This document provides guidance on selecting and sizing conductors for electrical equipment that must remain functional during a fire. It discusses the development of fires and temperature curves, and fire safety cable constructions rated for circuit integrity over various time periods. When sizing conductors for fire safety cables, the designer must account for a 4.5 times increase in resistance at high temperatures. This affects current capacity, voltage drop, protection, and other design parameters. Careful planning of cable routing and accessories is also required to ensure the cables can perform as needed during a fire.
Cost savings by low-loss distribution transformers in wind power plantsLeonardo ENERGY
Highlights:
* National governments should promote energy-efficient components and provide incentives for energy-efficient measures.
* A European specification for a range of energy-efficient transformers is needed.
* The feasibility to get one EU specification should be studied.
Energy-efficient transformers should be promoted through education of customers.
* An energy-efficient transformer should be given a sensational name.
This guide presents a methodology based on standard PN-IEC 60354 to check overloading capacity of transformers. Main changes versus standard PN-71/E-81000 are discussed and step by step examples are given. An essential advantage of the recommended methods of verification of overloading capacity of transformers is that the size and cooling modes of transformers are considered.
Introduction to industrial electrical process heatingBruno De Wachter
This application note provides an introduction to a series of papers on industrial electric process heating technologies, hereinafter referred to as electro-heat or electro-heating technologies.
It briefly describes the basic principles of each of the various electro-heating technologies and explores their common ground. The economic and process related advantages of electro-heat are discussed. In the majority of cases, electro-heat has a better environmental performance than an industrial heating system utilizing natural gas or other fossil fuels. This application note provides some insight into why this is the case.
Finally, this paper provides an overview of the most appropriate applications as well as a short overview of the specific areas of technological development for each of the electro-heat technologies.
Efficiency and Loss Evaluation of Large Power TransformersLeonardo ENERGY
All power transformers have very high energy efficiency—the largest are probably the most efficient machines ever devised. However, there is still scope for improvement. Any improvement in the performance of large transformers offers the potential of genuine economic benefits because their throughput and their continuous duty mean that the energy they waste is likewise enormous.
This Application Note discusses the nature of power transformer losses and evaluates those losses from an economic and ecological point of view. There is no general rule on how to design a power transformer for minimum life cycle cost. It has to be approached case by case, based on an estimate of the load profile. This Application Note also tackles the question whether an over-sized transformer is always an energy efficient transformer, and it contains a chapter on the choice of the conductor material.
Earthing systems: fundamentals of calculation and designLeonardo ENERGY
This application note discusses the principles of earthing electrode design with particular emphasis on earth potential distribution of various electrode geometries.
The electrical properties of the ground and variations according to type and moisture content are discussed. The equation for calculation of the earthing resistance and potential distribution for an idealized hemispherical earth electrode is derived. The concepts of step and touch voltages are discussed and the effect of earthing electrode geometry shown.
The concepts developed in this application note are the basis for the practical guidance given in Earthing systems: basic constructional aspects.
Analysis of thermal models to determine the loss of life of mineral oil immer...journalBEEI
Hot spot as well as top oil temperatures have played the most effective parameters on the life of the electrical transformers. The prognostication of these factors is very vital for determining the residual life of the electrical transformers in the transmission and distribution systems. Thus, an accurate mathematical method is required to calculate the critical temperature such as hot spot and top oil temperature based on the different types of thermal models. In this study calculates the service life of the transformers based on an accurate top oil temperature. Accordingly, An approach solution is given for calculating the thermal model. Also, findings are validated with true temperatures. Finally, this method is implemented on 2500 KVA electrical transformer.
Resilient and reliable power supply in a modern office buildingLeonardo ENERGY
This application note describes the design of the electrical infrastructure for a modern 10-story head-office building in Milan, Italy, housing 500 employees using IT intensively. It demonstrates how concern for resilience and reliability at design stage can save high maintenance and renovation costs at later stage. Two design approaches are discussed and compared, including a cost comparison. Attention goes to the choice of the electrical distribution scheme, the choice of the earthing configuration, how to cope with harmonic currents, the coordination of many different protection devices, and how to ensure power supply for mission critical loads.
Cost savings by low-loss distribution transformers in wind power plantsLeonardo ENERGY
Highlights:
* National governments should promote energy-efficient components and provide incentives for energy-efficient measures.
* A European specification for a range of energy-efficient transformers is needed.
* The feasibility to get one EU specification should be studied.
Energy-efficient transformers should be promoted through education of customers.
* An energy-efficient transformer should be given a sensational name.
This guide presents a methodology based on standard PN-IEC 60354 to check overloading capacity of transformers. Main changes versus standard PN-71/E-81000 are discussed and step by step examples are given. An essential advantage of the recommended methods of verification of overloading capacity of transformers is that the size and cooling modes of transformers are considered.
Introduction to industrial electrical process heatingBruno De Wachter
This application note provides an introduction to a series of papers on industrial electric process heating technologies, hereinafter referred to as electro-heat or electro-heating technologies.
It briefly describes the basic principles of each of the various electro-heating technologies and explores their common ground. The economic and process related advantages of electro-heat are discussed. In the majority of cases, electro-heat has a better environmental performance than an industrial heating system utilizing natural gas or other fossil fuels. This application note provides some insight into why this is the case.
Finally, this paper provides an overview of the most appropriate applications as well as a short overview of the specific areas of technological development for each of the electro-heat technologies.
Efficiency and Loss Evaluation of Large Power TransformersLeonardo ENERGY
All power transformers have very high energy efficiency—the largest are probably the most efficient machines ever devised. However, there is still scope for improvement. Any improvement in the performance of large transformers offers the potential of genuine economic benefits because their throughput and their continuous duty mean that the energy they waste is likewise enormous.
This Application Note discusses the nature of power transformer losses and evaluates those losses from an economic and ecological point of view. There is no general rule on how to design a power transformer for minimum life cycle cost. It has to be approached case by case, based on an estimate of the load profile. This Application Note also tackles the question whether an over-sized transformer is always an energy efficient transformer, and it contains a chapter on the choice of the conductor material.
Earthing systems: fundamentals of calculation and designLeonardo ENERGY
This application note discusses the principles of earthing electrode design with particular emphasis on earth potential distribution of various electrode geometries.
The electrical properties of the ground and variations according to type and moisture content are discussed. The equation for calculation of the earthing resistance and potential distribution for an idealized hemispherical earth electrode is derived. The concepts of step and touch voltages are discussed and the effect of earthing electrode geometry shown.
The concepts developed in this application note are the basis for the practical guidance given in Earthing systems: basic constructional aspects.
Analysis of thermal models to determine the loss of life of mineral oil immer...journalBEEI
Hot spot as well as top oil temperatures have played the most effective parameters on the life of the electrical transformers. The prognostication of these factors is very vital for determining the residual life of the electrical transformers in the transmission and distribution systems. Thus, an accurate mathematical method is required to calculate the critical temperature such as hot spot and top oil temperature based on the different types of thermal models. In this study calculates the service life of the transformers based on an accurate top oil temperature. Accordingly, An approach solution is given for calculating the thermal model. Also, findings are validated with true temperatures. Finally, this method is implemented on 2500 KVA electrical transformer.
Resilient and reliable power supply in a modern office buildingLeonardo ENERGY
This application note describes the design of the electrical infrastructure for a modern 10-story head-office building in Milan, Italy, housing 500 employees using IT intensively. It demonstrates how concern for resilience and reliability at design stage can save high maintenance and renovation costs at later stage. Two design approaches are discussed and compared, including a cost comparison. Attention goes to the choice of the electrical distribution scheme, the choice of the earthing configuration, how to cope with harmonic currents, the coordination of many different protection devices, and how to ensure power supply for mission critical loads.
A 2D MODELLING OF THERMAL HEAT SINK FOR IMPATT AT HIGH POWER MMW FREQUENCYcscpconf
A very useful method of formulating the Total Thermal Resistance of ordinary mesa structure of DDR IMPATT diode oscillators are presented in this paper. The main aim of this paper is to provide a 2D model for Si and SiC based IMPATT having different heat sinks (Type IIA diamond and copper) at high power MMW frequency and study the characteristics of Total thermal resistance versus diode diameter for both the devices. Calculations of Total thermal resistances associated with different DDR IMPATT diodes with different base materials
operating at 94 GHz (W-Band) are included in this paper using the author’s developed formulation for both type-IIA diamond and copper semi-infinite heat sinks separately. Heat
Sinks are designed using both type-IIA diamond and copper for all those diodes to operate near 500 K (which is well below the burn-out temperatures of all those base materials) for CW
steady state operation. Results are provided in the form of necessary graphs and tables.
Physical and technical basics of induction melting processesLeonardo ENERGY
In this course the physical and technical basics of induction melting processes and technologies will be explained. During the introduction the author will demonstrate along typical features of induction melting, why today induction melting is used in many industrial processes.
In the first part of this course the physical basics will be discussed by explaining the fundamental equations. The most important features of induction melting like, Joule heat effect, induced current and power density distribution in the melt, electromagnet forces, free melt surface deformation, turbulent melt flow and stirring will be explained.In the following the physical principle of the industrial most important induction melting furnaces, the induction crucible furnace and the induction channel furnace, will be shown.
In the second part of this course the author will explain, how the heat and mass transfer processes in the melt of induction furnaces are caused and influenced by the turbulent melt flow. Along industrial oriented examples it will be shown how numerical simulation based on sophisticated turbulent models can be used today for improved process understanding and design of the melting processes and devices.
The recapitulation of the most important features of induction melting processes and technologies will conclude this course.
Induction Heating – Operation, Applications and Case Studies - Presentation S...Leonardo ENERGY
The industrial process heating applications that use electrotechnologies have been found to improve product quality, productivity, energy efficiency, reduce energy intensity and have many other non-energy benefits. Induction technology is another electrotechnology based heating method for heating electrical conductive materials. It involves sending an alternating current (AC) through a copper coil which surrounds the material to be heated or melted. When a metal is placed inside the coil and enters the magnetic field, circulating eddy currents are induced within the metal. The resistance of the metal to the flow of the eddy currents causes the metal to heat up. In this webcast, the operation principles of induction heating technology used for both heating and melting, its applications and EPRI case studies will be presented. The information of vendors as well as other links to reference materials will be presented at the end.
Coursework material provides the technical performance analysis of compression, stoichiometric combustion (carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, coal, oil and gas) and expansion.
Optimal Cable Sizing in PV Systems: Case StudyLeonardo ENERGY
It is often beneficial to over-size the cross-section of electricity cables compared to the standard values that follow out of voltage and current calculations. In the large majority of cases, oversizing has a positive influence on the Life Cycle Cost of the installation. The investment in larger cable is easily paid back by the reduction of Joule losses inside the cable and the subsequent savings on electricity bills.
When the cable is part of a photovoltaic (PV) installation, the investment in a larger-than-standard cable is paid back even faster than in other installations. This is because the allocated electricity price for a PV installation is higher than the market price thanks to the feed-in tariff or green certificates. In other words: the energy losses that are avoided in a PV installation lead to an even bigger financial reward than in other installations.
Increasing the cable cross section in PV installations also creates additional technical and environmental benefits.
Physical and technical basics of induction heating technologiesLeonardo ENERGY
In this course the physical and technical basics of induction heating processes and technologies will be explained. During the introduction the author will demonstrate along typical features of induction heating, why today induction heating is used in many industrial processes. In the first part of this course the physical basics will be discussed by explaining the fundamental equations. The most important features of induction heating, like skin effect, penetration depth, proximity effect, Joule heat effect, induced current and power density distribution in the workpiece and the effect of electromagnet forces as well as the influence of electromagnetic field guiding systems will be discussed along selected examples. In the second part of this course the author explains, how the electrical efficiency of an induction heating process depends on the design of the induction heating system and how the frequency of the inductor current has to be chosen in order to get the desired temperature distribution in the workpiece but at the same time a high efficient induction heating process. In the following the physical principle of induction longitudinal and transverse flux heating of flat material we be shown. At the end of this course using an example of an induction through heating application, a typical energy flow diagram will be explained and potentials for improve-ments will be discussed. The recapitulation of the most important features of induction heating processes and technologies will conclude this course.
MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION OF COLD CRUCIBLE FURNACES FOR MELTING METALSFluxtrol Inc.
http://fluxtrol.com
Cold Crucible Furnaces (CCFs), widely used in multiple special applications of
melting metals, oxides, glasses and other materials [1], are essentially 3D devices and their
modeling is a complicated task. Multiple studies of CCFs have been made for their
optimization, but their electrical efficiency is still low; for metals approximately 25-30% and
even lower. Fluxtrol, Inc., made an extensive study of electromagnetic processes of CCFs
using computer simulation and laboratory tests. This study showed that electrical efficiency of
CCFs may be strongly improved by means of optimal design of the whole system with use of
magnetic flux controllers. Theoretical results had been confirmed by laboratory tests on
mockups and by industrial tests with real melting processes. The presentation contains a
description of the computer modeling procedure and major findings. They form a basis for
optimal design of electromagnetic systems of CCFs.
Neutral sizing in harmonic-rich installationsLeonardo ENERGY
Both national and international standards for the conductor sizing of cables do not adequately take into account the additional heat load arising from harmonic currents. Some standards prescribe the maximum current values for four-conductor and five-conductor cables under the assumption that only two or three conductors are loaded. However, today’s harmonic situations may give rise to the fourth conductor (neutral) being fully loaded or even overloaded simultaneously with a balanced load on the three phase conductors. Other standards provide a general instruction that under a particular harmonic impact on the phase conductors, a certain additional load has to be taken into account for sizing the neutral conductor. However, the practitioner will usually not know how much harmonic impact arises from a particular load or group of loads.
In the following application note, an approach will be given to estimate the additional thermal impact due to harmonic currents in the LV power supply system of a building. Based on this estimation, it provides a methodology on how to dimension and select three-phase cables that are supposed to feed single-phase final circuits containing distorting loads.
Cables that are exposed to fire while being expected to retain their functionality and provide power to essential equipment at another location must be appropriately selected and sized to take account of the increased electrical resistance at elevated temperature. Manufacturers offer cables and accessories that will survive a standard cellulose fire for 30, 60 or 90 minutes when correctly specified and installed.
Cables, including fire safety cables, are specified in terms that reflect their normal duty conditions; design parameters under fire conditions are rarely, if ever, specified. The objective of this paper is to provide a clear methodology for designing fire safety circuits based on the derivation and application of correction factors and standard cable parameters.
Cables that are exposed to fire while being expected to retain their functionality and provide power to essential equipment at another location must be appropriately selected and sized. This is not only a question of an appropriate insulation. Designers must take account of the increased electrical resistance at elevated temperature.
Manufacturers offer cables and accessories that will survive a standard cellulose fire for 30, 60 or 90 minutes when correctly specified and installed.
A first step to specifying a suitable fire safety cable is a good knowledge of the temperature rise characteristic in areas affected by the fire.
A second step is the correct selection and erection of the cable. This includes the correct sizing of the conductor. Cables, including fire safety cables, are specified in terms that reflect their normal duty conditions; design parameters under fire conditions are rarely, if ever, specified. The designer must take into account the consequent effects of the increased resistance on current carrying capacity, voltage drop, and short circuit capacity of the conductors. Special care should go to the current carrying capacity of the conductor if it is to supply electrically driven fire pumps drawing high starting currents. The circuit protection should also be adapted to fire conditions, as it must be designed to function with significant higher loop impedance than normal.
This paper provides a clear methodology for designing fire safety circuits based on the derivation and application of correction factors and standard cable parameters.
Having selected the appropriate cable, it must be installed properly, using suitable accessories and following the manufacturer’s restrictions.
Fire-Resistant Cable Sizing of conductors supplying electrical equipment that...fernando nuño
The integrity and functionality of the electricity supply cables is vital for keeping safety services operational during a building fire. Choosing a cable that is tested and classified as fire resistant is a first step when designing an electrical circuit to supply equipment that must remain functional during a fire. The next step – equally important – is to calculate the appropriate cable conductor cross section. This requires particular attention because of the fact that electrical resistance increases sharply as temperature rises.
To calculate the electrical resistance under fire conditions, the fire temperature must be known. First, it must be determined for how long the safety services must remain operational. The standard durations of fire resistance classes are 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes. When this time span is known, the fire temperature can be derived from the standard temperature-time curve as defined in ISO 834. The electrical resistance under fire conditions can then be obtained by applying the Wiedemann-Franz law. This will establish an electrical resistance correction factor which facilitates the calculation of the voltage drop under fire conditions.
The voltage drop over the entire length of the supply cables must be restricted to ensure that fire safety equipment will maintain functionality for the required length of time. Usually, the maximum voltage drop will be specified in the equipment’s user guide. If this is not the case, one must consider a maximum voltage drop of 10%. Because buildings are often compartmentalised into fire zones, cables feeding fire protection equipment are rarely exposed to fire temperatures over their entire length. The part of the cable not affected by the fire will operate at normal temperature, while the part exposed to the fire will have increased resistance. The total resistance over the whole length of the cable is calculated by applying the electrical resistance correction factor only to that part of the cable affected. From the maximum voltage drop of the fire safety equipment, the electrical resistance correction factor and the compartmentalisation of the cable route, the maximum electrical resistance the cable is allowed to have at normal temperature (20°C) can be calculated. The minimum conductor cross section can then be derived from this using Tables 1 to 4 of the international standard EN/IEC 60228, or their equivalent in national standards.
The electrical insulation of fire-resistant cables is designed to withstand extreme temperatures, a fact which could lead to the false assumption that there is no limit to the current-carrying capacity of these cables. In reality, fire-resistant cables are not tested for the potential additional heat produced as a result of the increased electrical resistance at high temperature.
Fire Resistance of Materials & Structures - Assessment of Structural in a Fur...Arshia Mousavi
Assessment of structural fire damage in a furniture shop
This document summarises the data collected during the inspection of a 3-storey reinforced concrete building surviving a fire. The candidate is expected to:
1. Define a model for the fire scenario in the area around the central columns from 4 to 8 at first floor, considering the range of possible variation of some variables (fire load, RHR, collapse temperature of windows, etc.). Consider that a) fire load and ventilation are the most sensitive parameters governing fire intensity and duration and b) the ventilation factor is well known, based on the compartment and windows geometry c) the model strategy (external flaming vs external fire duration) is relevant just when the ventilation is noticeably limited (this is actually not the case) and d) the cooling rate in the decay stage (Eurocode vs. Buchanan) has significant effect on the depth of penetration of thermally induced damage (especially for temperature less than 500°C).
2. By changing the relevant input parameters within a reasonable range, produce a series of time- temperature curves for the enclosure containing the indicated columns.
3. Produce a series of maximum temperature contour plots for the cross section of the indicated square column.
4. Check the consistency of the plots with the NDT results and choose the most likely max temperature map.
5. Determine the average residual M-N domain for the indicated columns, according to the 500°C critical isotherm method.
Please consider that this exercise tackles a real problem and is based on real data collected during onsite inspection. Hence some lack of accuracy or inconsistency of data should be also expected and taken into account. There is no "right answer" but the robustness of approach and careful critical discussion of the available data are the best basis for drawing reliable conclusions.
The fire prevention powder Impulse Storm, specially designed for use in these cases, is an unique powder with bulk weight of 0,2 g/cm³. The powder is not a chemical synthesis product – it consists of very stable natural components which do not chemically react with any other substance. As a result, the powder sprayed by the Impulse Storm technology into the tunnel will play an important role as a fire agent, even after the extinguishing is made. The powder can be stored in a shaft for unlimited number of years without losing its fire prevention properties and causing no harm to cables or environment. This powder does not cohere or turn into a solid mass, and it can be removed anytime, even in 10 or 20 years. It is recommended that the powder is left in the tunnel, serving as neutral filler, and in case of an eventual ignition, it will play an important role in preventing fire development.
In summary, it is possible to fill narrow cable tunnels with the Impulse Storm powder immediately after its construction. The easiness, big volume, low mass, and low cost of the powder allow such application.
MIE (without inductance) simulates a purely capacitive electrostatic discharge such as from isolated conductors in an industrial situation. MIE (with inductance) simulates longer duration discharges as the introduction of the inductor into the circuit, delays the spark discharge to earth, hence this corresponds to MECHANICAL SPARK SENSITIVITY.
A 2D MODELLING OF THERMAL HEAT SINK FOR IMPATT AT HIGH POWER MMW FREQUENCYcscpconf
A very useful method of formulating the Total Thermal Resistance of ordinary mesa structure of DDR IMPATT diode oscillators are presented in this paper. The main aim of this paper is to provide a 2D model for Si and SiC based IMPATT having different heat sinks (Type IIA diamond and copper) at high power MMW frequency and study the characteristics of Total thermal resistance versus diode diameter for both the devices. Calculations of Total thermal resistances associated with different DDR IMPATT diodes with different base materials
operating at 94 GHz (W-Band) are included in this paper using the author’s developed formulation for both type-IIA diamond and copper semi-infinite heat sinks separately. Heat
Sinks are designed using both type-IIA diamond and copper for all those diodes to operate near 500 K (which is well below the burn-out temperatures of all those base materials) for CW
steady state operation. Results are provided in the form of necessary graphs and tables.
Physical and technical basics of induction melting processesLeonardo ENERGY
In this course the physical and technical basics of induction melting processes and technologies will be explained. During the introduction the author will demonstrate along typical features of induction melting, why today induction melting is used in many industrial processes.
In the first part of this course the physical basics will be discussed by explaining the fundamental equations. The most important features of induction melting like, Joule heat effect, induced current and power density distribution in the melt, electromagnet forces, free melt surface deformation, turbulent melt flow and stirring will be explained.In the following the physical principle of the industrial most important induction melting furnaces, the induction crucible furnace and the induction channel furnace, will be shown.
In the second part of this course the author will explain, how the heat and mass transfer processes in the melt of induction furnaces are caused and influenced by the turbulent melt flow. Along industrial oriented examples it will be shown how numerical simulation based on sophisticated turbulent models can be used today for improved process understanding and design of the melting processes and devices.
The recapitulation of the most important features of induction melting processes and technologies will conclude this course.
Induction Heating – Operation, Applications and Case Studies - Presentation S...Leonardo ENERGY
The industrial process heating applications that use electrotechnologies have been found to improve product quality, productivity, energy efficiency, reduce energy intensity and have many other non-energy benefits. Induction technology is another electrotechnology based heating method for heating electrical conductive materials. It involves sending an alternating current (AC) through a copper coil which surrounds the material to be heated or melted. When a metal is placed inside the coil and enters the magnetic field, circulating eddy currents are induced within the metal. The resistance of the metal to the flow of the eddy currents causes the metal to heat up. In this webcast, the operation principles of induction heating technology used for both heating and melting, its applications and EPRI case studies will be presented. The information of vendors as well as other links to reference materials will be presented at the end.
Coursework material provides the technical performance analysis of compression, stoichiometric combustion (carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, coal, oil and gas) and expansion.
Optimal Cable Sizing in PV Systems: Case StudyLeonardo ENERGY
It is often beneficial to over-size the cross-section of electricity cables compared to the standard values that follow out of voltage and current calculations. In the large majority of cases, oversizing has a positive influence on the Life Cycle Cost of the installation. The investment in larger cable is easily paid back by the reduction of Joule losses inside the cable and the subsequent savings on electricity bills.
When the cable is part of a photovoltaic (PV) installation, the investment in a larger-than-standard cable is paid back even faster than in other installations. This is because the allocated electricity price for a PV installation is higher than the market price thanks to the feed-in tariff or green certificates. In other words: the energy losses that are avoided in a PV installation lead to an even bigger financial reward than in other installations.
Increasing the cable cross section in PV installations also creates additional technical and environmental benefits.
Physical and technical basics of induction heating technologiesLeonardo ENERGY
In this course the physical and technical basics of induction heating processes and technologies will be explained. During the introduction the author will demonstrate along typical features of induction heating, why today induction heating is used in many industrial processes. In the first part of this course the physical basics will be discussed by explaining the fundamental equations. The most important features of induction heating, like skin effect, penetration depth, proximity effect, Joule heat effect, induced current and power density distribution in the workpiece and the effect of electromagnet forces as well as the influence of electromagnetic field guiding systems will be discussed along selected examples. In the second part of this course the author explains, how the electrical efficiency of an induction heating process depends on the design of the induction heating system and how the frequency of the inductor current has to be chosen in order to get the desired temperature distribution in the workpiece but at the same time a high efficient induction heating process. In the following the physical principle of induction longitudinal and transverse flux heating of flat material we be shown. At the end of this course using an example of an induction through heating application, a typical energy flow diagram will be explained and potentials for improve-ments will be discussed. The recapitulation of the most important features of induction heating processes and technologies will conclude this course.
MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION OF COLD CRUCIBLE FURNACES FOR MELTING METALSFluxtrol Inc.
http://fluxtrol.com
Cold Crucible Furnaces (CCFs), widely used in multiple special applications of
melting metals, oxides, glasses and other materials [1], are essentially 3D devices and their
modeling is a complicated task. Multiple studies of CCFs have been made for their
optimization, but their electrical efficiency is still low; for metals approximately 25-30% and
even lower. Fluxtrol, Inc., made an extensive study of electromagnetic processes of CCFs
using computer simulation and laboratory tests. This study showed that electrical efficiency of
CCFs may be strongly improved by means of optimal design of the whole system with use of
magnetic flux controllers. Theoretical results had been confirmed by laboratory tests on
mockups and by industrial tests with real melting processes. The presentation contains a
description of the computer modeling procedure and major findings. They form a basis for
optimal design of electromagnetic systems of CCFs.
Neutral sizing in harmonic-rich installationsLeonardo ENERGY
Both national and international standards for the conductor sizing of cables do not adequately take into account the additional heat load arising from harmonic currents. Some standards prescribe the maximum current values for four-conductor and five-conductor cables under the assumption that only two or three conductors are loaded. However, today’s harmonic situations may give rise to the fourth conductor (neutral) being fully loaded or even overloaded simultaneously with a balanced load on the three phase conductors. Other standards provide a general instruction that under a particular harmonic impact on the phase conductors, a certain additional load has to be taken into account for sizing the neutral conductor. However, the practitioner will usually not know how much harmonic impact arises from a particular load or group of loads.
In the following application note, an approach will be given to estimate the additional thermal impact due to harmonic currents in the LV power supply system of a building. Based on this estimation, it provides a methodology on how to dimension and select three-phase cables that are supposed to feed single-phase final circuits containing distorting loads.
Cables that are exposed to fire while being expected to retain their functionality and provide power to essential equipment at another location must be appropriately selected and sized to take account of the increased electrical resistance at elevated temperature. Manufacturers offer cables and accessories that will survive a standard cellulose fire for 30, 60 or 90 minutes when correctly specified and installed.
Cables, including fire safety cables, are specified in terms that reflect their normal duty conditions; design parameters under fire conditions are rarely, if ever, specified. The objective of this paper is to provide a clear methodology for designing fire safety circuits based on the derivation and application of correction factors and standard cable parameters.
Cables that are exposed to fire while being expected to retain their functionality and provide power to essential equipment at another location must be appropriately selected and sized. This is not only a question of an appropriate insulation. Designers must take account of the increased electrical resistance at elevated temperature.
Manufacturers offer cables and accessories that will survive a standard cellulose fire for 30, 60 or 90 minutes when correctly specified and installed.
A first step to specifying a suitable fire safety cable is a good knowledge of the temperature rise characteristic in areas affected by the fire.
A second step is the correct selection and erection of the cable. This includes the correct sizing of the conductor. Cables, including fire safety cables, are specified in terms that reflect their normal duty conditions; design parameters under fire conditions are rarely, if ever, specified. The designer must take into account the consequent effects of the increased resistance on current carrying capacity, voltage drop, and short circuit capacity of the conductors. Special care should go to the current carrying capacity of the conductor if it is to supply electrically driven fire pumps drawing high starting currents. The circuit protection should also be adapted to fire conditions, as it must be designed to function with significant higher loop impedance than normal.
This paper provides a clear methodology for designing fire safety circuits based on the derivation and application of correction factors and standard cable parameters.
Having selected the appropriate cable, it must be installed properly, using suitable accessories and following the manufacturer’s restrictions.
Fire-Resistant Cable Sizing of conductors supplying electrical equipment that...fernando nuño
The integrity and functionality of the electricity supply cables is vital for keeping safety services operational during a building fire. Choosing a cable that is tested and classified as fire resistant is a first step when designing an electrical circuit to supply equipment that must remain functional during a fire. The next step – equally important – is to calculate the appropriate cable conductor cross section. This requires particular attention because of the fact that electrical resistance increases sharply as temperature rises.
To calculate the electrical resistance under fire conditions, the fire temperature must be known. First, it must be determined for how long the safety services must remain operational. The standard durations of fire resistance classes are 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes. When this time span is known, the fire temperature can be derived from the standard temperature-time curve as defined in ISO 834. The electrical resistance under fire conditions can then be obtained by applying the Wiedemann-Franz law. This will establish an electrical resistance correction factor which facilitates the calculation of the voltage drop under fire conditions.
The voltage drop over the entire length of the supply cables must be restricted to ensure that fire safety equipment will maintain functionality for the required length of time. Usually, the maximum voltage drop will be specified in the equipment’s user guide. If this is not the case, one must consider a maximum voltage drop of 10%. Because buildings are often compartmentalised into fire zones, cables feeding fire protection equipment are rarely exposed to fire temperatures over their entire length. The part of the cable not affected by the fire will operate at normal temperature, while the part exposed to the fire will have increased resistance. The total resistance over the whole length of the cable is calculated by applying the electrical resistance correction factor only to that part of the cable affected. From the maximum voltage drop of the fire safety equipment, the electrical resistance correction factor and the compartmentalisation of the cable route, the maximum electrical resistance the cable is allowed to have at normal temperature (20°C) can be calculated. The minimum conductor cross section can then be derived from this using Tables 1 to 4 of the international standard EN/IEC 60228, or their equivalent in national standards.
The electrical insulation of fire-resistant cables is designed to withstand extreme temperatures, a fact which could lead to the false assumption that there is no limit to the current-carrying capacity of these cables. In reality, fire-resistant cables are not tested for the potential additional heat produced as a result of the increased electrical resistance at high temperature.
Fire Resistance of Materials & Structures - Assessment of Structural in a Fur...Arshia Mousavi
Assessment of structural fire damage in a furniture shop
This document summarises the data collected during the inspection of a 3-storey reinforced concrete building surviving a fire. The candidate is expected to:
1. Define a model for the fire scenario in the area around the central columns from 4 to 8 at first floor, considering the range of possible variation of some variables (fire load, RHR, collapse temperature of windows, etc.). Consider that a) fire load and ventilation are the most sensitive parameters governing fire intensity and duration and b) the ventilation factor is well known, based on the compartment and windows geometry c) the model strategy (external flaming vs external fire duration) is relevant just when the ventilation is noticeably limited (this is actually not the case) and d) the cooling rate in the decay stage (Eurocode vs. Buchanan) has significant effect on the depth of penetration of thermally induced damage (especially for temperature less than 500°C).
2. By changing the relevant input parameters within a reasonable range, produce a series of time- temperature curves for the enclosure containing the indicated columns.
3. Produce a series of maximum temperature contour plots for the cross section of the indicated square column.
4. Check the consistency of the plots with the NDT results and choose the most likely max temperature map.
5. Determine the average residual M-N domain for the indicated columns, according to the 500°C critical isotherm method.
Please consider that this exercise tackles a real problem and is based on real data collected during onsite inspection. Hence some lack of accuracy or inconsistency of data should be also expected and taken into account. There is no "right answer" but the robustness of approach and careful critical discussion of the available data are the best basis for drawing reliable conclusions.
The fire prevention powder Impulse Storm, specially designed for use in these cases, is an unique powder with bulk weight of 0,2 g/cm³. The powder is not a chemical synthesis product – it consists of very stable natural components which do not chemically react with any other substance. As a result, the powder sprayed by the Impulse Storm technology into the tunnel will play an important role as a fire agent, even after the extinguishing is made. The powder can be stored in a shaft for unlimited number of years without losing its fire prevention properties and causing no harm to cables or environment. This powder does not cohere or turn into a solid mass, and it can be removed anytime, even in 10 or 20 years. It is recommended that the powder is left in the tunnel, serving as neutral filler, and in case of an eventual ignition, it will play an important role in preventing fire development.
In summary, it is possible to fill narrow cable tunnels with the Impulse Storm powder immediately after its construction. The easiness, big volume, low mass, and low cost of the powder allow such application.
MIE (without inductance) simulates a purely capacitive electrostatic discharge such as from isolated conductors in an industrial situation. MIE (with inductance) simulates longer duration discharges as the introduction of the inductor into the circuit, delays the spark discharge to earth, hence this corresponds to MECHANICAL SPARK SENSITIVITY.
This Application Note describes the technology and applications of infrared heating. The basic principles behind the technology and its important characteristics, such as the effect of emissivity and shape coefficient on the rate of transfer of thermal energy, are described.
Infrared heating is characterized by high energy densities, rapid heating, and relative ease of installation. All these advantages offer the possibility of higher production speeds, more compact installations, and lower investment costs. Thus, in many industrial production processes, infrared heating offers advantages with respect to conventional heating techniques such as convection or hot air ovens.
The performance based approach involves the assessment of three basic components comprising the likely fire behaviour, heat transfer to the structure and the structural response. The overall complexity of the design depends on the assumptions and methods adopted to predict each of the three design components.
A new generation of instruments and tools to monitor buildings performanceLeonardo ENERGY
What is the added value of monitoring the flexibility, comfort, and well-being of a building? How can occupants be better informed about the performance of their building? And how to optimize a building's maintenance?
The slides were presented during a webinar and roundtable with a focus on a new generation of instruments and tools to monitor buildings' performance, and their link with the Smart Readiness Indicator (SRI) for buildings as introduced in the EU's Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD).
Link to the recordings: https://youtu.be/ZCFhmldvRA0
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When designing energy and climate policies, EU Member States have to apply the Energy Efficiency First Principle: priority should be given to measures reducing energy consumption before other decarbonization interventions are adopted. This webinar summarizes elements of the energy and climate policy of Cyprus illustrating how national authorities have addressed this principle so far, and outline challenges towards its much more rigorous implementation that is required in the coming years.
Auctions for energy efficiency and the experience of renewablesLeonardo ENERGY
Auctions are an emerging market-based policy instrument to promote energy efficiency that has started to gain traction in the EU and worldwide. This presentation provides an overview and comparison of several energy efficiency auctions and derives conclusions on the effects of design elements based on auction theory and on experiences of renewable energy auctions. We include examples from energy efficiency auctions in Brazil, Canada, Germany, Portugal, Switzerland, Taiwan, UK, and US.
A recording of this presentation can be viewed at:
https://youtu.be/aC0h4cXI9Ug
Energy efficiency first – retrofitting the building stock finalLeonardo ENERGY
Retrofitting the building stock is a challenging undertaking in many respects - including costs. Can it nevertheless qualify as a measure under the Energy Efficiency First principle? Which methods can be applied for the assessment and what are the results in terms of the cost-effectiveness of retrofitting the entire residential building stock? How do the results differ for minimization of energy use, CO2 emissions and costs? And which policy conclusions can be drawn?
This presentation was used during the 18th webinar in the Odyssee-Mure on Energy Efficiency Academy on February 3, 2022.
A link to the recording: https://youtu.be/4pw_9hpA_64
How auction design affects the financing of renewable energy projects Leonardo ENERGY
Recording available at https://youtu.be/lPT1o735kOk
Renewable energy auctions might affect the financing of renewable energy (RE) projects. This webinar presents the results of the AURES II project exploring this topic. It discusses how auction designs ranging from bid bonds to penalties and remuneration schemes impact financing and discusses creating a low-risk auction support framework.
This presentation discusses the contribution of Energy Efficiency Funds to the financing of energy efficiency in Europe. The analysis is based on the MURE database on energy efficiency policies. As an example, the German Energy Efficiency Fund is described in more detail.
This is the 17th webinar in the Odyssee-Mure on Energy Efficiency Academy.
Recordings are available on: https://youtu.be/KIewOQCgQWQ
(see updated version of this presentation:
https://www.slideshare.net/sustenergy/energy-efficiency-funds-in-europe-updated)
The Energy Efficiency First Principle is a key pillar of the European Green Deal. A prerequisite for its widespread application is to secure financing for energy efficiency investments.
This presentation discusses the contribution of Energy Efficiency Funds to the financing of energy efficiency in Europe. The analysis is based on the MURE database on energy efficiency policies. As an example, the German Energy Efficiency Fund is described in more detail.
This is the 17th webinar in the Odyssee-Mure on Energy Efficiency Academy.
Recordings are available on: https://youtu.be/KIewOQCgQWQ
Five actions fit for 55: streamlining energy savings calculationsLeonardo ENERGY
During the first year of the H2020 project streamSAVE, multiple activities were organized to support countries in developing savings estimations under Art.3 and Art.7 of the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED).
A fascinating output of the project so far is the “Guidance on Standardized saving methodologies (energy, CO2 and costs)” for a first round of five so-called Priority Actions. This Guidance will assist EU member states in more accurately calculating savings for a set of new energy efficiency actions.
This webinar presents this Guidance and other project findings to the broader community, including industry and markets.
AGENDA
14:00 Introduction to streamSAVE
(Nele Renders, Project Coordinator)
14:10 Views from the EU Commission and the link with Fit-for-55 (Anne-Katherina Weidenbach, DG ENER)
14:20 The streamSAVE guidance and its platform illustrated (Elisabeth Böck, AEA)
14:55 A view from industry: What is the added value of streamSAVE (standardized) methods in frame of the EED (Conor Molloy, AEMS ECOfleet)
14:55 Country experiences: the added value of standardized methods (Elena Allegrini, ENEA, Italy)
The recordings of the webinar can be found on https://youtu.be/eUht10cUK1o
This webinar analyses energy efficiency trends in the EU for the period 2014-2019 and the impact of COVID-19 in 2020 (based on estimates from Enerdata).
The speakers present the overall trend in total energy supply and in final energy consumption, as well as details by sector, alongside macro-economic data. They will explain the main drivers of the variation in energy consumption since 2014 and determine the impact of energy savings.
Speakers:
Laura Sudries, Senior Energy Efficiency Analyst, Enerdata
Bruno Lapillonne, Scientific Director, Enerdata
The recordings of the presentation (webinar) can be viewed at:
https://youtu.be/8RuK5MroTxk
Energy and mobility poverty: Will the Social Climate Fund be enough to delive...Leonardo ENERGY
Prior to the current soaring energy prices across Europe, the European Commission proposed, as part of the FitFor55 climate and energy package, the EU Social Climate Fund to mitigate the expected social impact of extending the EU ETS to transport and heating.
The report presented in this webinar provides an update of the European Energy Poverty Index, published for the first time in 2019, which shows the combined effect of energy and mobility poverty across Member States. Beyond the regular update of the index, the report provides analysis of the existing EU policy framework related to energy and transport poverty. France is used as a case study given the “yellow vest” movement, which was triggered by the proposed carbon tax on fuels.
Watch the recordings of the webinar:
https://youtu.be/i1Jdd3H05t0
Does the EU Emission Trading Scheme ETS Promote Energy Efficiency?Leonardo ENERGY
This policy brief analyzes the main interacting mechanisms between the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) and the EU Emission Trading Scheme (ETS). It presents a detailed top-down approach, based on the ODYSSEE energy indicators, to identify energy savings from the EU ETS.
The main task consists in isolating those factors that contribute to the change in energy consumption of industrial branches covered by the EU ETS, and the energy transformation sector (mainly the electricity sector).
Speaker:
Wolfgang Eichhammer (Head of the Competence Center Energy Policy and Energy Markets @Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI)
The recordings of this webinar can be watched via:
https://youtu.be/TS6PxIvtaKY
Energy efficiency, structural change and energy savings in the manufacturing ...Leonardo ENERGY
The first part of the presentations presents the energy efficiency improvements in the manufacturing sector since 2000, and the role of structural change between the different branches and energy savings. It will compare the improvements in Denmark and other countries with EU average. This part is based on ODYSSEE data.
The second part of the presentation presents the development in Denmark in more detail, and it will compare the energy efficiency improvement, corrected for structural change, with the reported savings from the Energy Efficiency Obligation Scheme.
Recordings of the live webinar are on https://youtu.be/VVAdw_CS51A
Energy Sufficiency Indicators and Policies (Lea Gynther, Motiva)Leonardo ENERGY
This policy brief looks at questions ‘how to measure energy sufficiency’, ‘which policies and measures can be used to address energy sufficiency’ and ‘how they are used in Europe today’.
Energy sufficiency refers to a situation where everyone has access to the energy services they need, whilst the impacts of the energy system do not exceed environmental limits. The level of ambition needed to address energy sufficiency is higher than in the case of energy efficiency.
This is the 13th edition of the Odyssee-Mure on Energy Efficiency Academy, and number 519 in the Leonardo ENERGY series. The recording of the live presentation can be found on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jEAdYbI0wDI&list=PLUFRNkTrB5O_V155aGXfZ4b3R0fvT7sKz
The Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment (SEAD) Initiative Prod...Leonardo ENERGY
The Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment (SEAD) Initiative Product Efficiency Call to Action, by Melanie Slade - IEA and Nicholas Jeffrey - UK BEIS
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
CW RADAR, FMCW RADAR, FMCW ALTIMETER, AND THEIR PARAMETERSveerababupersonal22
It consists of cw radar and fmcw radar ,range measurement,if amplifier and fmcw altimeterThe CW radar operates using continuous wave transmission, while the FMCW radar employs frequency-modulated continuous wave technology. Range measurement is a crucial aspect of radar systems, providing information about the distance to a target. The IF amplifier plays a key role in signal processing, amplifying intermediate frequency signals for further analysis. The FMCW altimeter utilizes frequency-modulated continuous wave technology to accurately measure altitude above a reference point.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a revolutionary concept that connects everyday objects and devices to the internet, enabling them to communicate, collect, and exchange data. Imagine a world where your refrigerator notifies you when you’re running low on groceries, or streetlights adjust their brightness based on traffic patterns – that’s the power of IoT. In essence, IoT transforms ordinary objects into smart, interconnected devices, creating a network of endless possibilities.
Here is a blog on the role of electrical and electronics engineers in IOT. Let's dig in!!!!
For more such content visit: https://nttftrg.com/
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Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Tutorial for 16S rRNA Gene Analysis with QIIME2.pdf
Fire safety cables - Selection and sizing of conductors supplying electrical equipment that must remain functional during a fire
1. APPLICATION NOTE
FIRE SAFETY CABLES
Selection and sizing of conductors supplying electrical equipment that
must remain functional during a fire
J. Wiatr, Z. Hanzelka, S. Fassbinder, D. Chapman
June 2014
ECI Publication No Cu0109
Available from www.leonardo-energy.org
3. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page ii
CONTENTS
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 2
The development of a fire............................................................................................................................... 2
Fire safety cables ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Selection and erection............................................................................................................................................5
Cable construction..................................................................................................................................................6
Conductor Sizing.....................................................................................................................................................8
Current-carrying capacity .....................................................................................................................................10
Circuit protection..................................................................................................................................................11
Voltage drop .........................................................................................................................................................14
Motor starting currents........................................................................................................................................14
Physical installation ..............................................................................................................................................16
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 17
4. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 1
SUMMARY
Cables that are exposed to fire while being expected to retain their functionality and provide power to
essential equipment at another location must be appropriately selected and sized. This is not only a question
of an appropriate insulation. Designers must take account of the increased electrical resistance at elevated
temperature.
Manufacturers offer cables and accessories that will survive a standard cellulose fire for 30, 60 or 90 minutes
when correctly specified and installed.
A first step to specifying a suitable fire safety cable is a good knowledge of the temperature rise characteristic
in areas affected by the fire.
A second step is the correct selection and erection of the cable. This includes the correct sizing of the
conductor. Cables, including fire safety cables, are specified in terms that reflect their normal duty conditions;
design parameters under fire conditions are rarely, if ever, specified. The designer must take into account the
consequent effects of the increased electrical resistance on current carrying capacity, voltage drop, short
circuit capacity and mechanical strength of the conductors. Special care should go to the current carrying
capacity of the conductor if it is to supply electrically driven fire pumps or elevators required for firefighting,
since their motors could draw high starting currents. The circuit protection and related values (e.g. the touch
voltage level) should also be adapted to fire conditions, as it must be designed to function with significant
higher loop impedance than normal.
This paper provides a clear methodology for designing fire safety circuits based on the derivation and
application of correction factors and standard cable parameters.
Having selected the appropriate cable, it must be installed properly, using suitable accessories and following
the manufacturer’s restrictions.
5. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 2
INTRODUCTION
The maintenance of safety services in a building during an emergency is vital if the situation is to be contained
and the lives of occupants and emergency workers preserved. The first objective is to provide, as far as
possible, safe evacuation routes from the affected areas and to ensure that all services required for fighting
the fire are maintained for the required time. Another objective may be to ensure the preservation of services
in areas of the building not directly affected by fire to provide a safe environment for evacuees from affected
areas, pending complete evacuation, or the end of the incident. Finally, the preservation of property is
important.
The time for which safety services are required to operate depends on the use of the building and the number
and type of occupants involved. While it may be feasible to evacuate a dwelling or a small office building in a
short time, larger or higher buildings, or those used by the public will take much longer
1
. The longer that safety
services remain operational, the better the chance of bringing a fire under control and reducing property
damage.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A FIRE
The key to specifying a suitable fire safety cable is a good knowledge of the temperature rise characteristic in
areas affected by the fire. Although the exact process depends on the location and materials involved,
temperature-time curves have been developed to model some typical fires and are defined in standard EN
1363-2:1999:
Standard temperature-time curve
Hydrocarbon curve
External fire exposure curve
Parametric temperature-time curves
Tunnel curves
The best known of these is the standard temperature-time curve illustrating cellulose fires, which is commonly
used in the fire-testing of buildings. The standard temperature-time curve is expressed by the formula:
𝑇 = 345 log(8𝑡 + 1) + 20
where:
T – temperature, in C
t – time, in minutes
Figure 1 shows the temperature rise against time curve of the development of a cellulose-fuelled fire i.e. a fire
fuelled mainly by wood and wood-based materials such as paper.
1
Following an explosion in World Trade Center 1 in 1993, the evacuation took more than 4 hours during which
over 1000 people were injured, many due to smoke inhalation. Fortunately, the fire had been extinguished.
6. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 3
Figure 1 – Time – temperature for standard cellulose fires [1].
About 30 minutes after the initiation of a building fire the temperature reaches about 850°C and continues to
grow after that.
The rate of a building fire development depends on many factors, but most importantly on the fire load
density. The fire load, expressed in mega-joules per square metre (MJ/m
2
), is the average calorific value of
combustible materials per square metre of the building floor area or of a fire zone area within the building.
The building structure, type and function, as well as external factors, also have an effect.
Where other materials are involved, such as hydrocarbon fuels, the growth of the fire may be faster and reach
a higher temperature, as illustrated in Figure 2. In this case additional protection must be provided for the
cable, for example, by using fire resistant ducts as well as fire safety cables.
Figure 2 – Time - temperature characteristic for hydrocarbon fires.
7. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 4
The characteristic of a tunnel fire is shown in Figure 3. This curve was developed by the Rijkswaterstaat
(ministry of transport) in the Netherlands. It is based on the assumption that, in a worst case scenario, a 50 m³
fuel, oil or petrol tanker fire with a fire intensity of 300 MW could occur, lasting up to 120 minutes. The curve
was based on the results of testing carried out in the Netherlands in 1979 and recently confirmed in full-scale
tests in the Runehamar tunnel in Norway.
Figure 3 – Time - temperature for tunnel fires.
These graphs illustrate the models used for testing and assessment of fire protection materials. Real fires are
different in that the temperature profile is far from constant. For example, in the Channel Tunnel fire in 1996,
which burned for seven hours, the general temperature is thought to have reached around 800 °C with hot
spots of up to 1300 °C where hydrocarbons were locally involved.
8. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 5
FIRE SAFETY CABLES
Enhanced fire protection is required wherever there is increased risk due to high levels of occupancy
(especially by people unfamiliar with the environment), by the nature of the activities normally carried out, or
because the potential consequences may be unacceptable in terms of loss of life, loss of historical artefacts,
economic losses, etc. Typical locations include:
Public buildings and spaces – cinemas, theatres, hotels, museums, transport hubs and shopping
centres
Buildings with vulnerable occupants – schools, hospitals and day-care centres
Where evacuation and rescue access may be difficult – mines, tunnels
Hazardous locations – chemical manufacture and storage, bulk powder storage
Sensitive infrastructure – data centres, communications facilities, banks
High-rise buildings, in which fire could spread extremely fast, which could hamper firefighting and
human evacuation
The type of equipment that needs to be available during a fire includes:
Smoke venting systems, including pressurisation and depressurisation fans
Electrically operated fire shutters and smoke curtains
Firefighting elevators
Sprinkler and wet-riser pumps
Equipment for explosion prevention and suppression
Command and communications systems, including audible warning devices and public address
systems
Lighting
Since the normal cables commonly used for electrical installations would be damaged at temperatures much
lower than those experienced in a fire, only cables and wires specifically designed for the purpose should be
used for fire safety duty.
SELECTION AND ERECTION
The important considerations when installing fire safety services are:
1. Fire safety cables are characterised in terms of the minimum time for which they are required to
remain functional in a fire as circuit integrity classes E30, E60 and E90 (DIN VDE 4102 part 12) or fire
resistance classes PH15, PH30, PH60 and PH90 (EN-50200). Remaining ‘functional’ means that the
cable retains sufficient mechanical strength, insulation resistance and current carrying capacity to
maintain circuit integrity and operation of the load. Because of the high conductor temperatures
experienced during a fire, the resistance is much higher than during normal service and this must be
taken into account in the design stage.
2. Fire safety cables should be installed in continuous lengths without joints – it is normally available in
lengths up to 500 m. If joints are essential, they should be carefully located in areas of lower risk and
given adequate additional fire protection.
3. The route should be carefully planned to avoid areas of particularly high fire risk, such as areas used
for fuel or chemical storage and handling, powder handling and paper file storage. Fire safety services
should be kept separate from other cabling. Where cables are installed in vertical ducts or risers, fire
9. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 6
stops must be provided
2
(as is required for all cables) to prevent fire spread in the event that the
enclosure is breached. All cable accessories (mounting clips, etc.) should have a fire rating similar to
that of the cable to avoid the extra mechanical stress that could occur in the event of failure of
restraining clips. Installation restrictions, such as minimum bend radius, should be strictly observed.
Fire safety services must be installed above a sprinkler system to avoid contact with water, which
would rapidly reduce their insulating properties.
4. Where the expected fire temperature (or the required exposure time) is greater than that provided by
fire safely cables, the installation route must be provided with additional fire protection. This may
apply, for example, to hydrocarbon fires or tunnel fires.
5. Power supply circuits of equipment which operation is vital during a fire must consist of copper
conductors or copper core cables. They must have a TN earthing connection and a short-circuit
protection, but do without residual current breakers and overcurrent protection.
CABLE CONSTRUCTION
Three classes of safety cables are available for application under fire conditions, i.e. those with ceramizing
silicone-rubber insulation, those with mica tape wound under a polymer insulation and copper-clad mineral
insulated cables. Generally, safety cables satisfy the following requirements:
Halogen free
Fire retardant according to IEC 60332-3
Low smoke generation according to IEC 61034-1 and -2
No emission of corrosive gases according to IEC 60754-2
Insulation integrity according to IEC60331
Circuit integrity according to DIN 4102 part 12, or other national standards
Fire safety cables are tested by heating them in a furnace with a temperature with a temperature profile
according to, e.g., DIN 4102-Part 12 which follows the standard cellulose fire model. Because of the large
amounts of energy taken up by chemical reactions in the cable insulation and sheathing materials during
heating, the conductor temperature lags considerably behind for the first thirty minutes but then closely
follows the furnace temperature.
Circuit integrity classes are listed in Table 1. The standard defines requirements and test method for fixings,
cable ducts, sheaths, protective conduits and connectors. The test determines the time for which the system
remains functional during a test fire where neither short circuit nor a current interruption occurs in the test
installation.
No. Circuit integrity class Minimum maintenance of functionality time
1 E 30 ≥ 30 minutes
2 E 60 ≥ 60 minutes
3 E 90 ≥ 90 minutes
Table 1 – Circuit integrity class E – according to DIN 4102-12 [3].
2
In 1975, a fire in an office suite on the 11
th
floor of World Trade Centre 1 spread over 6 floors in the risers
housing power and communications cables because they had large floor openings and no fire stops.
Fortunately, the fire did not break out of the riser. The fire burned for three hours, badly damaging part of one
floor by fire (900 m
2
) and six floors by smoke and water. Cost: $2 million.
10. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 7
Typical cable constructions are illustrated in Figure 4, 5 and 6.
Figure 4 – Fire Safety Cable with ceramizing insulation (1: bare copper; 2: ceramizing halogen-free insulation; 3:
inner covering; 4: halogen-free outer sheath).
Figure 5 – Fire Safety Cable with mica insulation (1: bare copper; 2: mica tapes; 3: halogen-free insulation; 4:
inner covering; 5: halogen-free outer sheath).
Figure 6 – Mineral insulated cable.
11. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 8
CONDUCTOR SIZING
The resistance of the conductors in a cable subject to fire will increase by a factor of about 4.5 compared with
that at normal temperature. This must be taken into account when choosing the cable conductor cross section.
More specifically, it must be considered that:
1) The voltage drop at high temperature must be sufficiently low to allow equipment to start and run
effectively
2) The circuit protection scheme must be designed to function with significantly higher loop impedance
than normal
In normal electrical applications, the resistance of a copper conductor can be calculated by the following
formula, which is valid up to about 200 °C:
𝑅 = 𝑅20(1 + 𝛼20∆𝑇)
where:
20R is the conductor resistance at 20 C, in
is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 20 C, per K, namely = 0.0039 for copper
T = Tk –20 is the temperature difference, in K
Tk is the final temperature, in K.
At temperatures higher than 200°C, the relation describing the conductor's resistance becomes non-linear and
is given by the formula:
𝑅 = 𝑅20(1 + 𝛼20∆𝑇 + 𝛽20∆𝑇2
)
where:
20 = 6.0 x 10
-7
K
-2
Alternatively, application of the Wiedemann-Franz law yields:
𝑅 = 𝑅20 (
𝑇
𝑇20
)
1.16
= 𝑅20 (
𝑇
293
)
1.16
where:
R is the resistance at temperature T
R20 is the resistance at 20 C (293 K)
T is the temperature in K. i.e., temperature in C + 273.
Neither approach is particularly accurate, resulting in an increase of the resistance values by a few percent.
However, given the many uncertainties in a real fire situation, this small uncertainty is of little practical
consequence. The important result is that the resistance of a conductor specified at 70 C is increased by a
factor of about 4.5 under PH90 conditions. Equation 4 is used for all calculations in this paper.
12. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 9
Because buildings are often compartmentalised into fire zones to reduce fire spread, cables feeding fire
protection equipment are rarely exposed to fire temperatures over their entire length. The part of the cable
not affected by the fire will operate at the normal temperature appropriate to the loading, while that exposed
to fire has increased resistance. The task of the designer is to assess which areas may be simultaneously
affected by fire in the worst case and assess the proportion of cable length that may be affected. The total
conductor resistance is then calculated by assuming normal resistance for the length unaffected by fire and
applying a multiplication factor to the length that is affected.
𝑅 𝑇 =
((100 − 𝑦) + (𝑥𝑚))𝑅 𝑁
100
Where
RT is the resistance of the conductors, in
RN is the resistance of the conductor under normal conditions, in
y is the percentage of the cable length estimated to be affected by fire
m is the resistance factor appropriate to the fire conditions as Table 2
Correction factors for
parameters specified at 70 °C
Required survival conditions
PH30 PH60 PH90
m 3.84 4.27 4.52
m 1.96 2.07 2.13
Table 2 – Correction factors for cables at required survival conditions
Alternatively,
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑞𝑅 𝑁
Where:
RT is the resistance of the conductors, in
RN is the resistance of the conductor under normal conditions, in
q is the resistance factor appropriate to the fire conditions and the proportion of conductor affected
as given in Table 3.
13. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 10
Proportion of
cable length in
hot zone [%]
Coefficient of resistance increase of cable conductors (q)
Class E30 conditions Class E60 conditions Class E90 conditions
0 1.00 1.00 1.00
10 1.28 1.33 1.35
20 1.57 1.65 1.70
30 1.85 1.98 2.06
40 2.14 2.31 2.41
50 2.42 2.64 2.76
60 2.70 2.96 3.11
70 2.99 3.29 3.46
80 3.27 3.62 3.82
90 3.56 3.94 4.17
100 3.84 4.27 4.52
Table 3 – Coefficients of resistance increase for cable conductors under fire conditions.
The increased resistance must be taken into account in calculating the appropriate size of a conductor to
maintain the voltage drop within required limits and to ensure that the protective circuits can operate
effectively.
Sizing the cable requires a progressive assessment of current-carrying capacity, voltage drop, and short circuit
performance, with the selected size being the largest size that results from these requirements. The next
sections provide a process for selection using commonly quoted 70 C parameters.
CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY
Normally, the current-carrying capacity of a cable is specified as that which will result in a particular conductor
temperature rise under nominal installation conditions. Typically, cable tables give data for a 70 C conductor
temperature, which corresponds to a 40 K rise. Under PH90 conditions the surrounding temperature is 986 C,
which is only about 100 K below the melting point of copper. In order to ensure that the conductor does not
melt – which would be accompanied by a large increase in resistance that would destroy integrity – it is
necessary to limit the power dissipated in the cable. A simple approach is to limit the power dissipated in the
conductor under fire conditions to a value similar to that in normal operation. However, as usual, the current
value to be used is the rating of the protective device, rather than the actual load current.
𝑃𝐻 = 𝐼 𝐻
2
𝑅 𝐻 ≤ 𝑃 𝑁 = 𝐼 𝑁
2
𝑅 𝑁
where:
PH is the power dissipated in a unit length of conductor at the load current under fire conditions, in
Watts
14. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 11
IH is the nominal rating of the protective device, in Amps
RH is the resistance of a unit length of conductor under fire conditions, in
PN is the power dissipated in a unit length of conductor for a conductor temperature of 70 C
IN is the normal rated current of the conductor at 70 C
RN is the resistance of a unit length of conductor at 70 C.
Hence,
𝐼 𝐻
2
≤
𝐼 𝑁
2
𝑅 𝐻
=
𝐼 𝑁
2
𝑚
𝐼 𝐻 ≤
𝐼 𝑁
√ 𝑚
The current carrying capacity, quoted for the cable for normal duty in embedded conduit, must therefore be
m times the current carrying capacity required under fire conditions.
As an example, a cable is required to carry 10 A under PH90 conditions. The protective device is rated at 16 A,
so the cable must have a current carrying capacity, at 70 C conductor temperature, of m times 16 A, this is
16 * 2.12 = 34 A. As a result, a 10 mm
2
conductor might be chosen.
CIRCUIT PROTECTION
The protection of fire safety circuits is similar to that for other circuits – automatic disconnection of supply
within the required maximum time as specified in standard IEC 60364, Part 41 or in local derivatives.
Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCB) should not be used for protection of fire safety circuits because of the
high reliability requirements of the functions served. At the high temperatures involved, leakage currents
between live conductors and from live conductors to earth increase due to ionisation of the insulation leading
to uncontrolled tripping of RCCBs and loss of safety.
Because it is recommended that fire safety cables are installed in single un-jointed lengths, it follows that each
circuit will be separate with a dedicated protective device at the origin. Obviously, it is essential that this
distribution panel is in a secure location where the risk of being affected by fire is minimised as far as possible.
15. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 12
Figure 7 – Characteristic of a typical miniature circuit breaker.
The characteristic curve of a typical circuit breaker is shown in Figure 7. The so-called ‘inverse time’ part of the
characteristic is designed to protect against over-current. It allows for substantial short overloads without
tripping, because the rate at which the cable conductor temperature rises due to the extra heat generated is
relatively slow due to the high specific heat of the copper conductors. As the over-current level increases, the
time to respond reduces rapidly to restrict the rise in temperature and reduce the risk of damage. The
characteristic takes advantage of the inherent short time over-current tolerance of the cable and allows short
duration inrush currents to flow without tripping the breaker.
The instantaneous characteristic is intended to respond very rapidly to fault current. Fast action is needed
because fault currents are high enough to pose a high risk of damage to load circuits.
It must be remembered that the objective of protecting a fire safety cable under fire conditions is very
different from normal circumstances. In normal circumstances, the cable itself must be protected from
damage to preserve its future service life, while under fire conditions, the functionality of the service provided
must be preserved while the cable has no remaining useful life. In any event, the existence of a significant
overload condition under fire conditions will inevitably lead to loss of the circuit and the functionality of the
load due to either cable damage or operation of the breaker. There are some mitigating factors. Firstly, the
circuit is likely to supply fixed equipment, so it is not subject to random changes in the same way as other final
circuits, and it is not likely to be overloaded as long as the circuit and its load equipment remain undamaged.
Secondly, the conductor is already oversized, so it has a considerably higher thermal capacity than normal,
giving some protection against short overloads.
16. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 13
Protection against fault current is very important because a fault may pose a danger to rescue services and
may be the cause of fire spread. Meeting the fault current criterion requires that the loop impedances – both
the line-neutral and line-protective conductor loops – are sufficiently low for the protective device to operate
if a fault should occur at the remote end of the circuit. It must be remembered that the tolerance on the
instantaneous trip current of circuit breakers is rather wide – the actual trip current may be up to twice the
nominal current.
Care should be taken to ensure that the protective device is capable of breaking the prospective short circuit
current at the source. This level is likely to be higher than normally encountered in a final circuit because the
circuit origin is likely to be electrically closer to the point of common coupling to improve resilience.
The unit conductor resistance under fire conditions is:
𝑅ℎ = 𝑟𝑚
where
Rh is the resistance of one metre of conductor under fire conditions, m
r is the resistance of one metre of conductor at 70 °C (from cable tables), m
m is found from Table 2.
The circuit loop resistance is
3
:
𝑅 𝐻 = 𝑟𝑞𝐿 𝑚𝛺
where RH is the loop resistance under fire conditions, in m
r is the resistance of one metre of conductor at 70 °C (from cable tables), in m
q is found from Table 3
L is the length of conductor in the loop, in metres.
Continuing the earlier example, the circuit breaker has a nominal current rating of 16 A and, for a class D
device, a maximum instantaneous breaking current of 640 A. The maximum permissible loop impedance is
therefore 0.36 .
A 10 mm
2
conductor has a resistance of 2.8 m per metre at a conductor temperature of 70 °C and 12.66 m
under fire conditions. Given the maximum permissible loop resistance of 360 m, the maximum length of
10 mm
2
conductor subject to fire would be around 28 metres – or a circuit length of just 14 metres. The
conductor size must be increased until a suitable size is found.
If automatic disconnection cannot be guaranteed in a reliable way, a reduction of the maximum touch voltage
UT to the conventional level UL ≤ 25 V is allowed. In order to guarantee an effective protection against electric
shock in such a case, all accessible conductive parts of the protected equipment must be bonded to the main
earthing bar of the building.
3
We simplified the calculations by taking only the resistive part of the impedance into account; the reactance
is of minor importance here.
17. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 14
The required cross-section SPE of the protective conductor is:
L
pa
PE
U
klI
S
where:
l is the length of the protective conductor that connects the equipment to the main earthing bar [m]
Ia is the current that trips the protection of the feeder circuit of the equipment [A]
is the conductivity of the protective conductor [1/.m]
kp is the ratio of the protective conductor resistance to R20
UL is the conventional touch voltage limit, i.e. 25 V.
VOLTAGE DROP
Because of the importance of voltage stability to the proper working of any electrical or electronic device, the
voltage drop between the incoming supply at the point of common coupling and the terminals of the end-use
equipment should be limited to 5% under normal conditions and 10% under emergency conditions.
If the protection conditions mentioned above have been met, it is almost certain that the voltage drop
requirement has also been met. If the short circuit current under fire and fault conditions would be > 20 times
the load current, then the voltage drop under fire conditions would be less than 5%. In case of doubt, the
voltage drop can be calculated from the circuit loop impedance (see page 12).
However, there are two very important and related considerations:
Some equipment, such as fire pumps, may be brought into use some time after the fire has
developed. Equipment of this type often requires very large starting currents and these must be taken
into account if the equipment is to be available for use when required.
A fire safety circuit may supply a number of co-located items of equipment. In that case it is necessary
to examine the effects of starting a heavy load on the performance of items already running. Some
quite simple devices, such as electromagnetic contactors, are very sensitive to reduced voltage
operation. If the voltage drop is too high, contactors may release and shut off other vital equipment,
adversely affecting the ability to fight the fire, survive in the immediate environment, or make a safe
escape.
MOTOR STARTING CURRENTS
Electrically driven fire pumps present a particular problem because they draw starting currents many times
higher than the running current. The fire safety circuits supplying them must be designed to supply this
starting current under fire conditions.
Squirrel-cage induction motors are normally used in fire pumps drives because of their simple construction
and high reliability. However, their starting currents are normally five to eight times their nominal running
current and the power factor varies with load. Deep-bar or double-cage induction motors have much smaller
starting currents and higher starting torque than normal design squirrel-cage induction motors. In addition,
the power factor of an induction motor is low during low-load starting. Larger motors – above 5.5 kW – are
normally provided with starter systems to reduce the starting current.
18. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 15
The motor torque is proportional to the square of the line voltage so a decrease in the supply voltage of only
10% results in a torque decrease by 19%. An excessive voltage drop at the motor terminals may cause the
motor to stall.
The speed-torque characteristics of a squirrel-cage induction motor, at different supply voltage values are
shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 – Speed-torque characteristic of a squirrel cage motor against supply voltage.
The voltage drop in a squirrel-cage induction motor feeder circuit during motor start should not exceed the
values given in Table 4.
Motor start type
Permissible voltage drop
U [%]
Low-load starting 35
Heavy duty starting, frequent 15
Heavy duty starting, occasional 10
Table 4 – Permissible voltage dropduring motor starting.
The voltage drop in a squirrel-cage induction motor feeder circuit during motor start can be calculated from
the formula:
∆𝑈% =
100 × √3
𝑈 𝑛
× (𝑅 𝑇 × cos 𝜑𝑟 + 𝑋 × sin 𝜑𝑟) × 𝐼𝑟
Where:
RT is the motor feeder circuit resistance under fire conditions, calculated using equation 6 or 7, in
X is the motor feeder circuit reactance, in
Un is nominal voltage, in Volts
IR is the motor starting current, according to manufacturer’s data, in Amps
19. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 16
U% is the permissible percentage voltage drop at which starting can be guaranteed, according to
manufacturer’s data
cosr is the power factor of the motor at start-up, according to manufacturer’s data.
Since the power factor of an induction motor is low during start-up, the reactance of the circuit should be
taken into account when calculating voltage drop.
Because of the high starting current and high circuit resistance, it will be necessary to oversize the circuit
conductors appreciably. Methods of reducing the starting current by wye-delta switching or soft starting
4
should be considered, although oversizing will still be necessary.
PHYSICAL INSTALLATION
Having selected the appropriate cable, it must be installed using suitable accessories with a similar level of fire
resistance. The manufacturer’s restrictions on bending radius must be strictly observed and the mounting
arrangements should be such that the cable will not sag under fire conditions.
The feeder of the safety services’ switchboard must have a 90 minutes fire resistance, it must be water-
resistant or protected against water, and it must be connected upstream from the fire switch to avoid that it
gets disconnected in case the fire switch is opened.
Note: The increase of the conductors' electrical resistance in case of a fire can be neglected if the cables are
laid inside an approved fire resistant cable duct of which the manufacturer can guarantee that the
temperature inside the duct will not surpass 100°C.
4
‘Basics for practical operation Motor starting’, Rockwell Automation,
http://literature.rockwellautomation.com/idc/groups/literature/documents/wp/mot-wp003_-en-p.pdf
20. Publication No Cu0109
Issue Date: June 2014
Page 17
CONCLUSION
Fire safety circuits require a careful design if they are to perform well. The designer must take into account the
increased electrical resistance of the conductors under fire conditions and the consequent effects on current
carrying capacity, voltage drop and short circuit capacity. This paper has discussed how simple multiplication
factors can adapt the standard 70 C parameters for cable sizing and predict performance under fire
conditions.