connectors are all
part of a native speaker’s ability to grasp meaning in a text. By
making these features more explicit, we sharpen our ability to
find themes.
Finally, we turn to more tactile approaches for theme discovery.
Each of the next three techniques requires some physical
manipulation of the text itself.
10. Unmarked texts
One way to identify new themes is to examine any text that is
not already associated with a theme (Ryan 1999). This
technique requires multiple readings of a text. On the first
15. reading, salient themes are clearly visible and can be quickly
and readily marked with different colored pencils or
highlighters. In the next stage, the search is for themes that
remain unmarked. This tactic–marking obvious themes early and
quickly—forces the search for new, and less obtrusive themes.
11. Pawing
We highly recommend pawing through texts and marking them
up with different colored highlighter pens. Sandelowski
(1995a:373) observes that analysis of texts begins with
proofreading the material and simply underlining key phrases
"because they make some as yet inchoate sense." Bernard
(2000) refers to this as the ocular scan method, otherwise
known as eyeballing. In this method, you get a feel for the text
by handling your data multiple times. [Bogdan and Biklen
(1982:165) suggest reading over the text at least twice.]
Researchers have been known to spread their texts out on the
floor, tack bunches of them to a bulletin board, and sort them
into different file folders. By living with the data, investigators
can eventually perform the interocular percussion test—which is
where you wait for patterns to hit you between the eyes.
This may not seem like a very scientific way to do things, but it
is one of the best ways we know of to begin hunting for patterns
in qualitative data. Once you have a feel for the themes and the
relations among, then we see no reason to struggle bravely on
without a computer. Of course, a computer is required from the
onset if the project involves hundreds of interviews, or if it’s
part of a multi-site, multi-investigator effort. Even then, there is
no substitute for following hunches and intuitions in looking for
themes to code in texts (Dey 1993).
12. Cutting and sorting
Cutting and sorting is a more formal way of pawing and a
technique we both use quite a bit. It is particularly useful for
identifying subthemes. The approach is based on a powerful
trick most of us learned in kindergarten and requires paper and
scissors. We first read through the text and identify quotes that
seem somehow important. We cut out each quote (making sure
16. to maintain some of the context in which it occurred) and paste
the material on small index cards. On the back of each card, we
then write down the quote’s reference—who said it and where it
appeared in the text. Then we lay out the quotes randomly on a
big table and sort them into piles of similar quotes. Then we
name each pile. These are the themes. This can be done with tag
and search software, but we find that nothing beats the ability to
manually sort and group the cards.
There are many variations on this pile-sorting technique. The
principle investigator on a large project might ask several team
members to sort the quotes into named piles independently. This
is likely to generate a longer list of possible themes than would
be produced by a group discussion. In really large projects,
pairs of coders could sort the quotes together and decide on the
names for the piles. The pile-sorting exercise should be video-
or audiotaped and investigators should pay close attention to
discussions—between themselves and coders or between
coders—about which quotes belong together and why. These
conversations are about as close as we will ever get to
witnessing the emergence of themes.
Barkin et al. (1999) interviewed clinicians, community leaders,
and parents about what physicians could and did do to prevent
violence among youth. These were long, complex interviews, so
Barkin et al. broke the coding process into two steps. They
started with three major themes that they developed from
theory. The principle investigator went through the transcripts
and cut out all the quotes that pertained to each of the major
themes. Then four other coders independently sorted the quotes
from each major theme into piles. Then, the pile sort data were
analyzed with multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis to
identify subthemes shared across coders. [See Patterson et al.
(1993) for another example.]
Jehn and Doucet (1997) had short answers to open-ended
questions. They found that several coders could easily sort these
paragraph-length descriptions of inter and intra-ethnic conflict.
Then, like Barkin et al., Jehn and Doucet then used
17. multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis to identify
subthemes of conflict.
Another advantage to the cutting and sorting technique is that
the data can be used to systematically describe how such themes
are distributed across informants. After the piles have been
formed and themes have been named, simply turn over each
quote and identify who mentioned each theme. (If the people
sorting the quotes are unaware of who the quotes came from,
this is an unbiased way of coding.)
Discussion
The variety of methods available for coding texts raises some
obvious questions:
(1) Which technique generates more themes?
Frankly, we don’t know. There are just too many factors that
influence the number of themes that are generated, including the
technique itself, who and how many people are looking for
themes, and the kind and amount of texts being analyzed. If the
goal is to generate as many themes as possible—which is often
the case in initial exploratory phases of research—then more is
better. This means using multiple techniques, investigators, and
texts.
Nowhere is a multiple technique approach better exemplified
than in the work of Jehn and Doucet (1996, 1997). Jehn and
Doucet asked 76 U.S. managers who had worked in
Sino_American joint ventures to describe recent interpersonal
conflicts with business partners. Each person described a
situation with a same_culture manager and a different_cultural
manger. First they generated separate lists of words from the
intercultural and intracultural conflict narratives. They asked 3
expatriate managers to act as judges and to identify all the
words that were related to conflict. They settled on a list of 542
conflict words from the intercultural list and 242 words from
the intracultural list.
Jehn and Doucet then asked the three judges to sort the words
into piles or categories. The experts identified 15 subcategories
for the intercultural data—things like conflict, expectations,
18. rules, power, and volatile—and 15 categories for the
intracultural data—things like conflict, needs, standards, power,
contentious, and lose. Taking into consideration the total
number of words in each corpus, conflict words were used more
in intracultural interviews and resolution terms were more
likely to be used in intercultural interviews.
Jehn and Doucet (1996, 1997) also used traditional content
analysis on their data. The had two coders read the 152 conflict
scenarios (76 intracultural and 76 intercultural) and evaluated
(on a 5_point scale) each on 27 different themes they had
identified from the literature. This produced two 76x27
scenario_by_theme profile matrices—one for the intracultural
conflicts and one for the intercultural conflicts. The first three
factors from the intercultural matrix reflect: (1) interpersonal
animosity and hostility; (2) aggravation; and (3) the volatile
nature of the conflict. The first two factors from the
intracultural matrix reflect: (1) hatred and animosity with a
volatile nature and (2) conflicts conducted calmly with little
verbal intensity.
Finally, Jehn and Doucet identified the 30 intracultural and the
30 intercultural scenarios that they felt were the most clear and
pithy. They recruited fifty more expatriate managers to assess
the similarities (on a 5_point scale) of 60–120 randomly
selected pairs of scenarios. When combined across informants,
the managers judgments produced two aggregate,
scenario_by_scenario, similarity matrices—one for the
intracultural conflicts and one for the intercultural conflicts.
Multidimensional scaling of the intercultural similarity data
identified four dimensions: (1) open versus resistant to change,
(2) situational causes versus individual traits, (3) high_ versus
low_resolution potential based on trust, and (4) high_ versus
low_resolution potential based on patience. Scaling of the
intracultural similarity data identified four different
dimensions: (1) high versus low cooperation, (2) high versus
low confrontation, (3) problem_solving versus accepting, and
(4) resolved versus ongoing.
19. The work of Jehn and Doucet is impressive because the analysis
of the data from these tasks produced different sets of themes.
All three emically induced theme sets have some intuitive
appeal and all three yield analytic results that are useful. They
could have also used the techniques of grounded theory or
schema analysis to discover even more themes.
(2) When are the various techniques most appropriate?
The choice of techniques depends minimally on the kind and
amount of text, the experience of the researcher, and the goals
of the project. Word-based techniques (e.g., word repetitions,
indigenous categories, and KWIC) are probably the least labor
intensive. Computer software such as Anthropac and Code-a-
text have little trouble in generating frequency counts of key
words.2 A careful look at the frequency list and maybe some
quick pile sorts are often enough to identify quite a few themes.
Word-based techniques are also the most versatile. They can
easily be used with complex texts such as the complete works of
Shakespear or the Bible, as well as, with simple short answers
to open-ended questions. They can also be used relatively easily
by novice and expert investigators alike. Given their very
nature, however, they are best used in combination with other
approaches.
Scrutiny-based techniques (e.g., compare and contrast, querying
the text, and examining absences) are most appropriate for rich
textual accounts and tend to be overkill for analyzing short
answer responses. Investigators who are just beginning to
explore a new topical area might want to start with compare-
and-contrast techniques before moving on to the more difficult
tasks of querying the text or searching for missing information.
We do not advise using the latter two techniques unless the
investigator is fluent in the language in which the data are
collected. If the primary goal of the this portion of the
investigation is to discover as many themes as possible, then
nothing beats using these techniques on a line-by-line basis.
Like scrutiny-based techniques, linguist-based approaches are
better used on narrative style accounts rather than short answer
20. responses. Looking for transitions is the easiest technique to
use, especially if the texts are actually written by respondents
themselves (rather than transcribed from tape recordings of
verbal interviews). Searching for metaphors is also relatively
easy once novices have been trained on what kind of things to
look for in the texts. Looking for connecting words and phrases
is best used as a secondary wave of finding themes, once the
investigator has a more definite idea of what kinds of themes he
or she finds most interesting.
In the early stages of exploration, nothing beats a thorough
reading and pawing through of the data. This approach is the
easiest for novice researchers to master and is particularly good
for identifying major themes. As the exploration progresses,
investigators often find themselves looking for subthemes
within these major themes. The cutting and sorting techniques
are most helpful here. Investigators can identify all text
passages that are related to a major theme, cut them out, and
sort them into subthematic categories. Likewise, if they are
marking texts for each newly discovered theme, then they can
apply the unmarked text technique as they go. We have seen
these three techniques applied successfully to both rich
narrative data as well as simple responses to open-ended
questions.
An even more powerful strategy would be to combine multiple
techniques in a sequential manner. For example, investigators
might begin by pawing through the data to see what kinds of
themes just stick out. As part of this process, they might want to
make comparisons between paragraphs and across informants. A
quick analysis of word repetitions would also be appropriate for
identifying themes at such an early stage of the analysis. If key
words or indigenous phrases are present, researchers might
followed-up by conducting more focused KWIC analyses. If the
project is examining issues of equality, investigators might also
look for texts that are indicative of power differentials and
access to resources. Texts representing major themes can be
marked either on paper or by computer. Investigators can then
21. search areas that are not already marked for additional themes
or cut and sort marked texts into subthemes.
Researchers also might consider beginning by looking for
identifying all metaphors and similes, marking them, cutting
them out and sorting them into thematic categories. There is no
single way to discover themes. In theme discovery, we assume
that more is always better.
(3) When do you know when you’ve found all the themes?
There is no magic formula to answer this question. The problem
is similar to asking members of a population to list all the
illnesses they know. One can never be sure of the full range of
illnesses without interviewing the entire population. This is true
because there is always the possibility that the last person
interviewed will mention a new disease. We can simplify the
process considerably, however, if we are willing to miss rarely-
mentioned illness. One strategy would be to interview people
until some number of respondents in a row (say five or more)
fail to mention any new illnesses.
In text analysis, grounded theorists refer to the point at which
no new themes are being identified as theoretical saturation
(Strauss and Corbin 1990:188). When and how theoretical
saturation is reached, however, depends the number of texts and
their complexity, as well as on investigator experience and
fatigue, and the number of investigators examining the texts.
Again, more is better. Investigators who have more experience
finding themes are likely to reach saturation latter than novices.
Wilson and Hutchinson warn against premature closure where
the researcher "fails to move beyond the face value of the
content in the narrative (1990:123)."
Summary
Theme identification is one of the most fundamental tasks in
qualitative research. It also one of the most mysterious. Explicit
descriptions of theme discovery are rarely described in articles
and reports and if so are often regulated to appendices or
footnotes. Techniques are shared among small groups of social
scientists and are often impeded by disciplinary or
22. epistemological boundaries. The lack of clear methodological
descriptions is most evident during the grant-writing phase of
research. Investigators (ourselves included) struggle to clearly
explain and justify plans for discovering themes in the
qualitative data. These issues are particularly cogent when
funding reviewers are unfamiliar with qualitative traditions.
In this article we have outlined a dozen techniques that social
scientists have used to discover themes in texts. The techniques
are drawn from across epistemological and disciplinary
boundaries. They range from quick word counts to laborious, in-
depth, line-by-line scrutiny. Some work well for short answers
to open-ended questions while others are more appropriate for
rich, complex narratives. Novices and non-native speakers may
find some techniques easier than others. No single technique is
does it all. To us, these techniques are simply tools to help us
do better research.
Notes
1 ATLAS.ti (Scientific Software Development) and Nud•ist
(Qualitative
Solution
s & Research) are qualitative analysis packages distributed in
the United States by SCOLARI, Sage Publications, Inc., 2455
Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: (805) 499 1325.
Fax: (805) 499 0871. E_mail: [email protected] Web:
www.scolari.com.
2 Anthropac (Analytic Technologies) and Coda-A-Text
(Cartwright) are software packages that have the capacity to
convert free flowing texts into word-by-document matrices.
23. Code-A-Text is distributed in the United States by SCOLARI,
Sage Publications. Anthropac is created and distributed by
Analytic Technologies, Inc., Analytic Technologies, Inc., 11
Ohlin Lane, Harvard, MA 01451. Tel: (978) 456_7372. Fax:
(978) 456_7373. E_mail: [email protected] Web:
www.analytictech.com.
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Wright, Joanne
28. +
Qualitative Analysis: Coding and
Thematic Analysis
College of Doctoral
Studies
+Topics Covered in this Lecture
n “Begin with the End in Mind”
n Variety of Approaches for Analyzing Qualitative
Data
n Structure of Data Collection Will Inform the
Analysis
29. n What is Thematic Analysis?
n Create the Code Book
n Code the Data
n Connect the Codes to Identify Themes
n Visualize the Phenomena
+ Begin with the End in Mind
n Begin with the research questions
n The researcher identifies the data needed and how it will
be analyzed to answer each research question, before
data collection begins.
n The researcher carefully thinks through the data needed
and how it will be collected to directly, clearly, and
thoroughly answer each research question.
n Then, the researcher selects the best analysis approach
30. for the data in order to answer each research question.
+Variety of Approaches for Analyzing
Qualitative Data
Qualitative analysis: search for patterns in the data and
explain those patterns
n KWIC: Key Words In Context
n Narrative Analysis: phenomenology; grounded theory
n Visualizing patterns: Graphs, matrices, flow charts,
models
n Conceptual Models: Process; Decision; Transition;
Taxonomies; Mental Models
n Thematic Analysis: Many different approaches to coding
and thematic analysis exist
31. This presentation will focus on one systematic approach to
coding and thematic analysis.
+ Structure of Data
Collection Will Inform
the Analysis
Data collected
through a single
approach such as
interviews around
the phenomena:
How the decision
gets made as to
where a child will
go to school
(parents)
RQ 1
32. RQ2
RQ3
Structured
Questionnaire:
Criteria used to select
a school; criteria used
to reject a school
RQ2
Interview
Q1-3 - What parents
consider as
alternative choices
Q4-5 - How parents make
the decision
Study 1 Study 2
33. +What is Thematic Analysis?
n A search for themes that emerge and help describe the
phenomenon by answering the research questions
n Requires careful reading, coding data, grouping/
categorizing codes, and reflecting on the categorized/
groups of codes to name and describe the theme
n Involves recognizing concepts and patterns in the data
n Provides names and definitions for the codes and themes
n Can be deductive and inductive
n Inductive: concepts emerge from data
n Deductive: models or literature provide framework for
identifying and
coding the concepts before the coding process
+Step 1: Create the Code Book
34. n Codebook: A codebook is a template the researcher create for
a study
n Determine the structure for the codes
n Unstructured: Emerge from the data to address all research
questions
n Semi-Structured: Emerge from the data based on research
questions
n Semi-Structured: Use concepts from literature to define
codes or coding areas/concepts
n Structured: Use models to define codes or coding areas/
concepts
n Read and understand all of the data (interviews,
questionnaires, artifacts)
n Creating a coding table is both creative and analytical.
+Step 1: Sample Codebook Structure
35. Code
#
Code Name: This
study used theory to
structure codes
Code
Definition
Number of
Occurrence
s of code
Direct
quotes that
illustrate
the Code
(source)
Food for Thought:
Notes and
Comments
36. S1.0 Define options
S2.0
A
Criteria to accept
S2.0
B
Criteria to reject Step not in model
S3.0
A
Collect data-
personal sources
S3.0
B
Collect data- hard
sources
S4.0 Analyze options
37. against criteria
S X Validate information Step not in model
S5.0 Make decision
+Step 2: Code the Data
n A code is a “label” to tag a variable, concept, and/
or a value found in the data
n Data are coded according to the selected
approach
n Hand coding: Highlight wording/data and put a
code number in the margin
n Add new codes to the codebook if new/
unexpected data is found
n Put examples of quotations (to illustrate the code)
in the code book
38. +Step 3: Connect the Codes to Identify
Themes
Identifying relationships to begin to create
meaning
n Group and/or connect the codes/concepts
n Similarities and/or differences
n Aspects of the phenomena
n Steps in the process
n Components of a model
n Identify the themes
n Name the theme for each group of codes
n Describe or define the theme that emerged from
the grouped codes
+Visualize the Phenomena
Create visuals or models to illustrate the
39. phenomenon or aspects of it
n Create descriptive matrices, graphs, networks,
processes, or conceptual models
n Illustrate aspects of the phenomena and their
relationships
n Can be done at the content/coding level and/or
the theme level
n Helps to answer the research questions
Visualization is analysis
+References
Bazeley, Pat (2009). Analyzing qualitative data: More than
‘identifying themes’. Malaysian Journal of Qualitative
Research,
2, 6-22.
Bernard, H. R. & Ryan, G. W. (2010). Analyzing qualitative
40. data:
Systematic Approaches. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications,
Int.
Fereday, Jennifer (2006). Demonstrating rigor using thematic
analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive
coding and theme development. International Journal of
Qualitative Methods, 5(1), 80-91.
PSY 850
Paula Thompson, Ed.D.
Coding Textual Data
44. Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Analysis
Organize and prepare the textual data for analysis.
Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Analysis
Organize and prepare the textual data for analysis.
Read through to get a general sense of the information and its
meaning.
45. Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Analysis
Organize and prepare the textual data for analysis.
Read through to get a general sense of the information and its
meaning.
Begin coding by identifying “chunks” of text and labeling it
with a brief code. Repeat. Build Codebook.
Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Analysis
Organize and prepare the textual data for analysis.
46. Read through to get a general sense of the information and its
meaning.
Begin coding by identifying “chunks” of text and labeling it
with a brief code. Repeat. Build Codebook.
Identify categories and themes across the codes.
Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Analysis
Organize and prepare the textual data for analysis.
Read through to get a general sense of the information and its
meaning.
Begin coding by identifying “chunks” of text and labeling it
with a brief code. Repeat. Build Codebook.
Identify categories and themes across the codes.
Determine how to best represent the codes and themes in the
47. report (examples, visuals).
Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Analysis
Organize and prepare the textual data for analysis.
Read through to get a general sense of the information and its
meaning.
Begin coding by identifying “chunks” of text and labeling it
with a brief code. Repeat. Build Codebook.
Identify categories and themes across the codes.
Determine how to best represent the codes and themes in the
report (examples, visuals).
Interpretation: make meaning of the text.
48. What is a Code?
“A code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short
phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-
capturing and/or evocative attribute for a portion of the
language-based or visual data.”
Saldana (2013), p. 3
49. What is a Code?
Think of codes as a labeling and filing system
Things that Can Be CodedWhat Can Be
CodedExampleCodeEvents“It happened at the annual Board
meeting”Activities“I wrote ideas on the flip chart”Feelings or
states of mind“We were feeling hopeless about the
budget”Relationships“She was the Chair of the Board”Norms
and values“It was a real test of our ethical fortitude”Conditions
or constraints“We were told to reduce the
workforce”Theories/models“The whole culture of our
50. organization changed that day”Behaviors, acts“I cried about it”
When to Code Text?
When the text relates to one or more of your research questions
When a certain word, phrase, or idea is repeated in several
places or by several participants
When the text reminds you of a theory or concept from the
literature
When you simply have a gut feeling that the text is meaningful
When in doubt, code it
51. Subjectivity in Qualitative Research
Because you are the researcher, you subjectively select of text
to code
Part of your role is to highlight phenomena you consider
important
You also attempt to be consistent and unbiased
Consistent: like text from different interviews should be coded
the same way.
Unbiased: data that does not support your opinion/preference
should be coded anyway
Stay true to the participants’ words, stories, meanings
Chain of evidence: your findings link back to the original text
52. Inductively Creating Codes
Read the data
Highlight the chunk of data that you want to code
Think of a word or short phrase that captures the essence of the
meaningful text. That becomes the code.
Codes represent the text, and also summarize, distill, and
condense it
Keep code names simple, but distinct (ex. hopeful versus
optimistic)
53. Deductively Creating Codes
Use a theory or model to create codes before you start coding.
Codebook structure comes from pre-existing theory or model
Read with the intention of identifying presence of those codes
in the data
Optional: inductively create new codes alongside the deductive
coding
Can have the advantage of a more efficient coding process
Cycles of Coding / Recoding
Lumping and splitting – does this need to be its own code or can
it be combined with a similar one?
“high school dropout” versus “didn’t finish high school”
Trimming – getting rid of codes that only show up once or twice
and don’t seem to add value to emerging themes
54. Saturation – when continued reading of the text does not
generate new insights or codes
Creating hierarchies – to cluster codes into categories
Coding Hierarchies
From this:
Successful Career
Career Trajectory
Married
Children
Stay at home mom
Returned to work
Family before career
55. Equality
Mom belongs at home
Satisfied
Combine career and family
To This...
Coding Hierarchies
Career
Successful career
Career trajectory
Family
Married
Equality
56. Children
Stay at home mom
Mom belongs at home
Combine work and family
Returned to work
Satisfied
References
Bernard, H. R., & Ryan, G. W. (2009). Analyzing qualitative
data: Systematic approaches. SAGE publications.
Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage
57. Publications.
Richards, L & Morse, J. (2012) 3rd ed. README FIRST for a
User’s Guide to Qualitative Methods. Sage Publications.
Saldana, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative
researchers. Sage Publications.