Final Exam StudiesNo personal pronouns (I, me, you, yourself.docx

Final Exam: Studies:
No personal pronouns (I, me, you, yourself, us, we, ours) = The
Researcher or The Experimenter or The Designer of the Study
Can use “he and she”
1.) Introduction:
a. Grab Attention
b. Thesis: 1-3 questions you want to find the answer to
2.) Methodology (so anyone could follow your directions and
duplicate your study and results) – What did you do, why, and
how?
a. How did you decide on your topic and why?
b. Who did you talk to and why? (primary sources)
c. How did you create your survey or interview or focus group
questions?
d. What questions did you ask?
e. What was involved in testing yourself or someone else? (if
you observe or test something)
f. How did you find your scholarly sources and why did you
decide to add those sources to your study?
3.) Secondary/Scholarly sources
a. What have experts or scholars said about your topic and why
does this matter?
4.) Primary source
a. Class first – your survey results (what did people in the class
tell you for each of your questions –Mixed Methods (turn
people into numbers – give statistics – but also give quotes).
b. Other primary source – interview, observation, experiment on
yourself or others, focus group, another survey
5.) Analysis:
a. Pretend you are a detective/expert and are explaining the
results you got. Why did people say or respond the way they
did?

6.) Conclusion
a. Remind us of your question(s) (thesis)
b. What answer did you find for your questions…or did you?
c. Ending sentence: Further Research is needed
PAF 410 WEEK 2.pdf
PAF 410
Building Leadership Skills
Session 2
Early leadership theories: Traits, skills and behaviors
Agenda
• Intro + recap
• Trait Perspective
• Skill Perspective
• Behavior Perspective
• Break
• Case

Recap
• Leadership is …
• The role of power – influencing others
• Ethics: Conduct and character
• Today: Closer look at the three main perspectives on
leadership
Leadership
Trait Perspective
What is it?
• ”Great Man” theories (early 1900s and onwards)
• Systematic approach to leadership
• Innate qualities or characteristics (traits) that great political,
social or cultural leaders possess
Exercise
• In small groups (the person(s) sitting next to you), make a list
of
5 (or 10) major traits that you believe are important for a strong
leader

• Prepare the list based on your experiences and without
reference
to the book
Northouse 2016: 9
Appearances
• Different characteristics or traits linked to physical
appearances
• Ex. Height
• Other examples … ?
Who seems more competent?
John Antonakis, and Olaf Dalgas Science 2009;323:1183
✔
Important traits
• A number of other important traits are linked to
leadership emergence and effectiveness

• Northouse: 5 major leadership traits (intelligence, self-
confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability)
• Psychology: Big 5 personality factors (neuroticism,
extraversion, openness, conscientiousness, and
agreeableness)
5 major traits
• Traits to possess or cultivate …
• Intelligence: Verbal, perceptual, and reasoning capabilities
(NB!
distinction between fluid and crystallized)
• Self-confidence: Feeling certain about one’s competencies and
skills. Feelings of being efficacious at performing one’s tasks.
• Determination: A desire and drive to get the job done (taking
initiative and being persistent)
5 major traits (cont.)
• Traits to possess or cultivate …
• Integrity: Quality of honesty. Being trustworthy and authentic
as a leaders (cf. credible commitment and transactional
leadership)
• Sociability: Inclination to seek out social relationships with
followers.

Big 5
Northouse 2016: 27
Are Big 5 factors related to leadership?
(Judge et al. 2002)
Extraversion, conscientiousness,
openness are positively related to
emergence
Extraversion, openness,
agreeableness, and
conscientiousness are all
positively related to effectiveness
Neuroticism is negatively related
to both criteria
Judge et al. 2002
Self-assessments
Look at your own score and

compare with the results from
the meta-analysis and your
initial list of important traits.
Q: Do you score high or low on
the factors?
Q: Are there something you
would do to further cultivate
particular traits – why/why not?
Judge et al. 2002
Other Personality Characteristics:
• Internal locus of control
• A lack of strong authoritarianism tendencies
• High EQ!
Disclaimer: An effective leader need not be high (or low) on
each
and every one of these characteristics.
McClelland’s Needs Theory

A profile of motives of more effective leaders:
• high need for socialized power, but not personalized power
• moderate need for personal achievement
• moderate need for extensive, personal affiliation with others,
or
need to be liked by others
https://hbr.org/2003/01/power-is-the-great-motivator
https://hbr.org/2003/01/power-is-the-great-motivator
Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths
• Intuitive
• Some emerge and are
effective as leaders, others
do/are not
• ‘Need’ to see leaders as gifted
• Benchmarks for recruitment
Weaknesses
• Do not delimit list of definitive
traits
• Lists are often subjective

• Less appropriate for
leadership training?
Application
• Personality assessments are commonly used by organizations
to
find the “right” candidate in recruitment processes.
• Idea: Fit between individual personality and the needs of the
organization increases effectiveness
Leadership
Skills Perspectives
Skills
• Definition: The ability to use one’s knowledge and
competencies to
accomplish a set of goals and objectives (Northouse 2016: 44)
• Focus is on various types of skills that can be learned and
developed and that will help leaders become effective in their
organizations
• Katz: Technical, human, and conceptual
• Mumford and colleagues: Skills-based model

Katz: Three-Skill Approach
• Leaders require all three types
of skills but their relevance
depend on the management
level …
• Why are technical skills more
important at the supervisory
level and conceptual ones
more at the top-management
level?
Northouse 2016: 46
Skills
• Technical: Knowledge about specific type of work or activity.
Specialized
competencies (tools and techniques). Hands-on experience
• Human: Knowledge about people and being able to work with
different
people. Self-awareness and insight into followers’ needs.
Creating
relationships with followers characterized by respect and trust
• Conceptual: Ability to create meaning of organizational policy
and issues
to direct followers. Articulating a vision and strategic plan to
make clear
what the organization stands for and where it is going

Capabilities model (Mumford et al.)
Northouse 2016: 48
Competencies
• Problem solving: Ability to think creatively and solve new or
unusual
challenges
• Social judgment: Ability to understand people and social
systems
• Knowledge: Accumulation of information
Attributes
• Intelligence: General cognitive ability – g – and crystallized
cognitive ability
• Motivation: Drive, persistence, and orientation
• Personality: Usual suspects …
Northouse 2016: 56

Strengths
• Emphasis on structure
• Process of leadership around
skills
• Training programs
• Available to everyone
Weaknesses
• Emphasis on structure
• Weak in predictive value (how
does skills lead to effective
leadership?)
• Not clear on the role of traits
even though they are given a
prominent role
Leadership
Behavioral Perspectives
Behaviors
• Focus on leaders’ actions

• Ohio State Studies
• Task behaviors: Facilitate goal accomplishment. E.g., giving
structure to
work context, defining responsibility)
• Relationship behaviors: Help followers feel comfortable with
themselves,
each other, and the workplace. E.g., building respect, trust and
mutual
recognition
• University of Michigan Studies: Product and employee
orientation
(basically the same …)
Conceptualization
• Leader actions have been conceptualized in two ways:
• As opposite ends on a single continuum (Task -------------
Relationship)
• As multiple independent orientations
Blake & Mouton: Leadership Grid
• Again, two types of behaviors …
• Concern for production: How a leader is concerned with
achieving

tasks and results in the organization
• Concern for people: How a leader attends to members who are
tasked with achieving the goals of the organizations
• Combining the two leads to various styles/types of leaders …
Authority-Compliance (9,1)
• Heavy emphasis on task and job requirement
• Results driven
• Low emphasis on the people involved in achieving goals. E.g.,
communicates with followers mainly for the purpose of task
instructions
• Leader may be seen as controlling, demanding, hard-driving,
and
overpowering
Country Club (1,9)
• High concern for interpersonal relationships
• Low emphasis on task accomplishment – stresses the attitudes
and
feelings of followers rather than their task-related effort
• Leader will try to create a positive work environment by being

agreeable, helpful and non-controversial
Impoverished (1,1)
• Minimal effort is done – just enough to sustain organizational
survival
• Low concern for task performance and for interpersonal
relationships
• Uninvolved and withdrawn from followers
• Leaders have little contact with followers and are likely
described as
indifferent, resigned and apathetic
Team (9,9)
• Strong emphasis on both tasks and interpersonal relationship
• Seek to promote a high degree of participation among workers,
attend to their basic needs, and foster a climate of teamwork
• Leaders act determined, make priorities clear through goals
and
responsibilities and foster an open and friendly environment in
which
followers feel safe and respected
Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)

• Intermediate concern for both tasks and interpersonal
relationships
• Seek out compromises and avoids conflict
• Leaders are described as someone who prefers the middle
grounds
and does not like disagreements
A Few Thoughts…
• … but how useful is the leadership grid?
• maybe it needs to be more “situational”, rather than
“universal”
• maybe in general, there needs to be more emphasis on
consideration or supportive behaviors, rather than an emphasis
on
directing tasks
Strengths
• Emphasis on leader actions: What
leaders do inside organizations
should matter for their
effectiveness
• Two (broad) categories of

leadership behaviors
• A heuristic – tool for learning
Weaknesses
• Context matters! – are ”team
leaders” always the most
effective?
• Limited research on the
performance effects of leader
behaviors
Perspectives on leadership
Perspective Trait Skill Behavior
Focus
(who?)
Ability
(innate or malleable?)
Availability
(who can lead?)

Focus Leader Leader Leader
(who?) (NB! Follower perception)
Ability
(innate or malleable?)
Availability
(who can lead?)
Ability Innate Malleable Malleable
(innate or malleable?) (NB!) (NB!)
Availability
(who can lead?)

Ability Innate Malleable Malleable
(innate or malleable?) (NB!) (NB!)
Availability Restricted Everyone Everyone
(who can lead?)
PAF 410 WEEK 3.pdf
PAF 410
Session 3
Visions & Charisma in Leadership
Agenda
• Recap
• Transformational leadership and visions
• Cases: Constructing effective vision statements

Recap
• Three approaches to leadership …
• Traits
• Skills
• Behaviors
Leadership Current Event Discussion
• Dana Perino
• LeBron James
Transformational
Leadership
What is it?
• Break with management as “taking care of the shop”
• “Transforming” vs “transactional” leadership (Burns 1978)
• TFL as an influencing process: Transform individuals
• Core elements: Values, emotions, ethics and long-term
goals

Leadership Continuum
• Transformational Leadership
• Transactional Leadership
• Laissez-Faire Leadership
Transformational Leadership Factors
(Bass)
• Idealized influence (charisma) – attributes and behaviors
(perception by followers)
• Inspirational motivation
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized consideration
Transactional Leadership Factors (Bass)
• Contingent reward
• Management-by-exception
Non-Leadership Factors (Bass)

• Laissez-Faire
Pseudo Transformational Leadership
• Personalized leadership because leaders focus on own
interests rather than those of the collective
• Authenticity: Intentions should be genuine
• In case of transformational leadership leaders should
be concerned with the collective good and transcend
their own interest for the sake of the group
Two key elements
• Vision: A vibrant, idealized “verbal portrait” of what the
organization aspires to one day achieve” (Carton et al.
2014, 1544)
• Content of message (values and long-term goals)
• Charisma: Ability to communicate a clear, visionary, and
inspirational message that captivates and motivates an
audience (Antonakis et al. 2012)
• Communication of message
Visions

• Focal point for transformational leaders: Why?
• Conceptual map of where the organization is going
• Give meaning and clarifies the organization’s identity (cf.
values)
• Provide workers with a sense of identity within the
organization and stimulate task significance and self-
efficacy
Visions in TFL theories
• Bass (1985): Idealized influence and inspirational motivation
(NB! Intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration)
• Bennis and Nanus (1985): Clear vision. “Fit” in organization
and provides a sense of significance in the enterprise
• Jensen et al. (2016): Behaviors that seek to develop, share,
and sustain a vision with the intent to encourage employees to
transcend their own self-interest and achieve organizational
goals
What does an effective vision look like?
• Conceptualization
• Values and long-term goals

Conceptualization
• Abstract/conceptual
• ”Our core value is environmental sustainability”
• Concrete/image-based
• “To one day see a city full of hybrid cars”
Conceptualization – Let’s Try
• Poverty alleviation
• Social justice
• Diffusion of technology
• Education
Values
• Many vs few
• Ex: accountability, customer satisfaction, profitability,
integrity, respect, teamwork, innovation, quality etc.
• Google
• Arizona Community Foundation

What does an effective vision look like?
• Specific combination: Large amount of vision imagery and
a small number of values
• Imagery: More vivid and less subjective to varying
interpretations
• Values: Lower potential for disagreement among employees
Exercise: Reestablishing a vision
• Read case (handout)
• Complete assignment 1 in assigned groups
• Present your vision statement and discuss the other
questions in assignment 1 with your new group. Provide
feedback on the vision statement: E.g., Does the vision
statement reflect Rachel’s idea of the company. Can the
vision statement be modified to be even more effective?
Recap
• Transformational leadership: Develop, share and sustain a
vision with the aim of transforming follower motivation and
values
• Vision: A vibrant, idealized “verbal portrait” of what the
organization aspires to one day achieve” (Carton et al. 2014,
1544)

• Specific combination: Large amounts of vision imagery and
small number of values
Charisma
• Weber (1947): Special characteristic that is reserved for a few
and
results in persons being perceived as leaders
• House (1976): Charismatic leaders display certain behaviors
…
• Antonakis et al. (2010 ->): Charisma can be taught!
Charisma
Antonakis et al. 2012 (HBR):
“… to persuade others, you must use powerful and reasoned
rhetoric, establish personal and moral credibility, and then
arouse
followers’ emotions and passions”.
Is “Charismatic” Leadership a Good or Bad
Thing?
• A term that has often been associated with highly influential
or
leaders perceived to be extraordinary, but:

• It has also been confused with charm, personal appearance,
and the
“Hollywood factor”
• Possibility of a “double-edged sword”
What do you think?
Definition
House (1976)
Northouse 2016: 165
Charismatic Leadership Tactics
• Verbal: metaphors, similes, analogies; stories and
anecdotes; contrasts; rhetorical questions; three-part list;
expression of moral conviction; reflections of the group’s
sentiments; setting high goals; and conveying that goals
can be achieved
• Nonverbal: animated voice; facial expressions; and
gestures.
Example of CLTs

CONTRAST
1
2
3
THREE PART
LIST
MORAL
CONVICTION
AND
SENTIMENT OF
GROUP
Exercise I – TEDx Talk
• Discuss the following questions with the person(s) sitting
next to you:
• What are examples of verbal and nonverbal charismatic
leadership tactics? Why are these tactics powerful? (hint:
use HBR article)
• What tactics did John make use of in his talk? Give
examples of different tactics and how they may have helped
him convey his message to the audience.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SEDvD1IICfE
Exercise II – CLTs in ICCR
1. Return to the case exercise and complete assignment 2
using the information on CLTs that you have acquired in
the lecture and by watching the TEDx talk.
2. Present your opening speech (using verbal and nonverbal
CLTs) to members of your new group. Provide feedback.
E.g., Did the person make use CLTs? If so, were they
effective? Could other CLTs than the ones chosen be
more appropriate? Why/why not?
PAF 410 WEEK 4.pdf
PAF 410
Session 4
Transactions & Servant Leadership
Recap
• Vision and charisma
• What does an effective vision look like?
• What communication tools/tactics can leaders employ to
effectively convey visions and values in organizations?

Transactional
Leadership
An Economic Perspective on Motivation
What is it?
• Management as “taking care of the shop”
• “Transforming” vs “transactional” leadership (Burns 1978)
• Standard economic assumptions about motivation (self-
interest, rationality)
• Focus on aligning followers’ self-interest with organizational
goals
Setting the stage
• Homo economicus: Self-interest and rationality
• Rewards:
• Pecuniary (wages, bonuses, promotion etc.)
• Near-pecuniary (a better office, professional development
etc.)
• Non-pecuniary (recognition, job autonomy etc.)

Identifying the problem
• Principal (e.g., leader) wants agent (e.g., follower) to exert a
task on his or her behalf
• Agent wants compensation for costs, but …
• Asymmetry in information
• Actions impact payoff for principal and agent
The principal’s problem
• Principal-agent theory focuses on …
• How incentives can provide leverage for the informationally
disadvantaged principal to:
• Minimize shirking (suboptimal performance) and agency
loss (losses imposed by inability to perfectly align agent’s
self-interest with the interest of the principal)
Manifestations
• Principal’s problem manifests in three ways:
• Adverse selection (how to get the right candidate for the
job?)

• Moral hazard (how to prevent agent from engaging in risky
behaviors?)
• Verification (how to determine whether the agent delivers
his or her best effort?)
Moral hazard
• Information asymmetry opens up for ‘hidden actions’ …
• Why? All behaviors cannot be monitored; costly
•
Solution
? Invite agent to take on risk …
• Example from insurance: Introducing deductibles to make it
costly for agent to engage in risky behaviors (incentive)
BUT!
• Incentives offer second-best solution!

• Why? Transaction costs and transfer of risk cannot be
effective with asymmetric information
Transactional leadership
• Based on the same logic (‘quid pro quo’) and assumptions.
Applied to organizational management
• Focuses on the exchanges between leaders and followers
• Example: Surpass goals = bonus, promotion etc.
Transactional leadership factors
• Three transactional leadership factors according to Bass:
• Contingent reward
• Active management by exception
• Passive management by exception

Contingent reward
• Focus on the exchange process where effort is traded for
specified rewards
• Pecuniary (e.g., bonus, promotion)
• Non-pecuniary (e.g., recognition)
Management by exception
• Behaviors to correct criticism, provide negative feedback
and negative reinforcement
• Active: Watch followers and correct proactively
• Passive: Intervene after failures or problems have arisen

Transactional
Leadership
Extensions and Limitations
Credible commitment
• The success of transactional leaders hinges on credibly
committing to incentives or rules
• But! The principal’s other problem (moral hazard)
• Principals self-interest (often shortsighted) is the problem.
Incentive to deviate from commitment
Credible commitment - solutions
• How to credibly commit as
a leader?
• Odysseus

• Hire agent with different
preferences (E.g., Curtis
‘Boom Boom’ LeMay)
• Delegation
Multiple principals
• Assumption 4 in PAT: Unified principal
• Yet! Often agents have multiple principal (e.g., team
leadership). What happens if principals have different
preferences?
• Room for strategic behaviors. Neither principals are likely to
have their preferences satisfied
Strategic behaviors I: Distortion
http://dilbert.com/2012-11-28/

Strategic behaviors II: Manipulation
Ultimatum bargaining - Game
• Pair up with the person sitting next to you
• Select one to be principal, the other to be agent
• Task: Principal can divide $10 between principal and agent.
Write down your offer on a piece of paper and hand it to the
agent
• The agent can choose to: Accept or decline (which results in
zero payoff for each player); no counteroffers
Rationality
• Contrary to the ’common knowledge’ assumption experiments
show that principals do not expect agents to behave rationally!

• Usually significant surplus is transferred to the agent and
most agents provide high effort despite potential for moral
hazard
Rationality (cont.)
• Other examples of irrational decision making …
• Heuristics: Routinized (unconscious) decision making rules to
reduce complexity
• A few examples …
Biases
• Anchoring: We give disproportionate weight to the first
information we receive and use it to judge subsequent
impressions (e.g., last years budget)
• Status-Quo: Comfortable: Minimize psychological risk. The

more choices the more people pull the status quo!
• Sunk-Cost: We use irrecoverable investments to justify
choices
Biases
• Confirmation: We tend to favor information that support our
priors
• Framing: How a problem or question is posed help define its
answers. E.g., gains versus losses; people more risk-seeking
when problem is framed as avoiding loss
• Forecasting: We tend to be overconfident about our decisions
Recommendations
• Outcome-based incentives: Incentives tied to the results of the
agent’s actions not the actions themselves

• Efficiency tradeoffs: Transfer of risk necessary implies
compensation
Performance evaluation
• Information about the performance of a program, an
organization, a team or an individual
• BUT: Performance = Effort + error
• Things to consider:
• Risk profile; distortion; job design; manipulation …
Recap
• Delegation raises questions of control and verification
• Principal agent theory provides one lens for thinking about
these
relationships and how incentives can help the informationally

disadvantaged principal
• Designing - and implementing! – incentive systems is a
complex
task that can lead to adverse effects
• It is important to recognize the potential of incentives
(pecuniary
and non-pecuniary!) but also to critically assess the assumptions
we make about individual motivation
PAF 410
Session 4
Servant Leadership
Servant Leadership
What is it?

Servant leadership
• Paradox: Service and influence
• Prescriptive rather than descriptive
• Focuses on a set of characteristics or behaviors (?) of
leaders tied to ‘putting’ followers first (leader-centric)
Definition
“Servant leadership begins with the natural feeling that one
wants to serve, to
serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. .
. . The
difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant—first
to make sure
that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The
best test . . .
is: do those served grow as persons; do they, while being

served, become
healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely
themselves to become a
servant? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in
society; will they
benefit, or, at least, will they not be further deprived?”
(Greenleaf 1970 p. 15)
• Note! Some focus primarily on traits while others see it as
behaviors
Exercise: 10 characteristics
• Northouse (2016) lists 10 characteristics of servant leadership
• Review pages 227–229 and discuss the 10 characteristics
of servant leadership
• Discuss whether we see similarities between one or more of
these characteristics and components of other leadership
theories that we have discussed so far (e.g.,
transformational leadership, charisma, transactional
leadership …)

10 characteristics
1. Listening: Acknowledge viewpoints of the followers. Listen
first.
2. Empathy: “Standing in the shoes” of followers. See the world
from their perspective
3. Healing: Help followers overcome personal problems
4. Awareness: Attention to surrounding environment
5. Persuasion: Communication to convince others to change
10 characteristics (cont.)
6. Conceptualization: Ability to be visionary. Provide clear
sense
of goals and direction

7. Foresight: Ability to predict future based on experience
8. Stewardship: Accepting responsibility to manage
9. Commitment to the growth of people: Treating followers as
unique individuals (e.g., career development)
10.Building community: Establish sense of unity and
relatedness
Traits or states?
• Other characteristics? See Figure 10.1 (p. 230)
• As noted by Northouse some tend view servant leadership
is made up by traits or behaviors
• Based on the 10 characteristics and the additional
characteristics in Figure 10.1 discuss if servant leadership
is a fixed (trait-like) or dynamic (changeable behaviors)
construct

A model of servant leadership
• Liden et al. (2008) has created a model of servant leadership
• Three components …
• Antecedents: Context and culture; leader attributes; follower
receptivity
• Behavior: 7 different behaviors (extensive overlap with 10
characteristics)
• Outcomes: Performance; personal growth; societal impact
Servant leadership behaviors
1. Conceptualization: Ability to be visionary. Provide clear
sense of goals

and direction
2. Emotional healing: Help followers overcome personal
problems
3. Putting followers first: To put others’ needs over personal
needs
4. Helping followers grow and succeed: Treating followers as
unique
individuals (e.g., career development)
5. Behaving ethically: Doing what is right in the right way
6. Empowering: Allowing followers to be independent, involved
in
decision making etc.
7. Creating value for the community: Create link between
organization
and the community
Key points

• Servant leadership differs from many other leadership theories
by emphasizing behaviors that put followers first
• Servant leadership speaks to altruism among leaders. A strong
motivation to help others may therefore be a prerequisite
• It is critical that followers are receptive to servant leadership;
otherwise perception of micromanagement
Strengths
• Emphasis on sharing
control (empowering
leadership)
• Takes context seriously –
followers receptivity
• Sound measure (you will
see it shortly)

Weaknesses
• Multitude of traits and behaviors – what
does a definitive list look like?
• Are we considering traits or behaviors
(implications for leader development)
• Prescriptive overtone: Conflict with
classical ideas of directing, concern for
production etc.
• Conceptualizing not unique to servant
leadership
Midterm Review!
PAF 410 WEEK 5.pdf
PAF 410

Session 5
Dyadic Approaches: Leader-Member Exchange
Theory
Agenda
• Recap
• Midterm Debrief
• Leader-Member Exchange Theory: What is it?
• Guest Speaker - CANCELED
Recap
• Servant leadership differs from many other leadership theories
by emphasizing behaviors that put followers first

• Servant leadership speaks to altruism among leaders. A strong
motivation to help others may therefore be a prerequisite
• It is critical that followers are receptive to servant leadership;
otherwise perception of micromanagement
Leader-Member Exchange
Theory
What is it?
What is it?
• Leadership as a process
• Focuses on the interactions between a leader and individual
followers
• Differs from trait, skills and behavioral perspectives as we
have covered them so far

• Differs from theories focusing on the context and
contingencies of leadership (next time)
Illustration
Dyadic relationship
between leader and
follower is the focal
point for LMX.
Northouse 2016: 138
Two streams
• Descriptive: What does the relationship look like?
• Prescriptive: What kinds of relationships should the leader
build with followers?

Descriptive
• Assumption that
leaders treat all
followers in a collective
way is not realistic
• Differences in the
quality of relationships
may exist
• Work unit viewed as a
series of linkages
Northouse 2016: 139
In-Groups versus Out-Groups
• Leaders form unique
relationships with each
follower

• Some relationships are
of higher quality (the ‘in-
group’ ones)
Northouse 2016: 140
In-Groups versus Out-Groups
In-Group
• Expanded role responsibilities
(extra-role; beyond job
description)
• Based on mutual trust and
respect
• More information, influence,
and attention
Out-Group
• Formal responsibilities as

defined in employment contract
• Formal communication
• Monitoring and incentivizing
How to become in-group member?
• In-group versus out-group status based on …
• How well follower works with the leader and vice versa
• How followers involve themselves in negotiating new role
responsibilities and tasks that go beyond formal job
description
Implications of LMX
• High-quality exchanges (i.e., more in-group relationships)
have
been linked to positive outcomes for …

• Leaders, followers, groups (work units), and organizations
• Examples: Job performance, commitment, retention,
satisfaction and role clarity
Prescriptive
• Emphasizes that leaders should develop high-quality (in-
group)
relationships with all followers rather than a few
• 3 phases of leadership making as it develops over time …
• 1: Stranger phase
• 2: Acquaintance phase
• 3: Mature partnership phase
Northouse 2016: 143

The LMX Dilemma: Out-Group Formation
• Why does out-group membership tend to occur? What causes
it?
• What, if anything, can be done to prevent or remedy out-group
formation?
• Consider the leader, followers, and greater organizational
context (such as
HR policies and procedures)
Followership
• “Lead, Follow, or Get Out of the Way”…
• “Good” leaders do not guarantee good followership
• Why followership is important
• It is required for the implementation of goals and visions

• It is relevant to good LMX in terms of in-group (versus out-
group) formation
• Effective followership does not equate to “brown-nosing” or
being a
“yes man”
Effective Followers
• Assume responsibility for one’s own job security and
development
independent thinkers
• Balance the courage to serve with the courage to challenge
• Avoid obstructionist behavior based on personal motives
• Avoid “upward delegation”
• Support organizational goals and strategies
• Or have the courage to leave
• Dilemma for organizations: Why are many followers either
“passive”,
“conformist”, or “alienated”?

Managing “Upward”
• Working with (rather than against) the leader’s style and goals
• Serving as a resource for the leader
• Avoiding thinking in black-and-white terms about the leader
• Building a relationship
• Asking questions and asking for advice or feedback
• Modeling the behavior that you seek
• How might societal cultural factors come into play?
LMX
Strengths
• Intuitive: Relationships matter:
some are more developed than

others
• Dyadic focus: Leaders and
followers play significant roles
in shaping relationships
Weaknesses
• Privileged groups and access ->
fairness?
• Still not clear how high-quality
exchanges are formed?
• Endogeneity
Case: Social Security Administration
Read case 7.3 (pp. 152-154) and discuss the following questions
with
your group:
1. From a LMX theory point of view, how would you describe

Jim’s
relationships with his employees?
2. Can you identify an in-group and an out-group?
3. Do you think the trust and respect Jim places in some of his
staff
are productive or counterproductive? Why?
4. As suggested in the chapter, leadership making recommends
that the leader builds high-quality relationships with all of the
followers. How would you evaluate Jim’s leadership in regards
to
leadership making?
PAF 410 Week 6.pdf
PAF 410
Session 6
Leadership in Different Contexts

Agenda
• Recap
• Leadership in different contexts
Recap
• Leader-Member Exchange Theory
• Dyadic approach; leader-follower relationship in focus
• Descriptive vs prescriptive
• In-group vs out-group relationships
• Temporal development?

Individual and Organizational Characteristics
What is the idea?
• Contextual factors create opportunities or barriers for …
• Leadership emergence
• Leadership effectiveness
• Ex. 1: Transformational leadership in organizations with large
or small spans of control
• Ex. 2: Transactional leadership in complex organizations like
hospitals versus structured organizations like assembly plants
• Other examples …
Illustration

Leadership
Training
Leadership
Behaviors
Leadership
Effectiveness
Context
(Cultural, Structural (Organization; Job),
Individual (Personality, Gender, Tenure)
Contextual Factors
• Many more than we can possibly cover … but relevant ones
are:

• Individual characteristics (e.g., personality) and attitudes
(e.g.,
values, motivation, and commitment)
• Job design: Beneficiary contact (Grant HBR)
• Organizational characteristics (e.g., stability/change,
structures)
• National characteristics (e.g., culture, economy, political
climate/regulation)
Individual characteristics
• Personality …
• Leadership emergence: Openness to new information;
Extraversion?
• Ex. Charisma and communication: Are some traits more
likely to make the leader succeed in these respects?
• Does follower personality matter? Conscientious people

already operate at high levels of motivation (Grant HBR)
Individual attitudes
• Motivation …
• Drive to engage in specific job behaviors
• Expectancy theory (Vroom 1964):
• Capable of performing task
• Task will lead to result
• Result will be rewarded
Individual attitudes (cont.)
• Commitment…
• ”Whether a person has developed a positive attitude

regarding a goal” (Northouse 2016: 96)
• Can also be wider …
• Positive affect and identification with work group or entire
organization
Individual skills
• Competencies required to master task:
• Technical
• Human
• Conceptual
Situational Leadership
• Basic idea: Leaders should adapt their style according to the
competencies and commitment of the followers

• Two general behavioral patterns that can be combined …
• Directive: Giving direction, setting goals, timelines and roles
etc.
• Supportive: Social and emotional support
Where have we seen this before?
Situational Leadership (cont.)
Directing
(High Directive – Low
Supportive)
Coaching
(High Directive – High

Supportive)
Supporting
(Low Directive – High
Supportive)
Delegating
(Low Directive – Low
Supportive)
Low Competence
High Commitment
Low/Some
Competence
Low Commitment

Moderate/High
Competence
Variable Commitment
High Competence
High Commitment
DevelopedDeveloping
Adaptation of leadership style
Situational Leadership (cont.)
Path-Goal Theory (Contingency Theory)
• Concerned with follower motivation as a means to enhance
goal attainment

• Effect of leadership behaviors (directive, supportive,
participative, and achievement-oriented) is contingent on
follower and work characteristics
• Grant HBR: Relative job design offers one example …
Path–Goal Theory
• Path–goal theory centers on how leaders motivate followers to
accomplish designated goals
• Emphasizes the relationship between
• the leader’s style
• the characteristics of the followers
• the work setting
Path–Goal Theory

Path–Goal Theory
How does Path-Goal Theory Work?
• The leader’s job is to help followers reach their goals by
directing,
guiding, and coaching them along the way
• Leaders must evaluate task and follower characteristics and
adapt
leadership style to these
• The theory suggests which style is most appropriate for
specific
characteristics
Path-Goal Theory

How Customers Can Rally Troops (Grant)
• Point of departure:
• People are motivated by meaningful work
• Leaders can try to highlight importance of work (e.g., through
vision
statements, stories etc.)
• Beneficiaries (end users) serve as tangible proof of
consequences of
employees’ effort
• How to capitalize on that?
Relative job design
• The way we structure job and tasks allow for more or less
beneficiary contact
• Outsourcing inspiration: Connect frontline workers with

beneficiaries
• End users are seen as more credible sources of information
than the leader; help bring visions to life
An example
• University fundraising callers (Grant 2011: 98-99)
• Characteristics: Repetitive work, low autonomy, and rude
customers
• Intervention: Visit and 5-minute impact speech by one
scholarship recipient
• Result: 142 % increase in weekly time spent; 171 % in
money raised!
Relative job design (cont.)
• What is going on?

• Impact: Vivid how their work matters
• Appreciation: Employees come to feel valued by end users
• Empathy: Develop a deeper understanding of users’
problems and needs that in turn fosters a commitment to
help
Organizational characteristics
• Stability vs change of the internal environment of a collective
entity
• Adaptive leadership: How leaders encourage people to deal
with problems and changes in their environment
• Identify challenges; engage in behaviors that encourage a
holding environment in which people can work with the
challenge at hand

National and Cultural Characteristics
Contextual Factors
• Many more than we can possibly cover …
• Economy
• Political climate
• Today: Focus on culture
• Within and between country variation!
How do you define culture?
National characteristics: Culture

• Collection of related ideas
• Definition: Learned beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols, and
traditions that are common to a group of people (Northouse
2016:
428)
• Shared qualities of a group that make them unique
Exercise: Cultural dimensions
• For each of the nine cultural dimensions outlined in the
GLOBE
project (pp. 431–434) discuss the following questions …
1. What characterizes the cultural dimension?
2. How can the cultural dimension create opportunities or
barriers for
one or more of the main leadership strategies we have discussed
(transformational leadership, transactional leadership, servant
leadership, leader-member exchange …)

Be prepared to present your answers
Dimensions of Culture
• Hofstede/GLOBE: 9 Dimensions
• Uncertainty avoidance: Use of rules to make things more
predictable
• Power distance: Whether power should be shared unequally
• Institutional collectivism: Societal collective action
• Gender egalitarianism: Gender roles and equality
Dimensions of Culture
• In-group collectivism: Pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in org
and
families

• Assertiveness: Determined, confrontational and aggressive
• Future orientation: Planning and investing in the future
• Performance orientation: Reward group members for
performance
• Humane orientation: Reward people for being altruistic,
generous, and
caring
Hofstede
• https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/
Clusters
Northouse 2016:

435
How do you feel about
cultural clustering?
Characteristics of clusters
Northouse 2016:
436
Global leadership behaviors
1. Charismatic-value based: Ability to inspire, to motivate, and
to
expect high performance. Visionary
2. Team-oriented: Team building and common purpose.
Collaborative

and integrative
3. Participative: Involving others in making and implementing
decisions
Global leadership behaviors (cont.)
4. Humane-oriented: Emphasis on being supportive, considerate,
and
compassionate. Sensitive to others
5. Autonomous: Independent and individualistic leadership
6. Self-protective: Ensure safety and security of the leader and
the
group. Self-centered and status conscious
Culture and Leadership
• Basic idea: Culture defines framework within which some
leadership

behaviors are more likely to be perceived as legitimate than
others
• E.g., in the US a high performance orientation may pave the
way for
transactional leadership behaviors. You are rewarded based on
your
performance
• Power distance: Participative leadership more likely to
flourish in low
power distance countries like Denmark
Case: A Challenging Workplace
Read case 16.1 (pp. 452-454) and discuss the following
questions with your
group:
1. What similarities and differences can you identify between
North
American and Japanese working style?

2. In what way did this company reflect the characteristics of
other
Confucian Asia countries?
3. Why do you think Samira was not seen as a team player?
4. What universal leadership attributes did Samira exhibit?
5. What other suggestions would you have for Samira in this
situation?
Questions?
PAF 410 - WEEK 1.pdf
PAF 410
Session 1
Introduction

Leadership: What is it and why is it important?
Agenda
• Introductions: Who am I & who are you all?
• Presentation of course (main components and expectations)
• Leadership: What is it and why is it important?
• Break (15 min)
• Power and ethics in leadership
Bio
• Bennett Dwosh. Email: [email protected]
• Faculty Associate, School of Public Affairs
• Assistant Director, Corporate Development – ASU Enterprise
Partners

• Manage the operations of the ASU EdTech Accelerator, an
initiative that
connects early-stage educational technology companies to ASU
pilot
opportunities to validate edtech effectiveness in exchange for
equity
considerations.
• Interests in transformational leadership and the effect of
leaders in
organizational performance across sectors
mailto:[email protected]
Our shared goals
• Increase your knowledge of core leadership concepts and
theories so
that you can explain their assumptions, logics, and objectives.
• Apply leadership concepts and theories to cases and real-world
scenarios so that you can use them to analyze, understand and
offer

solutions to problems faced by leaders.
• Develop your own leadership skills including the abilities to
effectively
diagnose problems, communicate clearly about organizational
goals,
motivate others, manage diversity, and drive organizational
change.
How we get there
• High expectations!
• Instructor:
• Prepared; start and end class on time
• Constructive and timely feedback on assignments
• Highlight key points from assigned materials and supplement
with insights from
latest research
• Stimulate discussion and critical thinking about concepts and

theories (e.g.,
through cases)
• I am here to facilitate the best environment possible for you to
learn! I
am flexible in setting up office hour appointments as YOU
need.
How we get there
• High expectations!
• You:
• Prepared (read and think about the materials!); arrive on time
• Participate actively in class (cases, discussions etc.)
• Seek out information when in doubt: Ask questions, other
class members,
feedback.
• Complete assignments in due time (quizzes and papers)
• Late work and plagiarism will not be accepted!

Assignments
Assignment Weight in Final
Grade
Due Date
Participation 25% Ongoing
One-Time Current Event Lead & Weekly
Current Event Discussions
10% Weekly
Leadership Interview Assignment 20% November 21
Midterm 20% November 13
Final Exam 25% December 5

Scale
Grade Low High
A + 98 100
A 93 97.9
A - 90 92.9
B + 87 89.9
B 83 86.9
B - 80 82.9
C + 77 79.9
C 70 76.9
D 60 69.9
E 0 59.9

The Textbook
Leadership Interview
• Objectives: “Triangulate Leadership”
• Components:
• Identify and connect with a leader
• Develop interview questions for your conversations
• Reflect on the interview and analyze the applicability in
relation to the
ideas and theories discussed throughout the semester
• Additional guidelines will be provided in the coming week
Midterm and Final

• Cumulative exams
• Two parts
• Multiple-choice questions
• Essay questions
• = if you are prepared for class, complete assignments and
reflect
on feedback, you will be well prepared for the exam!
Questions or comments?
Leadership
What is it and why is it important?
Significance

• 30 % of employees are engaged (Chamorro-Premuzic)
• 50 % quit their job because of their manager (Chamorro-
Premuzic)
• Collective action problems; align interest; rules and guidance
• Outcomes versus process (cf. ethics in leadership)
What is it?
Finish sentence and write it down. Present it to the person
sitting next to you and
discuss similarities or dissimilarities in your definitions.
Main perspectives

• Personality/traits: Special innate characteristics or qualities
• Behavior/act: Things that leaders do to affect organizational
outcomes
• Skills: Capabilities that leaders need to be effective
• = complex phenomenon with multiple dimensions
Northouse 2016: 9
Definition
• Northouse: “… a process whereby an individual influences a
group
of individuals to achieve a common goal”. (2016, 6)
• Four elements of leadership
• Process: Interactive; available to everyone

• Influence: How leaders affect followers (cf. ethics in
leadership)
• Group: Context for leadership
• Common goals: Mutual purpose (cf. ethics in leadership)
What is it?
Go back to your definition of leadership. Discuss with the
person sitting
next you in what ways the four components of leadership as …
a process
involves influence
occurs within a group context
attends to common goals

… are represented in your definitions. Discuss whether – and if
so the
ways in which – you would revise your definition to include the
four
components.
Assigned vs emergent leadership
Assigned
• Based on occupation of formal
position in organizational
context
• Department heads
• CEOs
• Team leaders
Emergent
• Origins from the perception of

others
• Emerges over time
• Communication behaviors
(initiating new ideas, seeking
others’ opinions)
• Traits (dominance, intelligence,
confidence)
Leadership
Power and ethics
Power
• Power
• The capacity or potential to influence others
• The ability to affect others’ beliefs, attitudes and actions

• Clear link to ethics
• Good: Get followers to work together to reach shared goals
• Bad: Coercion to benefit special interests
Positional power: Derived from office or rank (cf. assigned
leadership)
Personal power: Derived from being seen as likeable or
knowledgeable (cf.
emergent leadership)
NB! The six bases of power are not mutually exclusive.
Northouse 2016: 11
Power, ethics and leadership
• Influence dimension: Leaders have an impact on the lives of

followers
• Differences in power and control: Create ethical responsibility
for leaders
• Sensitive to followers’ own interests and needs
• Establish and reinforce organizational values (an ethical
climate)
Ethics
• Ethics concern:
• Values and morals an individual or society ascribes as
desirable or
appropriate
• The virtuousness of individuals and their motives
• Ethical theories:
• Conduct and character

Conduct: Consequences
Northouse 2016: 334
Conduct: Consequences
• Ethical egoism: Create greatest good for oneself (regardless of
how
it affects others)
• Utilitarianism: Create greatest good for greatest number
• E.g., distribution of scarce resources to maximize benefits to
the greatest
number of people while hurting the fewest
• Altruism: Show concern for the best interest of others (even
when it
runs contrary to own interests)

Conduct: Duties
This perspective …
• Considers not only the consequences but also whether a given
action itself
is good
• Focuses on leaders’ actions and moral obligations to do the
right thing
(e.g., telling the truth, keeping promises and being fair)
Character
• Focus on who leaders and followers are as people
• Not what to do, but what to be
• Present in disposition but practice makes good values habitual
(e.g., fairness, honesty, integrity, justice, courage, humility)

What should leaders do?
Northouse 2016: 341
Respect others
• Treat others as ends not means to leaders’ personal goals
• Respect other people’s values and decisions (e.g., listen
closely to
followers)
• Allow others to be themselves and understand their needs and
desires
(empathy)
• Value individual differences (tolerance)
Serve others

• Help others pursue their legitimate interests (e.g., mentoring)
• Clarify, nurture and integrate the vision with followers
• Make decisions that are beneficial to followers’ welfare
Show justice
• Be concerned with issues of fairness and justice in decision
making (e.g.,
distribution of benefits; distributive justice)
• Treat followers in equal manners
• Provide clear and reasonable arguments for special
considerations
Manifest honesty
• Be authentic as a leader (credible commitment)

• Tell the truth and do not deceive followers or customers/users
• Acknowledge and reward honest behavior in the organization
Build community
• Concern for common good (not special interests)
• Take into account different purposes of the organization
• Do not coerce followers to ignore their intentions in order to
benefit the
leader’s personal goals
Dark side: Destructive behaviors
• Destructive and toxic sides of leadership: When leaders uses
leadership for
purely personal ends

• Coercion, derailment, unethical or counterproductive
behaviors
• Often coexist with bright sides
• 30-60 % of leaders act destructively (Chamarro-Premuzic)
Case: Wells Fargo
• Read article ‘The Leadership Blind Spots at Wells Fargo’
• Outline the timeline of the scandal and identify unethical
behaviors as
described in the text
• Discuss the following questions with the person(s) sitting next
to you:
• Which power relations are at play in Wells Fargo?
• Which kind of moral reasoning did the top management
express? (hint:
consequences versus duties)

• Did the leadership act ethically in crafting a healthy banking
culture? If yes,
why? If not, what should they have done differently? (hint:
compare timeline
and the actions of the leadership with the virtues emphasized by
the ethical
leadership perspective)
2
Patel
Nimit Patel
Dr. Randall
English 1101
29 November 2017
Left Handed vs Right Handed
Let me guess, you are a right-handed person? Have you
ever thought about how unique being left handed is? In this
society right handed is more dominant than being left handed.
Many people don’t realize how much being left handed can add
value to their lives. They do certain things with left hand but
use their right hand as well. Years ago, being left handed was
considered as ill-omen. Which means if you were born being

left-handed, it was considered a devil’s hand. In colonial day,
being left handed could even get a person accused of witchcraft.
As of today, about 12% of the world population is left handed.
What makes them unique and different then right-handed
people? Are they smarter than right-handed people? Do you
wish you were left handed? What makes them left handed and
you a normal person with right hand? The research will find out
the answer for these questions in this research paper. Through
research on primary and secondary sources, the paper aims at
revealing why left-handed people are few, and what makes them
special to the right handed?
It’s still not proven what makes people left handed but
research indicates that the lefties are the complex collaboration
between genes and environment. Everyone thinks that being left
handed is a good thing because they are smart in everything.
According to the global TCK care and education, “The human
brain has two cerebral hemispheres, the left and the right. The
left hemisphere processes things more in parts and sequentially,
and is the center for language, science, mathematics, and logic.
This left side of the brain is usually dominant, and because the
left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, these
individuals are right-handed” (Global TCK Care & Education).
The right side of the brain is the source of drama, art, music and
feeling. In left handed individuals the right side of the brain is
dominant. More than half lefties use their right hemisphere for

language. However, many left handed people have speech
issues. This is because left handed people’s brain allows them
to process the language in more unique and creative way. This
is the reason why many lefties seem to be smart in math.
To get a better understanding of these theories, the
researcher made a primary research survey with 16 participants,
8 females and 8 males. The participants are students from
English 1101. The survey has 19 questions over whether they
use their left hand or right hand. In addition to that, there is an
interview with the biology professor at the Dalton State.
According to the survey, “2 out of 8 females are left handed and
all males are right handed” (English 1101) it seems like only 2
out of 16 participants are left handed. This is very interesting
because when the researcher asked the participants which arm is
on top when they folded their arm in front of them, the number
increased drastically. As of result 14 participants had their arm
on the top even though they are right handed. So, the research
concluded that even though they are right handed they still use
their left hand for different things.
To understand more about why they use their left hand
and not right even though they are right handed, researcher
interviewed the biology professor at Dalton State to find out
more about this mystery. The professor at the Dalton State
stated that “even though they are right handed they still have
the genes from their parents or their ancestors who were left-

handed, the way to prove this is through the Mendel theory”
(Lucht 1107). This theory involves the passing of discrete units
of inherence, or genes form parent to offspring. As such, the
researcher did an experiment on a parent who were right
handed, but one had genes tied to being left-handed. To
understand this claim more thoroughly he created the chart
shown below.
RR
Rl
Rl
ll
R I
R
I
R= RIGHT HAND GENE
l= LEFT HAND GENE
In order to be a left-handed, both of the parents need to
have a gene for left hand. As shown in the chart, capital “R”
takes over the lower cases “l” which shows that right hand gene
takes over the left hand and that’s how he or she becomes right
hand even though they have left hand gene. However, even
though both of the parents are right handed and have a gene for
left hand, there is still a 25% chance of being left hand.
According to the biology professors, “both of the parents need

the left-hand gene to have an offspring of left hand, even
though they are right handed” (Lucht 1107).
From the research, it is clear that being left hand is very rare
and unique. With the help of a professor at the Dalton state, the
Mendel theory proved that even if both of the parents are right
handed and the ancestors were left-handed, it is still a low
chance of being left handed. According to the survey, there
were few students who were left-handed, but both of their
parents have a dominant trait. If none of the parents have a
left-hand gene then the child will be right hand and so will their
children’s, until someone in the family marries someone who is
left handed. Right hand gene is very common and that’s why it’s
very dominant over the left-hand gene, which makes it harder
for people to get left hand offspring.

Works Cited
“Global TCK Care & Education.” Global TCK Care &
Education - Research on Left-
Handedness. Web.
“Left Handed vs Right Handed Survey.” English 1101 survey.
Dalton State College. 2017.
Lucht Elizabeth. “Left Handed vs Right Handed Survey.”
Biology 1107 interview.
Dalton State College. 2017.
.
Left Handed vs Right Handed
MaleLeft HandedRight HandedWriting-RClaping-RArm on top-
LSpoon-R0.08.08.06.08.08.0FemaleLeft HandedRight

HandedWriting-RClaping-RArm on top-LSpoon-
R2.06.06.05.06.06.0MotherLeft HandedRight HandedWriting-
RClaping-RArm on top-LSpoon-R0.08.0FatherLeft HandedRight
HandedWriting-RClaping-RArm on top-LSpoon-R0.08.0

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