Footwear lining materials

Department of Leather Engineering, KUET, Khulna-9203.

Lining materials/Linings
The lining is the material inside the shoe that comes in contact with the
entire foot: the sides, top and heels. The main purpose of lining is to cover
the inside seams of the shoe and lengthen the shoe's lifespan. Linings made
out of certain materials cushion and comfort the foot or draw out moisture.
They can be made out of a variety materials.
S. M. Murshidur Rahman, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET).

Purpose of using lining materials
Lining is used for many purposes.
• To consolidate damaged area support.
• To strengthen the object.
• To effect certain esthetic considerations such as flattening or removing of
creases.
• To place a barrier between the object and an auxiliary support.

• To provide for temporary support during overall conservation treatment.
• To provide a structural support after removing a poor quality mount.
• To stabilize dimensional and planar movement of the support or media.
• To facilitate the handling.
Purpose of using lining materials

Quality of lining materials
• Resist abrasion with wear
• Absorb moisture & transmit
• Smooth ,Mellow & soft
• Light weight & flexible
• Resistant to mould & Fungus
• Washable to good hygienic condition
• Non-cracky & non-shrinky

Types of lining materials
A strictly scientific classification into animal, vegetable and, perhaps, synthetic
categories would not prove satisfactory or particularly helpful since the materials
used for shoe uppers may cut across these divisions. A more useful classification
is under the broad headings as they are used in the trade, i.e. Leather, fabric,
synthetics:
• Leather lining
• Fabric lining
• Synthetic lining

Leather lining
Leather lining is perhaps the best quality lining, but it's also the most
expensive. Leather lining feels soft on the skin and will conform to the shape
of the foot over time. It's also durable and allows air flow, letting moisture
evaporate. Although leather is the highest quality material for lining, certain
shoes, particularly athletic shoes, don't use leather lining because the leather
adds extra weight.

Sources of leather upper and lining
• Cow lining
• Split leather
• Goat Skins
• Sheep Skins
• Suede
• Mule
• Pig Skins
• Deerskin
• Bison or Buffalo hide
• Ostrich leather
• Kangaroo leather
• Eel skin
• Crocodile
• Horse
• Snake skin
• Seal Skin
• Shark skin
• Lizard
• Walrus
• Shagreen
• Yak
• Whale etc.

Cow leather
Bovine or Cowhide leather is the most abundant and common leather source.
Cowhide offers maximum value for texture, appearance, durability, and comfort.
Cowhide is easy to care for, the least expensive due to its availability and is dirt
and water resistant. Cowhide is one of the heaviest leathers making it very tough
wearing and durable featuring a pebble grain appearance. Although it can be
somewhat stiff, cowhide breaks in easily. Cow leather is used for virtually every
leather product including outerwear, jackets, casual and biker style coats, gloves,
belts, saddles, bags, furniture, straps, shoes, boots, and upholstery.

Cow leather
Calfskin is used to produce a high quality, attractive leather with a soft,
fine feel. Calfskin has a smooth surface, which is dense, lightweight,
and abrasion resistant. Calfskin takes on high luster with use and is used
in bookbinding, dresses, shoes, and straps.

Cow leather

Split leather
Split leather is leather created from the fibrous part of the hide left once the
top-grain of the rawhide has been separated from the hide. During the
splitting operation, the top-grain and drop split are separated. The drop split
can be further split (thickness allowing) into a middle split and a flesh split.
In very thick hides, the middle split can be separated into multiple layers
until the thickness prevents further splitting. Split leather then has an
artificial layer applied to the surface of the split and is embossed with a
leather grain (bycast leather). Splits are also used to create suede.

Split leather
The strongest suedes are usually made from grain splits (that have the grain
completely removed) or from the flesh split that has been shaved to the
correct thickness. Suede is "fuzzy" on both sides. Manufacturers use a
variety of techniques to make suede from full-grain. A reversed suede is a
grained leather that has been designed into the leather article with the grain
facing away from the visible surface. It is not considered a true suede.

Split leather

Goat Skins
They have an area of 4 to 8 sq. ft. with a coarse fibrous structure varying
between butt and belly. Substance is thick. Vegetable tanned goat skins are
used as linings.
Goat skin leather is an economical, strong and durable, with a smooth fine
grain. Goatskin is slightly softer and tougher than cow leather and is
lightweight, comfortable, supple, flexible, and water-resistant. Pigskin is used
to manufacture to gloves, casual shoes, coats, vests, bookbinding, wallets,
belts, and protective clothing. Kidskin is a very soft leather made from the
hide of a young goat.

Goat skin

Sheep Skins
Sheep skins have loose fibrous structure, loose grain surface and light
substance with a soft feel. They have an area of 2 to 9 sq.ft and are suede
finished. The wool sheep skins can be sheared. Sheep skins are used for
linings.
Sheep skin leather is extremely soft, comfortable, and pliable. The finely
grained leather is thin and supple with a buttery texture. Sheep leather is
lightweight, warm and delicate and absorbs water well.

Sheep skin
Sheep leather’s low tear and tensile strength stretches and well and
reshapes after wearing, however it can distort with excessive use.
Because sheep skin leather drapes well and flows, it is often used to make
high-end leather garments especially coats, dresses, skirts, jackets, and
pants, as well as, vests, slippers, handbags, hats, footwear, and rugs.

Sheep skin

Suede
Mostly used as an insole lining in our men's sandal range. As suede is
actually a type of leather it is also very expensive and adds a significant
amount to the cost of the shoe. Its benefits are also similar to that of
leather but limited to the fact that it is mainly an innersole material.

Suede leather

Pig Skins
Pig skin is the leather fabric made from a pig or a hog. Pig or hog skin
leather is a dense leather similar to cowhide with a soft and supple feel and
very good durability. Pigskin is very pliable, comfortable and water
resistant with a high lanolin content to keep the glove soft after getting
wet. Pigskin is used to manufacture work gloves, shoes, boots, sportswear,
handbags, saddle seats, belts and apparel such as, shirts, blazers, and
jackets. Despite their nickname, footballs are actually made of cowhide.

Pig Skin

Deerskin
Deerskin is one of the toughest leathers available due to the thorny nature
of the animal’s natural habitats. Deerskin leather’s high tensile strength is
abrasion resistant and offers high durability. Deerskin is extremely soft and
comfortable with a spongy feel. It is lightweight, water-friendly, and
stretchy and fits well. Deerskin is more expensive and used to manufacture
gloves, shirts, dresses, hats, slippers, jackets, overcoats, sporting
equipment, handbags, wallets, and upholstery.

Deerskin

Bison or Buffalo hide
Buffalo hide is a heavy duty and durable leather and very value priced.
This leather is rugged and strong, yet soft and supple with a rubber
waxy feel. Buffalo leather features thicker fibers which are more widely
spaced and evident hair follicles creating a pebbly appearance. Bison
leather is used to make furniture, shoes, belts, bookbinding, rugs,
gloves, jackets, and baseball gloves .

Buffalo leather

Ostrich leather
Ostrich leather is much rarer, but is one of the finest and most durable
leathers. Ostrich leather is luxurious, soft, supple, and thick featuring an
exotic goose bump appearance from the large feather quill follicles. Ostrich
leather is popular in luxury fashion and is used to make boots, footwear,
upholstery, accessories, clothing, luggage, purses, wallets, and briefcases.

Ostrich leather

Eel skin
Eel skin is a very thin and elegant, which is not very strong. Eel skin
leather can be durable but requires maintenance if exposed to elements.
Eel skin is soft, shiny, and smooth with horizontal pin-stripe patterns.
This leather is actually produced from a slimy eel-like fish called the
inshore hagfish, which is caught in the wild. Eel skin becomes softer
and suppler with use and is used to make wallets and handbags.

Eel leather

Crocodile and alligator skin
Crocodile and alligator skin renders a very attractive and fashionable
leather. The leather is strong, supple, durable and very expensive. A bony
layer within the skin adds a protective shield, while a dimple on each
scale makes a very exotic look. Crocodile and alligator leather is used to
make luxury goods, handbags, wallets, boots, belts, and briefcases.

Crocodile and alligator skin

Snakeskin
Snakeskin is typically produced from venomous sea snakes which are
commercially farmed. The leather is delicate, thin, soft and flexible,
while the fine small hexagon scales produce exotic detailed grains.
Snake skin leather is used to make boots, wallets, and handbags.

Kangaroo leather
Kangaroo leather is lightweight, strong and flexible with high abrasion
resistance compared to cowhide. Ostrich leather can be cut into very thin
layers which remain strong and create lighter weight garments. Ostrich
leather is made from free range wild animals and is popular in soccer
footwear, as well as, bullwhips and apparel.

Kangaroo leather

Stingray or shagreen leather
Stingray or shagreen leather is very tough with a siliceous layer on the
surface, which makes it as durable as hard plastic. Stingray leather has a
beautiful appearance and wonderful feel, which is very strong. Stingray
leather scales even protect from fire damage. The leather is usually dyed
black and covered with tiny round bumps dyed white to highlight the
decoration. Stingray leather is used for clothing, furniture, wallets, belts,
purses, and briefcases.

Stingray or shagreen leather

Sealskin
Sealskin is the skin of a seal which has been hunted.
Seal skins have been used by aboriginal people for millennia to make waterproof jackets
and boots, and seal fur to make fur coats. Sailors used to have tobacco pouches made
from sealskin. Canada, Greenland, Norway, Russia and Namibia all export sealskin. It
was traditionally used to make Scottish sporrans.
The indigenous Inuit people argue that banning seal products is detrimental to their way
of life. However, there are many objections to the use of seal skin, fur and pelts, and it is
illegal to hunt seals in many countries, particularly young seals. The value of global
sealskin exports in 2006 was over 16 million Canadian dollars.

Sealskin

Mule skin
Mule skin has a higher density than steer which gives it a very distinct and
crisp sound profile. We have several different types of mule skin which
work perfectly for many different types of drums.
Mule skin has a very bright tone and sounds controlled and tight. Slaps are
amazingly crisp.

Mule skin

Horse/Equine skin
Equine skin conditions are often difficult to diagnose and frustrating to treat,
with causes ranging from fungus to allergens to who-knows-what.
The skin is the largest organ of your horse’s body. It provides a protective
barrier against the environment, regulates temperature, and gives your horse its
sense of touch. Depending on the species and age, the skin may be 12 to 24%
of an animal’s body weight. The skin has 3 major layers: the epidermis or
outermost layer, the dermis or middle layer, and the subcutis or innermost layer.
Other important components include skin appendages (such as hair and
hooves), and subcutaneous muscles and fat.

Horse/Equine skin

Lizard leather
Lizard leather scales are remarkably water proof, and provide excellent
protection from the elements. Pesky stains shan’t be nearly as much of a
threat to lizard skin as to other leathers, although this shouldn’t be your cue
to take it for granted. Those scales are rooted in place by a well lubricated
membrane beneath them, which they are charged with protecting. Should
that membrane dry up, the scales can pop off, which really doesn’t bode
well for the aesthetics. Try not to take lizard leather out under excessive
weather conditions, such as rain. If it does get wet, just blot up the moisture
with a dry, clean cloth or paper towel.

Lizard leather

Walrus leather
Leather produced from any fur bearing swimming mammal such as the
Atlantic walrus (Odobenus rosmarus), Pacific walrus (Odobenus abesus),
sea lion (Zalophus caliifornianus) or seal (Callorhinus alascanus). All are
called walrus leather because, once processed, the skins are difficult to
distinguish. Walrus hides are thick, tough, and smooth. Due to the scarcity
of the animals at the end of the 20th century, most commercial walrus
leathers were imitations made from embossed and
grained sheepskins, goatskins, or cowhides.

Walrus leather

Shark leather
Shark leather is world known for its rough, course texture. In the coarser
developments of shark skin, it has been used like sandpaper for polishing.
However, the finer tanned shark skins are used for shoes, handbags, and
other leather items. Highly sought after, these skins are by-products from
fishing villages and international cuisine.
All of our leather is coming from non-endangered and non-threatened
shark species and no CITES is required. Currently, we’re offering black fin
species in 1 to 4 oz thickness in a rough or soft-tanned presentation.

Shark leather

Some other animal sources used for leather include boar, elk, donkey,
ox, whale, and yak.
Whale Donkey
Other sources of leather

Ox Yak

Elk

Fabric
Fabric is the most common lining material, particularly cotton and viscose.
Cotton and viscose are both extremely breathable fabrics that absorb
moisture, making shoes more comfortable and sterilized. Even if a pair of
shoes is worn regularly, if it's lined with cotton or viscose it will likely
retain its shape. Cotton and other natural fabrics are certainly breathable,
but not as breathable as leather.

Fabrics are made out of yarn and are classified as woven, non-woven and
knitted. Natural fibres of cotton, jute and synthetic fibres such as nylon, terylene
and so on are used, in fabric manufacture. Fabrics are extensively used as upper
materials, linings, inter-linings and backers. Fabrics are manufactured and sold
in rolls.
Fabrics, are woven from yarns which run at right angles to each other. Warp
threads are those which run the width of the fabric. Warp threads stretch less but
possess more tensile strength. Weft threads stretch more but have less strength as
compared to warp threads.

Types of fabric lining
• Woven Fabrics
• Knitted fabrics
• Non-woven Fabrics

Woven Fabrics
Warp fabrics have good strength and low elongation at break. This has
the disadvantage of breaking during wear in certain shoe constructions.
The fabrics are cut in bias (diagonal) direction, for use as tapes and top
line bindings.

Knitted fabrics
Knitted fabrics have high stretch but low strength. These are used in
slipper and casual shoes, as insole coverings. The disadvantages being
raw edges fray.

Non-woven Fabrics
Non-woven fabrics are produced by a random arrangement of fibres.
Woolen felts, needle felts, and bonded fibres are used in non-woven
fabrics. In woolen felts the fibres are milled and pressed to lock the protein
fibres together. Needle felts are obtained when the fibres are tangled
together by repeatedly thrusting binder or adhesive to hold the fibres
together. Bonded fibres are also known as impregnated non-woven and
when abraded gives a finish similar to suede with leather like appearance
and touch.

Non-woven Fabrics

Synthetic
Synthetic materials like polyester, acrylic and elastane are very common
materials for shoe linings, but they hardly absorb any moisture. The only
reason shoe manufacturers use these synthetic materials is to cut costs.
Synthetic lining causes odor and breaks down more quickly than fabric, and
much more quickly than leather.
Artificial leathers are synthetic materials with leather like appearances and
feel, mostly used for shoe uppers and linings. A few of these materials have
physical properties to certain extent similar to leather.

The materials available as coated fabrics. They have a coating of
polyurethane (PU) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) on a fabric. The fabric may
be natural or synthetic, or a blend of both. The coatings can be coloured,
printed or embossed giving an attractive finish with leather like appearance.
The coated fabrics are produced by either transfer film process or direct
coating process. The direct coating process is also known as coagulation
method. The expanded products viz. expanded PU and expanded PVC are
obtained by incorporating a blowing agent in addition to plasticizer.

Types of synthetic
• PVC coated fabrics
• Polyurethane coated Fabrics

PVC coated fabrics
These are classified into solid, expanded and microporous vinyls. The
expanded vinyls are produced by incorporating a blowing agent; into vinyl
paste resin (a fine powder) and a plasticizer (a colourless liquid), mixed in
proportion to obtain paste of required viscosity, heated to obtain a “gelled”
material. Stabilizers are added to reduce decomposition, pigments to colour,
fillers to modify the properties and reduce the price. These fabrics are
manufactured by 1. Direct application of PVC to the fabric and 2. By
transfer coating.

PVC coated fabric

Polyurethane coated Fabrics
PU coated fabrics usually consists of non-woven fabric backer, impregnated
with polyurethane to give a microporous structure. The top of the coated
fabric is given a lacquer coating. Also known as poromerics, are
microporous permeable materials with leather like appearance. These upper
and lining materials possesses moisture absorption and permeability
properties to certain extent similar to natural leather. The backer or substrate
is non-woven fabric—a raised twill. The fibres are teared out to form a pile
to impart leather like surface to the fabric.

The top skin PU is formulated by the reaction of a polymer, (polyester or
polyether) with an isocyanate (TDI or MDI). The film is coloured by pigment
dispersions. A spray of lacquer coat on the top of the coated fabric imparts
gloss or wet look to the coated fabric. In practice the PU solution with a
mixer of dimethyl formate and methyl-ethyl ketone, is applied on a release
paper. The solution is spread evenly on the paper by knives. It passes through
ovens where the solvent evaporates. PU adhesive is applied and spread
uniformly on the PU films. The fabric is pressed on the adhesive by its pile
side. S. M. Murshidur Rahman, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET).

The release paper is separated and can be reused again. In another method,
PU solution in a solvent dimethyl formate of low viscosity is impregnated
into the fabric. The solution also contains colouring material and other
materials. The solvent is then gradually removed by passing the fabric
through tanks containing PU solution, mixture of water and PU solution
and then water. Thus the solvent is gradually removed. PU is dispersed
within the fabric. The coated fabric is printed and embossed, if required,
sprayed by lacquer and finished metallic, pearl, rub off and so on.

PU coated fabric

Coated fabrics are used for uppers, linings, heel grips, sock linings,
quarter linings, slipper uppers and in sports shoes.

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Presented by:
S. M. Murshidur Rahman
Department of Leather Engineering,
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Khulna-9203, Bangladesh.
Email: murshidurkhulnabd@gmail.com
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