This document summarizes the mechanics of electron-positron pair creation according to the 3-spaces model. It describes two processes: 1) When a photon with energy over 1.022 MeV grazes an atomic nucleus, its half-photons can miss rejoining at the junction and go into an elliptical orbit, drawing energy from the photon's normal space kinetic energy and slowing it down. 2) When the half-photons reach the speed of light in their orbit, they decouple and separate into the electron and positron according to Newton's first law of inertia. Experimental evidence supports a threshold of 1.022 MeV for photon-induced pair creation.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
1) The document discusses the discrepancy between the theoretical Bohr magneton value and the experimentally measured electron magnetic moment.
2) It explains that the Bohr magneton assumes straight-line electron motion, but in reality electrons in hydrogen atoms move in circular orbits, generating stronger magnetic fields due to the Barnett effect.
3) A key point is that circular motion leads to unequal electric and magnetic field energy densities, whereas straight-line motion requires equal densities - this explains the difference between the theoretical and experimental values.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
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1) Maxwell showed that a changing electric field generates a magnetic field, not just electric currents. This led to the concept of displacement current.
2) Maxwell formulated his equations which showed that changing electric and magnetic fields propagate as electromagnetic waves.
3) The speed of electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell's equations matched the measured speed of light, showing that light is an electromagnetic wave. This unified electricity, magnetism, and light.
CHAPTER 5 Wave Properties of Matter and Quantum Mechanics I
5.1 X-Ray Scattering (review and some more material)
5.2 De Broglie Waves
5.3 Electron Scattering / Transmission electron microscopy
5.4 Wave Motion
5.5 Waves or Particles?
5.6 Uncertainty Principle
5.7 Probability, Wave Functions, and the Copenhagen Interpretation
5.8 Particle in a Box
CHAPTER 10 Molecules and Solids
10.1 Molecular Bonding and Spectra
10.2 Stimulated Emission and Lasers
10.3 Structural Properties of Solids
10.4 Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Solids
10.5 Superconductivity
10.6 Applications of Superconductivity
Louis de Broglie, a French physicist, proposed the de Broglie hypothesis in 1923, which states that all matter exhibits both particle-like and wave-like properties. De Broglie derived an equation relating the observed wavelength of matter to its momentum using Einstein's mass-energy relation and Planck's equation. The Davisson-Germer experiment provided evidence supporting de Broglie's hypothesis regarding the wave-particle duality of matter. De Broglie's work established that matter behaves more like particles at higher masses and more like waves at lower masses.
1) Magnets have two poles, a north pole and a south pole. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. Magnetic poles always occur in pairs and cannot be separated.
2) Ferromagnetic materials contain small magnetic regions called domains that act like magnets. In an external magnetic field, the domains align to strongly magnetize the material. Above the Curie temperature, ferromagnets lose their magnetism.
3) Electromagnets use electric currents to generate magnetic fields and act similarly to permanent magnets. They are widely used in applications requiring strong, controllable magnetic fields.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
1) The document discusses the discrepancy between the theoretical Bohr magneton value and the experimentally measured electron magnetic moment.
2) It explains that the Bohr magneton assumes straight-line electron motion, but in reality electrons in hydrogen atoms move in circular orbits, generating stronger magnetic fields due to the Barnett effect.
3) A key point is that circular motion leads to unequal electric and magnetic field energy densities, whereas straight-line motion requires equal densities - this explains the difference between the theoretical and experimental values.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
1) Maxwell showed that a changing electric field generates a magnetic field, not just electric currents. This led to the concept of displacement current.
2) Maxwell formulated his equations which showed that changing electric and magnetic fields propagate as electromagnetic waves.
3) The speed of electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell's equations matched the measured speed of light, showing that light is an electromagnetic wave. This unified electricity, magnetism, and light.
CHAPTER 5 Wave Properties of Matter and Quantum Mechanics I
5.1 X-Ray Scattering (review and some more material)
5.2 De Broglie Waves
5.3 Electron Scattering / Transmission electron microscopy
5.4 Wave Motion
5.5 Waves or Particles?
5.6 Uncertainty Principle
5.7 Probability, Wave Functions, and the Copenhagen Interpretation
5.8 Particle in a Box
CHAPTER 10 Molecules and Solids
10.1 Molecular Bonding and Spectra
10.2 Stimulated Emission and Lasers
10.3 Structural Properties of Solids
10.4 Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Solids
10.5 Superconductivity
10.6 Applications of Superconductivity
Louis de Broglie, a French physicist, proposed the de Broglie hypothesis in 1923, which states that all matter exhibits both particle-like and wave-like properties. De Broglie derived an equation relating the observed wavelength of matter to its momentum using Einstein's mass-energy relation and Planck's equation. The Davisson-Germer experiment provided evidence supporting de Broglie's hypothesis regarding the wave-particle duality of matter. De Broglie's work established that matter behaves more like particles at higher masses and more like waves at lower masses.
1) Magnets have two poles, a north pole and a south pole. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. Magnetic poles always occur in pairs and cannot be separated.
2) Ferromagnetic materials contain small magnetic regions called domains that act like magnets. In an external magnetic field, the domains align to strongly magnetize the material. Above the Curie temperature, ferromagnets lose their magnetism.
3) Electromagnets use electric currents to generate magnetic fields and act similarly to permanent magnets. They are widely used in applications requiring strong, controllable magnetic fields.
This document reviews experimental approaches to analyze spin wave dynamics in ferromagnetic nanoscale structures. It describes recent developments in frequency- and field-swept spectroscopy to determine the resonant response of nanoscale ferromagnets. It also describes time-resolved measurements in the GHz frequency and picosecond time domains to analyze the relaxation of magnetization after microwave excitation. Examples are presented for analyzing and manipulating different mechanisms for the relaxation of magnetization into its ground state.
A dimensionless quantity described as a fundamental physical constant characterizing the coupling strength of the electromagnetic interaction. Introduced by Sommerfeld in 1916 to describe the spacing of splitting of spectral lines in multi-electron atoms, it is formed from four physical constants: electric charge, speed of light in vacuo, Planck's constant and electric permittivity of free space.
The inverse fine structure constant (=137.035999...) represents the spin precession whirl no. of the electron. The electron exhibits a slight precession due to an imbalance of electrostatic and magnetostatic energy levels. Electric charge is a result of this spin precession and represents a loop closure failure (torsion defect) similar to topological charge.
Rest mass results from quantum wave interference due to precession. Hence, electric charge, rest mass and the fine structure constant are interrelated and directly calculable.
This document discusses using a Bose-Einstein condensate for quantum simulation by applying laser fields with arbitrary amplitude and phase control. It describes producing a BEC using evaporative cooling in a magneto-optical trap. Computer-generated holograms can create arbitrary laser fields by imprinting a phase pattern on a spatial light modulator. The document focuses on using a conjugate gradient minimization algorithm to optimize the phase pattern to produce a desired laser intensity profile. Debugging the existing code improved amplitude and phase control by applying Fourier shifts and normalizing terms. Various error metrics were used to quantify the quality of generated patterns compared to targets.
1) Laser cooling uses lasers to cool atoms to very low temperatures, creating clouds of cold atoms. It involves using counter-propagating laser beams slightly detuned from the atomic resonance to create friction and cool atomic motion.
2) In 1985, an optical molasses was first observed, cooling atoms to below 1 mK. However, optical molasses have low density due to the lack of a restoring force. Jean Dalibard then proposed using polarized light and a magnetic field gradient to create a restoring force in a magneto-optical trap (MOT), greatly increasing atom density.
3) Now, researchers have demonstrated an efficient way to generate the laser beam configuration for a MOT or molasses using a
The wave-particle duality and the double slit experimentSatyavan65
From the Udemy online course "The weird World of Quantum Physics - A primer on the conceptual foundations of Quantum Physics": https://www.udemy.com/quantum-physics/?couponCode=SLIDESHCOUPON
Einstein's General Theory of Relativity interpreted in terms of a polarizable quantum vacuum. Electromagnetic wavelength increase corresponds to apparent time dilation while a frequency increase corresponds to an apparent space contraction as a result of a spectral energy density gradient. Matter in motion generates a de Broglie matter wave (contracted moving standing wave). An inverse effect of induced motion of matter by matter wave synthesis is predicted.
Quantum mechanics provides a mathematical description of the wave-particle duality of matter and energy at small atomic and subatomic scales. It differs significantly from classical mechanics, as phenomena such as superconductivity cannot be explained using classical mechanics alone. Key aspects of quantum mechanics include wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and discrete energy levels determined by Planck's constant and frequency.
Nuclear chemistry deals with changes that occur in the nucleus of an atom. It involves the study of radioactivity, nuclear reactions and transformations, and nuclear properties. Some key topics covered include nuclear fusion, fission, radioactive decay, and chain reactions. The liquid drop model describes atomic nuclei as behaving like liquid drops, with nucleons held together by nuclear forces analogous to surface tension. Nuclear stability is influenced by factors such as these nuclear forces, mass defect, and binding energy. Mass defect represents the difference between a nucleus's calculated and observed mass, with the difference corresponding to the energy binding the nucleus. Binding energy refers to the energy released when nucleons come together or required to separate them.
1. Quantum mechanics began with Max Planck's paper in 1900 explaining black body radiation. It extends physics to small dimensions and includes classical laws as special cases.
2. Photoelectric effect shows that light behaves as particles called photons. Einstein's equation explained it using the photon energy.
3. Compton scattering showed that photons can collide with and transfer energy to electrons. The Compton wavelength was derived from this.
1) The document discusses the development of atomic physics models from Dalton's billiard ball model to Thomson's plum pudding model to Rutherford's nuclear model.
2) It then explains Planck's solution to the ultraviolet catastrophe by introducing the idea of quantized energy packets called quanta.
3) Bohr used Planck's idea of quantized energy to explain atomic spectra, proposing that electrons in atoms can only occupy discrete energy levels corresponding to distinct orbital radii. When electrons jump between these levels, photons of specific frequencies are emitted or absorbed.
The document summarizes Rutherford's alpha scattering experiment and its implications. It showed that atoms have small, dense nuclei containing their mass, surrounded by empty space. This contradicted the plum pudding model of atoms as diffuse positive charges. Later, Bohr proposed his model of electrons orbiting in discrete energy levels, explaining atomic spectra. However, it did not fully resolve issues like why electrons don't collapse into the nucleus.
3.1 Discovery of the X Ray and the Electron
3.2 Determination of Electron Charge
3.3 Line Spectra
3.4 Quantization
3.5 Blackbody Radiation
3.6 Photoelectric Effect
3.7 X-Ray Production
3.8 Compton Effect
3.9 Pair Production and Annihilation
Quantum theory describes the behavior of small particles like electrons and photons. It seems counterintuitive because particles can act like waves and exist in multiple states at once until observed. The theory was developed between 1900-1930 and helped establish modern physics. It includes ideas like wave-particle duality, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and quantum fluctuations that allow particles to briefly exist from nothing. While still incomplete, quantum theory is well-supported by evidence and critical to technologies like computers.
This document provides an overview of modern physics concepts covered in a 1EE modern physics course, including special relativity. It discusses how classical physics concepts of space, time, and velocity were found to be inconsistent with experimental results. The document uses examples such as particle lifetime experiments and velocity addition to show how observations cannot be explained unless space and time are treated as relative and velocities are limited to the speed of light. The principles of relativity were developed by Einstein to resolve these inconsistencies and form the foundations of modern physics.
This document provides an overview of geometric optics and the behavior of light. It discusses three key topics:
1. The ray model of light, where light travels in straight lines called rays. Light can travel directly, through media, or after reflecting.
2. The law of reflection, which states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Reflection occurs from smooth surfaces, while rough surfaces scatter light in many directions.
3. Geometric optics, which describes light using geometry and models its interactions with surfaces much larger than its wavelength as rays reflecting and refracting according to specific laws.
Fundamentals of modern physics by imran azizDr.imran aziz
The document discusses several key concepts in modern physics including:
1) Classical relativity and reference frames in Newtonian physics.
2) The Michelson-Morley experiment and failures to detect the luminiferous ether.
3) Einstein's theory of special relativity and concepts like simultaneity, time dilation, and length contraction.
4) Wave-particle duality of light and matter like electrons.
This document discusses the history and principles of quantum mechanics. It describes how early theories of light and matter as particles or waves evolved into the modern understanding of wave-particle duality. Key concepts explained include the photoelectric effect demonstrating light behaving as quantized particles, the de Broglie hypothesis extending wave-particle duality to all matter, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle limiting the precision of simultaneous position and momentum measurements, and consequences like zero-point energy and virtual particles arising from short time fluctuations allowed by the principle.
Classical mechanics vs quantum mechanicsZahid Mehmood
Classical mechanics can explain motion based on Newton's laws of forces and particles. However, experiments at the atomic scale produced results inconsistent with classical theory. Max Planck explained blackbody radiation by quantizing electromagnetic radiation. Later, experiments showed matter also exhibits wave-particle duality, requiring new theories like quantum mechanics.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
call for paper 2012, hard copy of journal, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper,
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
This document reviews experimental approaches to analyze spin wave dynamics in ferromagnetic nanoscale structures. It describes recent developments in frequency- and field-swept spectroscopy to determine the resonant response of nanoscale ferromagnets. It also describes time-resolved measurements in the GHz frequency and picosecond time domains to analyze the relaxation of magnetization after microwave excitation. Examples are presented for analyzing and manipulating different mechanisms for the relaxation of magnetization into its ground state.
A dimensionless quantity described as a fundamental physical constant characterizing the coupling strength of the electromagnetic interaction. Introduced by Sommerfeld in 1916 to describe the spacing of splitting of spectral lines in multi-electron atoms, it is formed from four physical constants: electric charge, speed of light in vacuo, Planck's constant and electric permittivity of free space.
The inverse fine structure constant (=137.035999...) represents the spin precession whirl no. of the electron. The electron exhibits a slight precession due to an imbalance of electrostatic and magnetostatic energy levels. Electric charge is a result of this spin precession and represents a loop closure failure (torsion defect) similar to topological charge.
Rest mass results from quantum wave interference due to precession. Hence, electric charge, rest mass and the fine structure constant are interrelated and directly calculable.
This document discusses using a Bose-Einstein condensate for quantum simulation by applying laser fields with arbitrary amplitude and phase control. It describes producing a BEC using evaporative cooling in a magneto-optical trap. Computer-generated holograms can create arbitrary laser fields by imprinting a phase pattern on a spatial light modulator. The document focuses on using a conjugate gradient minimization algorithm to optimize the phase pattern to produce a desired laser intensity profile. Debugging the existing code improved amplitude and phase control by applying Fourier shifts and normalizing terms. Various error metrics were used to quantify the quality of generated patterns compared to targets.
1) Laser cooling uses lasers to cool atoms to very low temperatures, creating clouds of cold atoms. It involves using counter-propagating laser beams slightly detuned from the atomic resonance to create friction and cool atomic motion.
2) In 1985, an optical molasses was first observed, cooling atoms to below 1 mK. However, optical molasses have low density due to the lack of a restoring force. Jean Dalibard then proposed using polarized light and a magnetic field gradient to create a restoring force in a magneto-optical trap (MOT), greatly increasing atom density.
3) Now, researchers have demonstrated an efficient way to generate the laser beam configuration for a MOT or molasses using a
The wave-particle duality and the double slit experimentSatyavan65
From the Udemy online course "The weird World of Quantum Physics - A primer on the conceptual foundations of Quantum Physics": https://www.udemy.com/quantum-physics/?couponCode=SLIDESHCOUPON
Einstein's General Theory of Relativity interpreted in terms of a polarizable quantum vacuum. Electromagnetic wavelength increase corresponds to apparent time dilation while a frequency increase corresponds to an apparent space contraction as a result of a spectral energy density gradient. Matter in motion generates a de Broglie matter wave (contracted moving standing wave). An inverse effect of induced motion of matter by matter wave synthesis is predicted.
Quantum mechanics provides a mathematical description of the wave-particle duality of matter and energy at small atomic and subatomic scales. It differs significantly from classical mechanics, as phenomena such as superconductivity cannot be explained using classical mechanics alone. Key aspects of quantum mechanics include wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and discrete energy levels determined by Planck's constant and frequency.
Nuclear chemistry deals with changes that occur in the nucleus of an atom. It involves the study of radioactivity, nuclear reactions and transformations, and nuclear properties. Some key topics covered include nuclear fusion, fission, radioactive decay, and chain reactions. The liquid drop model describes atomic nuclei as behaving like liquid drops, with nucleons held together by nuclear forces analogous to surface tension. Nuclear stability is influenced by factors such as these nuclear forces, mass defect, and binding energy. Mass defect represents the difference between a nucleus's calculated and observed mass, with the difference corresponding to the energy binding the nucleus. Binding energy refers to the energy released when nucleons come together or required to separate them.
1. Quantum mechanics began with Max Planck's paper in 1900 explaining black body radiation. It extends physics to small dimensions and includes classical laws as special cases.
2. Photoelectric effect shows that light behaves as particles called photons. Einstein's equation explained it using the photon energy.
3. Compton scattering showed that photons can collide with and transfer energy to electrons. The Compton wavelength was derived from this.
1) The document discusses the development of atomic physics models from Dalton's billiard ball model to Thomson's plum pudding model to Rutherford's nuclear model.
2) It then explains Planck's solution to the ultraviolet catastrophe by introducing the idea of quantized energy packets called quanta.
3) Bohr used Planck's idea of quantized energy to explain atomic spectra, proposing that electrons in atoms can only occupy discrete energy levels corresponding to distinct orbital radii. When electrons jump between these levels, photons of specific frequencies are emitted or absorbed.
The document summarizes Rutherford's alpha scattering experiment and its implications. It showed that atoms have small, dense nuclei containing their mass, surrounded by empty space. This contradicted the plum pudding model of atoms as diffuse positive charges. Later, Bohr proposed his model of electrons orbiting in discrete energy levels, explaining atomic spectra. However, it did not fully resolve issues like why electrons don't collapse into the nucleus.
3.1 Discovery of the X Ray and the Electron
3.2 Determination of Electron Charge
3.3 Line Spectra
3.4 Quantization
3.5 Blackbody Radiation
3.6 Photoelectric Effect
3.7 X-Ray Production
3.8 Compton Effect
3.9 Pair Production and Annihilation
Quantum theory describes the behavior of small particles like electrons and photons. It seems counterintuitive because particles can act like waves and exist in multiple states at once until observed. The theory was developed between 1900-1930 and helped establish modern physics. It includes ideas like wave-particle duality, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and quantum fluctuations that allow particles to briefly exist from nothing. While still incomplete, quantum theory is well-supported by evidence and critical to technologies like computers.
This document provides an overview of modern physics concepts covered in a 1EE modern physics course, including special relativity. It discusses how classical physics concepts of space, time, and velocity were found to be inconsistent with experimental results. The document uses examples such as particle lifetime experiments and velocity addition to show how observations cannot be explained unless space and time are treated as relative and velocities are limited to the speed of light. The principles of relativity were developed by Einstein to resolve these inconsistencies and form the foundations of modern physics.
This document provides an overview of geometric optics and the behavior of light. It discusses three key topics:
1. The ray model of light, where light travels in straight lines called rays. Light can travel directly, through media, or after reflecting.
2. The law of reflection, which states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Reflection occurs from smooth surfaces, while rough surfaces scatter light in many directions.
3. Geometric optics, which describes light using geometry and models its interactions with surfaces much larger than its wavelength as rays reflecting and refracting according to specific laws.
Fundamentals of modern physics by imran azizDr.imran aziz
The document discusses several key concepts in modern physics including:
1) Classical relativity and reference frames in Newtonian physics.
2) The Michelson-Morley experiment and failures to detect the luminiferous ether.
3) Einstein's theory of special relativity and concepts like simultaneity, time dilation, and length contraction.
4) Wave-particle duality of light and matter like electrons.
This document discusses the history and principles of quantum mechanics. It describes how early theories of light and matter as particles or waves evolved into the modern understanding of wave-particle duality. Key concepts explained include the photoelectric effect demonstrating light behaving as quantized particles, the de Broglie hypothesis extending wave-particle duality to all matter, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle limiting the precision of simultaneous position and momentum measurements, and consequences like zero-point energy and virtual particles arising from short time fluctuations allowed by the principle.
Classical mechanics vs quantum mechanicsZahid Mehmood
Classical mechanics can explain motion based on Newton's laws of forces and particles. However, experiments at the atomic scale produced results inconsistent with classical theory. Max Planck explained blackbody radiation by quantizing electromagnetic radiation. Later, experiments showed matter also exhibits wave-particle duality, requiring new theories like quantum mechanics.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
call for paper 2012, hard copy of journal, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper,
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
The document summarizes the hopping mechanism for charge transport in organic materials. It describes how charge transport occurs through hopping between molecules, with the hopping rate determined by Marcus electron transfer theory. It discusses methods to calculate key parameters in the Marcus rate formula, including the transfer integral between molecules and the reorganization energy, using first-principles density functional theory calculations. These parameters and the Marcus rate theory can then be used to simulate charge mobility through random walk models.
Wave particle unity and a physically realist interpretation of lightquantumrealism
Welcome to Quantum Realism, we introduce you to the real world of quantum mechanics and scientific realism. Download eBooks about Quantum Mechanics, Scientific Realism etc.
The symmetry occurs in most of the phenomena explained by physics, for example, a particle has positive or negative charges, and the electric dipoles that have the charge (+q) and (-q) which are at a certain distance (d), north or south magnetic poles and for a magnetic bar or magnetic compass with two poles: North (N) and South (S) poles, spins up or down of the electron at the atom and for the nucleons in the nucleus In this form, the particle should also have mass symmetry. For convenience and due to later explanations, I call this mass symmetry or mass duality as follows: mass and mass cloud. The mass cloud is located in the respective orbitals given by the Schrödinger equation. The orbitals represent the possible locations or places of the particle which are determined probabilistically by the respective Schröndiger equation.
This document analyzes the phenomenon of electrostatic attraction between particles from an energy perspective. It proposes that the potential energy between charges is infinite, and justifies this through several analyses. It uses concepts from magnetism, relativity, and Maxwell's equations to show that the magnetic force originating from electron spin is the source of the electrostatic force between charges. This explains the continuous attraction of particles despite vibration and over time. Previous works only considered the energy needed to separate particles, but not the infinite energy holding them together.
This document discusses mass symmetry in physics. It proposes that all particles have both a mass and a mass cloud of equal value based on observed symmetries in nature. The mass cloud can interact between particles, losing some mass that is converted to electromagnetic energy via Einstein's mass-energy equation. This explains phenomena like the binding of electrons and protons in hydrogen atoms. Calculations based on Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom match results from the Schrodinger equation and spectroscopy experiments. The author argues this provides evidence for the existence of mass symmetry and mass clouds in particles.
1) The document discusses mechanisms for generating seed magnetic fields in plasmas, including the Weibel instability caused by electron temperature anisotropy.
2) The Weibel instability arises when an anisotropic plasma with directional temperature dependence is perturbed by a magnetic field. This draws free energy from the electron temperature anisotropy to produce a growing magnetic field.
3) Other mechanisms discussed include magnetic field generation by non-parallel density and temperature gradients (Biermann battery), counterstreaming charged particle beams (current filamentation instability), and the ponderomotive forces of intense electromagnetic beams.
Movimiento De Una Partícula Cargada En Un Campo Eléctrico Y En Un Campo Magné...Gregory Zuñiga
The document discusses the mathematical modeling of the motion of a charged particle in electric and magnetic fields. It describes three cases: 1) motion in a uniform electric field, where the particle experiences a constant acceleration; 2) motion in a uniform magnetic field, where the particle travels in a circular path with radius determined by the magnetic field strength; and 3) motion in both uniform electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other, where the particle follows a helical path with the forces from the two fields balancing each other out under certain conditions. The modeling of the particle motion incorporates equations for forces, fields, energy, and kinematics.
1. Electrodynamic tethers use the interaction between electric current in a conducting tether and Earth's magnetic field to propel spacecraft. As the tether moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is induced along its length.
2. When current is run through the tether, the Lorentz force from the magnetic field can be used for propulsion. Current can be collected from ionospheric plasma to de-orbit a satellite or an external power source can overcome the induced voltage to boost an orbit.
3. Tethers provide propellantless propulsion and can lower the cost of in-space transportation by reducing the need to launch propellant from Earth. Potential applications include de-orbiting satellites
1. The document provides a supplemental study guide for physics II covering key concepts in electricity and magnetism, including that electric fields are produced by charges and magnetic fields by moving charges.
2. It defines important terms like voltage, capacitors, current, direct and alternating current, and magnetic fields from current carrying wires. Concepts like Coulomb's law, capacitance, and electromagnetic induction are also explained.
3. Examples and formulas are given for forces on charges and wires in magnetic fields, torque on current loops, magnetic flux, inductors, and resonance in RLC circuits to help students visualize and understand topics in electricity and magnetism.
Lattice Energy LLC - Many body collective magnetic mechanism creates ultrahig...Lewis Larsen
“The main reason why the origin of cosmic rays(CRs) is still unknown, one century after their discovery, is that they are charged nuclei isotropized by the turbulent magnetic field in the Galaxy to such a high degree that their observed flux is essentially identical in all directions, with no sources or decisive hot spots identified in any region the sky …” - Etienne Parizot (Univ. of Paris-Diderot), Nuclear Physics B (2014)
In 2008 (arXiv) and 2010 (Pramana), we derived and published approximate, rule-of-thumb formulas for calculating estimated one-shot, mean center-of-mass acceleration energies for charged particles present in plasma-filled magnetic flux tubes (also called “coronal loops”) for two cases: (1) steady-state and (2) explosive destruction of an unstable flux tube (this second case is subset of “magnetic reconnection” processes).
Our simple equations for magnetic flux tubes are robust and scale-independent. They consequently have broad applicability from exploding wires (which in early stages of explosion comprise dense dusty plasmas), lightning, to solar flux tubes and other astrophysical environments that are characterized by vastly higher magnetic fields; these include many other types of stars besides the Sun, neutron stars, magnetars, and regions located near black holes and active galactic nuclei.
Herein we show how plasma-filled magnetic flux tubes likely occur in many different astrophysical systems from relatively small objects (neutron stars and magnetars) to relatively large objects (accretion disks and jet bases of supermassive black holes). When these ordered magnetic structures explode (reconnection, flares), enormous amounts of magnetic energy are converted into kinetic energy of charged particles present inside exploding flux tubes. Using reasonable parametric assumptions, we calculate one-shot, center-of-mass acceleration energies for protons in collapsing protoneutron stars (5.5 x 1018 eV), two cases for BH accretion disks (2.2 x 1017 eV and 0.9 x 1019 eV), and finally for the jet base of a supermassive black hole (2.2 x 1021eV).
What all these numbers suggest, including those for the Sun, is that W-L-S particle acceleration mechanism for magnetic flux tubes can create cosmic ray particles at energies that span the entire cosmic-ray energy spectrum from top to bottom. This argues that commonplace flux tubes may well play a significant role in generating the observed cosmic ray energy spectrum and would be consistent with apparent overall anisotropy of sources at all but the very highest particle energies. That said, we think a number of different acceleration mechanisms likely contribute to entire spectrum, including shock acceleration and perhaps exotic mechanisms such as evaporation of gaseous winds from neutron stars (Widom et al. arXiv:1410.6498v2 -2015).
JOURNEY OF THE UNIVERSE FROM BIRTH TO REBIRTH WITH INSIGHT INTO THE UNIFIED I...SURAJ KUMAR
1) The document proposes a hypothesis for the universe's life cycle from birth to death and rebirth, referring to concepts like the cosmic microwave background radiation and spiral structure of galaxies and particles.
2) It suggests that the initial spontaneous symmetry breaking that triggered the Big Bang was gravity, represented by a spiral particle structure. This led to the formation of the Higgs field and then other fundamental particles.
3) The spiral structures of these elementary particles provide a unified approach for describing their interactions through properties like the orientation and rate of change of the spiral arms. This model aims to incorporate gravity into a unified theory.
This document discusses the discovery of artificial radioactivity by Curie and Joliot in 1934. When boron and aluminum were bombarded with alpha particles, the target nuclei continued emitting radiation even after the alpha source was removed. Through experiments, they determined the radiation consisted of positrons, positively charged particles with mass equal to electrons. Curie and Joliot explained that bombarding the elements created unstable nuclei that spontaneously disintegrated. For boron, this produced radioactive nitrogen that decayed to stable carbon with a half-life of 10.1 minutes by emitting a positron. For aluminum, it produced radioactive phosphorus with a half-life of about 3 minutes that decayed to stable phosphorus. This demonstrated the
Lasers & semiconductors 2008 prelim solutionsJohn Jon
Electrons and holes are urged towards the junction region when the diode is in forward bias. This results in the reduction of the depletion region, thus allowing a current to flow. When a p-d is applied across a p-n junction diode in the forward bias mode, the width of the depletion layer decreases, allowing charge carriers to flow more easily across the junction. In reverse bias mode, the depletion layer width increases, preventing charge flow and making the diode act as an open switch.
Compare and contrast the ideas that led to the Bohr model of the ato.pdfarjuncollection
Compare and contrast the ideas that led to the Bohr model of the atom to the ideas that led to the
quantum mecchanical theory that gave rise to the hydrogen atom wave functions.
Solution
The difficulty with the planetary picture provided before the Bohr model is that it is inconsistent
with a well established fact of classical electrodynamics which says that an accelerated electric
charge must continually radiate energy. If electrons actually followed such a trajectory, all atoms
would act as source of radiation. The radiated energy would come from the kinetic energy of the
orbiting electron; as this energy gets radiated away, As a result the electron would quickly fall
into the nucleus. According to classical physics, no atom based on this model could exist for
more than a brief fraction of a second.
In contrary The Bohr model is a mixture of classical physics and quantum physics. The main
postulated of Bohr\'s orbit are as follows:
1.) The electron in the atom moves in a circular orbit centred on its nucleus. Its motion in the
orbit is governed by the Coulomb electric force between the negatively charged electron and the
positively charged proton.The radius of orbit can be given as [r = nh/(2*pi*m*v), where n is
principal quantum number.Emission spectrum of hydrogen is nicely explained by Bohr model.
However, one serious difficulty with the Bohr model was that it was unable to explain the
spectrum of any atom more complicated than hydrogen.
2.) An electron in a Bohr orbit does not continuously radiate electromagnetic radiation. Its
energy is therefore constant. The orbit is referred to as a stationary orbit.
3.) Electromagnetic radiation isonlyemitted when the electron changes from one orbit to another
of a lower total energy. (The electron is said to undergo atransition.) In such a case, the energy
lost, E, is emitted asonequantum of radiation of frequencyfas given by thePlanck–Einstein
formula:
E = hf
Although the Bohr model hypothesis for the quantization of angular momentum can be justified
in terms of electron wave ideas, the Bohr model remains profoundly unsatisfactory as a wave
model for the atom and also was not able to answer that why it doesn\'t fall into the nucleus. The
main failures of Bohr\'s model are:
- a mixture of classical and quantum ideas (electrons move classically on orbits, but their
possible energy states are quantified)
- postulates that on the allowed orbits electrons do not radiate
(conflict with Maxwell’s theory)
- could not account for the maximal electron numbers on one shell
- could not explain splitting of the spectral lines in magnetic fields
- it is a non-relativistic theory although the speed of the electrons is close to c
In the Quantum Mechanical Model, the electron is treated mathematically as a wave. The
electron has properties of both particles and waves. The advantage of Quantum Mechanical
model over Bohr model is that it was successful to give explaination of the fact that electron does
not fall in.
Electron's gravitational and electrostatic force test.RitikBhardwaj56
This innovative ebook by John A. Macken delves deep into the fascinating world of electron interactions, shedding light on wave-based models and their impact on gravitational and electrostatic forces. Macken's theory 'Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation of the Universe' revolutionizes our understanding of fundamental forces at the quantum level. From explaining key parameters without dimensions to comparing gravitational and electrostatic forces, this ebook offers a thorough exploration of wave-based models in electron interactions.
With a fresh perspective, this ebook is a key player in advancing physics education. It simplifies complex concepts through Macken's theory, providing valuable insights into fundamental forces for students and educators alike. The inclusion of natural units and dimensionless constants makes quantum mechanics more accessible, improving the learning process for students at every level. As a result, this ebook is an essential tool for classrooms, self-study, and research, contributing to the ongoing development of scientific knowledge in the field of physics.
Quantum electrodynamics (QED) describes the interaction between matter and light. It was the first theory to show the relationship between quantum mechanics and special relativity. QED was developed in the 1920s-1970s through the work of scientists like Dirac, Fermi, Feynman, Politzer, Coleman, Gross, and Wilczek. Feynman diagrams provide a visual representation of interactions like photons being emitted or absorbed by electrons. QED explains phenomena like annihilation and pair production and is the basis for other theories like quantum chromodynamics.
Similar to International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD) (20)
A Novel Method for Prevention of Bandwidth Distributed Denial of Service AttacksIJERD Editor
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks became a massive threat to the Internet. Traditional
Architecture of internet is vulnerable to the attacks like DDoS. Attacker primarily acquire his army of Zombies,
then that army will be instructed by the Attacker that when to start an attack and on whom the attack should be
done. In this paper, different techniques which are used to perform DDoS Attacks, Tools that were used to
perform Attacks and Countermeasures in order to detect the attackers and eliminate the Bandwidth Distributed
Denial of Service attacks (B-DDoS) are reviewed. DDoS Attacks were done by using various Flooding
techniques which are used in DDoS attack.
The main purpose of this paper is to design an architecture which can reduce the Bandwidth
Distributed Denial of service Attack and make the victim site or server available for the normal users by
eliminating the zombie machines. Our Primary focus of this paper is to dispute how normal machines are
turning into zombies (Bots), how attack is been initiated, DDoS attack procedure and how an organization can
save their server from being a DDoS victim. In order to present this we implemented a simulated environment
with Cisco switches, Routers, Firewall, some virtual machines and some Attack tools to display a real DDoS
attack. By using Time scheduling, Resource Limiting, System log, Access Control List and some Modular
policy Framework we stopped the attack and identified the Attacker (Bot) machines
Hearing loss is one of the most common human impairments. It is estimated that by year 2015 more
than 700 million people will suffer mild deafness. Most can be helped by hearing aid devices depending on the
severity of their hearing loss. This paper describes the implementation and characterization details of a dual
channel transmitter front end (TFE) for digital hearing aid (DHA) applications that use novel micro
electromechanical- systems (MEMS) audio transducers and ultra-low power-scalable analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs), which enable a very-low form factor, energy-efficient implementation for next-generation
DHA. The contribution of the design is the implementation of the dual channel MEMS microphones and powerscalable
ADC system.
Influence of tensile behaviour of slab on the structural Behaviour of shear c...IJERD Editor
-A composite beam is composed of a steel beam and a slab connected by means of shear connectors
like studs installed on the top flange of the steel beam to form a structure behaving monolithically. This study
analyzes the effects of the tensile behavior of the slab on the structural behavior of the shear connection like slip
stiffness and maximum shear force in composite beams subjected to hogging moment. The results show that the
shear studs located in the crack-concentration zones due to large hogging moments sustain significantly smaller
shear force and slip stiffness than the other zones. Moreover, the reduction of the slip stiffness in the shear
connection appears also to be closely related to the change in the tensile strain of rebar according to the increase
of the load. Further experimental and analytical studies shall be conducted considering variables such as the
reinforcement ratio and the arrangement of shear connectors to achieve efficient design of the shear connection
in composite beams subjected to hogging moment.
Gold prospecting using Remote Sensing ‘A case study of Sudan’IJERD Editor
Gold has been extracted from northeast Africa for more than 5000 years, and this may be the first
place where the metal was extracted. The Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) is an exposure of Precambrian
crystalline rocks on the flanks of the Red Sea. The crystalline rocks are mostly Neoproterozoic in age. ANS
includes the nations of Israel, Jordan. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Yemen, and Somalia.
Arabian Nubian Shield Consists of juvenile continental crest that formed between 900 550 Ma, when intra
oceanic arc welded together along ophiolite decorated arc. Primary Au mineralization probably developed in
association with the growth of intra oceanic arc and evolution of back arc. Multiple episodes of deformation
have obscured the primary metallogenic setting, but at least some of the deposits preserve evidence that they
originate as sea floor massive sulphide deposits.
The Red Sea Hills Region is a vast span of rugged, harsh and inhospitable sector of the Earth with
inimical moon-like terrain, nevertheless since ancient times it is famed to be an abode of gold and was a major
source of wealth for the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt. The Pharaohs old workings have been periodically
rediscovered through time. Recent endeavours by the Geological Research Authority of Sudan led to the
discovery of a score of occurrences with gold and massive sulphide mineralizations. In the nineties of the
previous century the Geological Research Authority of Sudan (GRAS) in cooperation with BRGM utilized
satellite data of Landsat TM using spectral ratio technique to map possible mineralized zones in the Red Sea
Hills of Sudan. The outcome of the study mapped a gossan type gold mineralization. Band ratio technique was
applied to Arbaat area and a signature of alteration zone was detected. The alteration zones are commonly
associated with mineralization. The alteration zones are commonly associated with mineralization. A filed check
confirmed the existence of stock work of gold bearing quartz in the alteration zone. Another type of gold
mineralization that was discovered using remote sensing is the gold associated with metachert in the Atmur
Desert.
Reducing Corrosion Rate by Welding DesignIJERD Editor
This document summarizes a study on reducing corrosion rates in steel through welding design. The researchers tested different welding groove designs (X, V, 1/2X, 1/2V) and preheating temperatures (400°C, 500°C, 600°C) on ferritic malleable iron samples. Testing found that X and V groove designs with 500°C and 600°C preheating had corrosion rates of 0.5-0.69% weight loss after 14 days, compared to 0.57-0.76% for 400°C preheating. Higher preheating reduced residual stresses which decreased corrosion. Residual stresses were 1.7 MPa for optimal X groove and 600°C
Router 1X3 – RTL Design and VerificationIJERD Editor
Routing is the process of moving a packet of data from source to destination and enables messages
to pass from one computer to another and eventually reach the target machine. A router is a networking device
that forwards data packets between computer networks. It is connected to two or more data lines from different
networks (as opposed to a network switch, which connects data lines from one single network). This paper,
mainly emphasizes upon the study of router device, it‟s top level architecture, and how various sub-modules of
router i.e. Register, FIFO, FSM and Synchronizer are synthesized, and simulated and finally connected to its top
module.
Active Power Exchange in Distributed Power-Flow Controller (DPFC) At Third Ha...IJERD Editor
This paper presents a component within the flexible ac-transmission system (FACTS) family, called
distributed power-flow controller (DPFC). The DPFC is derived from the unified power-flow controller (UPFC)
with an eliminated common dc link. The DPFC has the same control capabilities as the UPFC, which comprise
the adjustment of the line impedance, the transmission angle, and the bus voltage. The active power exchange
between the shunt and series converters, which is through the common dc link in the UPFC, is now through the
transmission lines at the third-harmonic frequency. DPFC multiple small-size single-phase converters which
reduces the cost of equipment, no voltage isolation between phases, increases redundancy and there by
reliability increases. The principle and analysis of the DPFC are presented in this paper and the corresponding
simulation results that are carried out on a scaled prototype are also shown.
Mitigation of Voltage Sag/Swell with Fuzzy Control Reduced Rating DVRIJERD Editor
Power quality has been an issue that is becoming increasingly pivotal in industrial electricity
consumers point of view in recent times. Modern industries employ Sensitive power electronic equipments,
control devices and non-linear loads as part of automated processes to increase energy efficiency and
productivity. Voltage disturbances are the most common power quality problem due to this the use of a large
numbers of sophisticated and sensitive electronic equipment in industrial systems is increased. This paper
discusses the design and simulation of dynamic voltage restorer for improvement of power quality and
reduce the harmonics distortion of sensitive loads. Power quality problem is occurring at non-standard
voltage, current and frequency. Electronic devices are very sensitive loads. In power system voltage sag,
swell, flicker and harmonics are some of the problem to the sensitive load. The compensation capability
of a DVR depends primarily on the maximum voltage injection ability and the amount of stored
energy available within the restorer. This device is connected in series with the distribution feeder at
medium voltage. A fuzzy logic control is used to produce the gate pulses for control circuit of DVR and the
circuit is simulated by using MATLAB/SIMULINK software.
Study on the Fused Deposition Modelling In Additive ManufacturingIJERD Editor
Additive manufacturing process, also popularly known as 3-D printing, is a process where a product
is created in a succession of layers. It is based on a novel materials incremental manufacturing philosophy.
Unlike conventional manufacturing processes where material is removed from a given work price to derive the
final shape of a product, 3-D printing develops the product from scratch thus obviating the necessity to cut away
materials. This prevents wastage of raw materials. Commonly used raw materials for the process are ABS
plastic, PLA and nylon. Recently the use of gold, bronze and wood has also been implemented. The complexity
factor of this process is 0% as in any object of any shape and size can be manufactured.
Spyware triggering system by particular string valueIJERD Editor
This computer programme can be used for good and bad purpose in hacking or in any general
purpose. We can say it is next step for hacking techniques such as keylogger and spyware. Once in this system if
user or hacker store particular string as a input after that software continually compare typing activity of user
with that stored string and if it is match then launch spyware programme.
A Blind Steganalysis on JPEG Gray Level Image Based on Statistical Features a...IJERD Editor
This paper presents a blind steganalysis technique to effectively attack the JPEG steganographic
schemes i.e. Jsteg, F5, Outguess and DWT Based. The proposed method exploits the correlations between
block-DCTcoefficients from intra-block and inter-block relation and the statistical moments of characteristic
functions of the test image is selected as features. The features are extracted from the BDCT JPEG 2-array.
Support Vector Machine with cross-validation is implemented for the classification.The proposed scheme gives
improved outcome in attacking.
Secure Image Transmission for Cloud Storage System Using Hybrid SchemeIJERD Editor
- Data over the cloud is transferred or transmitted between servers and users. Privacy of that
data is very important as it belongs to personal information. If data get hacked by the hacker, can be
used to defame a person’s social data. Sometimes delay are held during data transmission. i.e. Mobile
communication, bandwidth is low. Hence compression algorithms are proposed for fast and efficient
transmission, encryption is used for security purposes and blurring is used by providing additional
layers of security. These algorithms are hybridized for having a robust and efficient security and
transmission over cloud storage system.
Application of Buckley-Leverett Equation in Modeling the Radius of Invasion i...IJERD Editor
A thorough review of existing literature indicates that the Buckley-Leverett equation only analyzes
waterflood practices directly without any adjustments on real reservoir scenarios. By doing so, quite a number
of errors are introduced into these analyses. Also, for most waterflood scenarios, a radial investigation is more
appropriate than a simplified linear system. This study investigates the adoption of the Buckley-Leverett
equation to estimate the radius invasion of the displacing fluid during waterflooding. The model is also adopted
for a Microbial flood and a comparative analysis is conducted for both waterflooding and microbial flooding.
Results shown from the analysis doesn’t only records a success in determining the radial distance of the leading
edge of water during the flooding process, but also gives a clearer understanding of the applicability of
microbes to enhance oil production through in-situ production of bio-products like bio surfactans, biogenic
gases, bio acids etc.
Gesture Gaming on the World Wide Web Using an Ordinary Web CameraIJERD Editor
- Gesture gaming is a method by which users having a laptop/pc/x-box play games using natural or
bodily gestures. This paper presents a way of playing free flash games on the internet using an ordinary webcam
with the help of open source technologies. Emphasis in human activity recognition is given on the pose
estimation and the consistency in the pose of the player. These are estimated with the help of an ordinary web
camera having different resolutions from VGA to 20mps. Our work involved giving a 10 second documentary to
the user on how to play a particular game using gestures and what are the various kinds of gestures that can be
performed in front of the system. The initial inputs of the RGB values for the gesture component is obtained by
instructing the user to place his component in a red box in about 10 seconds after the short documentary before
the game is finished. Later the system opens the concerned game on the internet on popular flash game sites like
miniclip, games arcade, GameStop etc and loads the game clicking at various places and brings the state to a
place where the user is to perform only gestures to start playing the game. At any point of time the user can call
off the game by hitting the esc key and the program will release all of the controls and return to the desktop. It
was noted that the results obtained using an ordinary webcam matched that of the Kinect and the users could
relive the gaming experience of the free flash games on the net. Therefore effective in game advertising could
also be achieved thus resulting in a disruptive growth to the advertising firms.
Hardware Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Isolated Circuits And...IJERD Editor
-LLC resonant frequency converter is basically a combo of series as well as parallel resonant ckt. For
LCC resonant converter it is associated with a disadvantage that, though it has two resonant frequencies, the
lower resonant frequency is in ZCS region[5]. For this application, we are not able to design the converter
working at this resonant frequency. LLC resonant converter existed for a very long time but because of
unknown characteristic of this converter it was used as a series resonant converter with basically a passive
(resistive) load. . Here, it was designed to operate in switching frequency higher than resonant frequency of the
series resonant tank of Lr and Cr converter acts very similar to Series Resonant Converter. The benefit of LLC
resonant converter is narrow switching frequency range with light load[6] . Basically, the control ckt plays a
very imp. role and hence 555 Timer used here provides a perfect square wave as the control ckt provides no
slew rate which makes the square wave really strong and impenetrable. The dead band circuit provides the
exclusive dead band in micro seconds so as to avoid the simultaneous firing of two pairs of IGBT’s where one
pair switches off and the other on for a slightest period of time. Hence, the isolator ckt here is associated with
each and every ckt used because it acts as a driver and an isolation to each of the IGBT is provided with one
exclusive transformer supply[3]. The IGBT’s are fired using the appropriate signal using the previous boards
and hence at last a high frequency rectifier ckt with a filtering capacitor is used to get an exact dc
waveform .The basic goal of this particular analysis is to observe the wave forms and characteristics of
converters with differently positioned passive elements in the form of tank circuits.
Simulated Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Different Tank Circu...IJERD Editor
LLC resonant frequency converter is basically a combo of series as well as parallel resonant ckt. For
LCC resonant converter it is associated with a disadvantage that, though it has two resonant frequencies, the
lower resonant frequency is in ZCS region [5]. For this application, we are not able to design the converter
working at this resonant frequency. LLC resonant converter existed for a very long time but because of
unknown characteristic of this converter it was used as a series resonant converter with basically a passive
(resistive) load. . Here, it was designed to operate in switching frequency higher than resonant frequency of the
series resonant tank of Lr and Cr converter acts very similar to Series Resonant Converter. The benefit of LLC
resonant converter is narrow switching frequency range with light load[6] . Basically, the control ckt plays a
very imp. role and hence 555 Timer used here provides a perfect square wave as the control ckt provides no
slew rate which makes the square wave really strong and impenetrable. The dead band circuit provides the
exclusive dead band in micro seconds so as to avoid the simultaneous firing of two pairs of IGBT’s where one
pair switches off and the other on for a slightest period of time. Hence, the isolator ckt here is associated with
each and every ckt used because it acts as a driver and an isolation to each of the IGBT is provided with one
exclusive transformer supply[3]. The IGBT’s are fired using the appropriate signal using the previous boards
and hence at last a high frequency rectifier ckt with a filtering capacitor is used to get an exact dc
waveform .The basic goal of this particular analysis is to observe the wave forms and characteristics of
converters with differently positioned passive elements in the form of tank circuits. The supported simulation
is done through PSIM 6.0 software tool
Amateurs Radio operator, also known as HAM communicates with other HAMs through Radio
waves. Wireless communication in which Moon is used as natural satellite is called Moon-bounce or EME
(Earth -Moon-Earth) technique. Long distance communication (DXing) using Very High Frequency (VHF)
operated amateur HAM radio was difficult. Even with the modest setup having good transceiver, power
amplifier and high gain antenna with high directivity, VHF DXing is possible. Generally 2X11 YAGI antenna
along with rotor to set horizontal and vertical angle is used. Moon tracking software gives exact location,
visibility of Moon at both the stations and other vital data to acquire real time position of moon.
“MS-Extractor: An Innovative Approach to Extract Microsatellites on „Y‟ Chrom...IJERD Editor
Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR), also known as Microsatellites, have been extensively used as
molecular markers due to their abundance and high degree of polymorphism. The nucleotide sequences of
polymorphic forms of the same gene should be 99.9% identical. So, Microsatellites extraction from the Gene is
crucial. However, Microsatellites repeat count is compared, if they differ largely, he has some disorder. The Y
chromosome likely contains 50 to 60 genes that provide instructions for making proteins. Because only males
have the Y chromosome, the genes on this chromosome tend to be involved in male sex determination and
development. Several Microsatellite Extractors exist and they fail to extract microsatellites on large data sets of
giga bytes and tera bytes in size. The proposed tool “MS-Extractor: An Innovative Approach to extract
Microsatellites on „Y‟ Chromosome” can extract both Perfect as well as Imperfect Microsatellites from large
data sets of human genome „Y‟. The proposed system uses string matching with sliding window approach to
locate Microsatellites and extracts them.
Importance of Measurements in Smart GridIJERD Editor
- The need to get reliable supply, independence from fossil fuels, and capability to provide clean
energy at a fixed and lower cost, the existing power grid structure is transforming into Smart Grid. The
development of a smart energy distribution grid is a current goal of many nations. A Smart Grid should have
new capabilities such as self-healing, high reliability, energy management, and real-time pricing. This new era
of smart future grid will lead to major changes in existing technologies at generation, transmission and
distribution levels. The incorporation of renewable energy resources and distribution generators in the existing
grid will increase the complexity, optimization problems and instability of the system. This will lead to a
paradigm shift in the instrumentation and control requirements for Smart Grids for high quality, stable and
reliable electricity supply of power. The monitoring of the grid system state and stability relies on the
availability of reliable measurement of data. In this paper the measurement areas that highlight new
measurement challenges, development of the Smart Meters and the critical parameters of electric energy to be
monitored for improving the reliability of power systems has been discussed.
Study of Macro level Properties of SCC using GGBS and Lime stone powderIJERD Editor
The document summarizes a study on the use of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and limestone powder to replace cement in self-compacting concrete (SCC). Tests were conducted on SCC mixes with 0-50% replacement of cement with GGBS and 0-20% replacement with limestone powder. The results showed that replacing 30% of cement with GGBS and 15% with limestone powder produced SCC with the highest compressive strength of 46MPa, meeting fresh property requirements. The study concluded that this ternary blend of cement, GGBS and limestone powder can improve SCC properties while reducing costs.
Nunit vs XUnit vs MSTest Differences Between These Unit Testing Frameworks.pdfflufftailshop
When it comes to unit testing in the .NET ecosystem, developers have a wide range of options available. Among the most popular choices are NUnit, XUnit, and MSTest. These unit testing frameworks provide essential tools and features to help ensure the quality and reliability of code. However, understanding the differences between these frameworks is crucial for selecting the most suitable one for your projects.
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process MiningLucaBarbaro3
Presentation of the paper "Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process Mining" given during the CAiSE 2024 Conference in Cyprus on June 7, 2024.
Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
- Key themes to consider in developing and maintaining your privacy program
Ocean lotus Threat actors project by John Sitima 2024 (1).pptxSitimaJohn
Ocean Lotus cyber threat actors represent a sophisticated, persistent, and politically motivated group that poses a significant risk to organizations and individuals in the Southeast Asian region. Their continuous evolution and adaptability underscore the need for robust cybersecurity measures and international cooperation to identify and mitigate the threats posed by such advanced persistent threat groups.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Main news related to the CCS TSI 2023 (2023/1695)Jakub Marek
An English 🇬🇧 translation of a presentation to the speech I gave about the main changes brought by CCS TSI 2023 at the biggest Czech conference on Communications and signalling systems on Railways, which was held in Clarion Hotel Olomouc from 7th to 9th November 2023 (konferenceszt.cz). Attended by around 500 participants and 200 on-line followers.
The original Czech 🇨🇿 version of the presentation can be found here: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hlavni-novinky-souvisejici-s-ccs-tsi-2023-2023-1695/269688092 .
The videorecording (in Czech) from the presentation is available here: https://youtu.be/WzjJWm4IyPk?si=SImb06tuXGb30BEH .
Unlock the Future of Search with MongoDB Atlas_ Vector Search Unleashed.pdfMalak Abu Hammad
Discover how MongoDB Atlas and vector search technology can revolutionize your application's search capabilities. This comprehensive presentation covers:
* What is Vector Search?
* Importance and benefits of vector search
* Practical use cases across various industries
* Step-by-step implementation guide
* Live demos with code snippets
* Enhancing LLM capabilities with vector search
* Best practices and optimization strategies
Perfect for developers, AI enthusiasts, and tech leaders. Learn how to leverage MongoDB Atlas to deliver highly relevant, context-aware search results, transforming your data retrieval process. Stay ahead in tech innovation and maximize the potential of your applications.
#MongoDB #VectorSearch #AI #SemanticSearch #TechInnovation #DataScience #LLM #MachineLearning #SearchTechnology
Programming Foundation Models with DSPy - Meetup SlidesZilliz
Prompting language models is hard, while programming language models is easy. In this talk, I will discuss the state-of-the-art framework DSPy for programming foundation models with its powerful optimizers and runtime constraint system.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
Fueling AI with Great Data with Airbyte WebinarZilliz
This talk will focus on how to collect data from a variety of sources, leveraging this data for RAG and other GenAI use cases, and finally charting your course to productionalization.
Generating privacy-protected synthetic data using Secludy and MilvusZilliz
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International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)
1. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development
e-ISSN: 2278-067X, p-ISSN: 2278-800X, www.ijerd.com
Volume 6, Issue 10 (April 2013), PP. 36-49
36
The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the
3-Spaces Model
André Michaud
SRP Inc Service de Recherche Pédagogique Québec Canada
Abstract:- This paper lays out the mechanics of creation in the 3-spaces model of an electron-positron
pair as a photon of energy 1.022 MeV or more is destabilized when grazing a heavy particle such as an
atom's nucleus, thus converting a massless photon into two massive .511 MeV/c2
particles charged in
opposition. An alternate process was also experimentally discovered in 1997, that involves converging
two tightly collimated photon beams toward a single point in space, one of the beams being made up of
photons exceeding the 1.022 MeV threshold. In the latter case, electron/positron pairs were created
without any atom's nuclei being close by. These two observed processes of photon conversion into
electron-positron pairs set the 1.022 MeV photon energy level as the threshold starting at which
massless photons become highly susceptible to become destabilized into converting to pairs of massive
particles.
Keywords:- 3-spaces, electron-positron pair, 1.022 MeV photon, nature of mass, energy conversion to
mass, materialization, sign of charges.
I. EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF ELECTRON-POSITRON PAIR CREATION
In 1933, Blackett and Occhialini proved experimentally that cosmic radiation byproduct photons of
energy 1.022 MeV or more spontaneously convert to electron/positron pairs when grazing atomic nuclei ([3]), a
process that was named "materialization".
Moreover, a team led by Kirk McDonald at the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC), confirmed in
1997 that by converging two sufficiently concentrated photons beams toward a single point in space, one beam
being made up of photons exceeding the 1.022 MeV threshold, electron/positron pairs were created without any
atomic nuclei being close by.
It was also exhaustively demonstrated that positrons and electrons are totally identical, except for the
sign of their charges, both particles having the exact same invariant rest mass of 9.10938188E-31 kg, that is
0.511 MeV/c2
, which is exactly half the energy of the lowest energy photon that can convert to a pair of these
particles.
When a photon being converted possesses more than this 1.022 MeV energy threshold, the energy in
excess directly determines the relative velocities in opposite directions of both particles in space after
materialization ([4], p. 174).
II. THE MECHANICS OF CONVERSION
We will now examine the mechanics of materialization of such a pair in the 3-spaces expanded
geometry that was the object of a previous paper ([1]).
Before proceeding however, let's recall that in the 3-spaces geometry, free fall acceleration induced
kinetic energy will appear massive to an observer located in normal space when it occurs in either of the other
two spaces, but would locally be perceived as non massive. For example, as perceived from normal space,
magnetostatic and electrostatic spaces are the realm of massive states, while normal space is, as far as we
observers located in this same space are concerned, the realm of free fall acceleration induced unidirectional
quantities of kinetic energy between bodies.
Let's first recall the dynamic inner motion of energy within the dynamic structure of the de Broglie
localized photon.
2. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
37
Fig.1: The complete cycle of energy circulation within the dynamic structure of the de Broglie photon.
As described in ([1], Sections XXII), this motion can be described as with 4 distinct steps: (a) The de
Broglie half-photons (making up half the total complement of the photon's energy) having reached the farthest
distance of their reach within electrostatic space. (b) The half-photons closing in toward each other in
electrostatic space as their energy starts transferring omnidirectionnally into magnetostatic space. (c) The total
complement of energy of the two half-photons having now completely crossed over into magnetostatic space. (d)
The energy present in magnetostatic space starting to cross over back toward electrostatic space as two separate
half-photons. And (a) again as the cycle completes, poised to start the whole sequence again.
All through this process, the other half of the photon's energy, permanently located within normal
space, remains in unidirectional motion, propelling the oscillating half at the speed of light in normal space
vacuum.
But since the total complement of energy of a photon of 1.022 MeV is known to convert to a pair
of .511 MeV/c2
massive particles, this means that nature has found a way for the unidirectional half of the
photon's energy located in normal spaces to mechanically transfer to electrostatic and/or magnetostatic spaces
for the total energy of the photon to be perceived as massive after conversion of photon to a pair of electron-
positron.
So, let's see how all of this unidirectional half of the energy of a 1.022 MeV photon can mechanically
leave normal space during the conversion process to end up, as we will soon see, in electrostatic space.
III. STABILITY BEFORE CONVERSION
To clearly understand the mechanics of the pulsating photon energy described in paper ([1]), there was
need to become aware of the Y-y/Y-z plane within electrostatic space, the only plane on which the pair of half
photons can move in opposite directions in that space for all stable photons, a plane orthogonal to normal space
from within electrostatic space, itself orthogonal to normal space by structure.
Now, to understand how the dual-particle photon can convert to a pair of separately moving massive
particles, there is now need to also become aware of dimension Y-x, which is at the same time perpendicular to
the Y-y/Y-z plane and parallel by definition to conventional direction of motion of photons in normal space (X-
space), that is, parallel to dimension X-x of normal space even though it belongs to electrostatic space.
Fig.2: The orthogonal structure of the 3 spaces model.
Referring to Figure 2, let's remember the 3-ribs umbrella metaphor representing the mental opening
from 0o
to 90o
of the inner dimensions of each space to allow easier visualization.
Previous paper ([5]) described how the equal density mutually orthogonal electric and magnetic fields
generated by the cyclically moving half of a photon's energy serves to "self-guide" the photon in straight line in
normal space as it is self-propelled at the speed of light by the unidirectional half of its energy permanently
residing within this normal space as illustrated with Fig.1.
Let us now mentally consider a pulsating 1.022 MeV dual-particle photon. We can now rather easily
visualize how stable it must be, boring at the speed of light through normal space, as half its energy locally
oscillates in a perfectly stationary manner with respect to its local tri-spatial junction, between a state of single
spherically expanding and regressing event in magnetostatic space, coupled to a state of double particles moving
to and fro in diametrically opposite directions on the Y-y/Y-z plane of electrostatic space.
3. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
38
We can easily visualize that no force other than an interaction internal to the photon can locally
strongly interact with the half-photons. Considering the speed at which photons circulate, it can easily be
understood that interactions between photons whose trajectories could possibly intersect at the speed of light
will generally be too fleeting to really do anything other than possibly mutually affect the axial orientation of
their relative polarity on their respective Y-y/Y-z planes.
For simplicity's sake, we will assume by definition from this point on that both half photons are moving
in opposite directions exactly along the Y-y axis on the Y-y/Y-z plane of electrostatic space.
So, in the process of locally moving away from their junction to as far as their energy will allow along the Y-y
axis, the half-photons usually don’t have any choice but to accelerate right back in a straight line toward the
junction, to ultimately fuse once again into a single quantity as their energy crosses over to expand into
magnetostatic space.
IV. ELECTROSTATICALLY DESTABILIZING SCATTERING
Let's consider now what is likely to occur when a photon grazes very closely a heavy atom's nucleus at
the precise moment when both half-photons have reached the farthest distance possible on either side of their
local junction, along the Y-y axis.
We know since de Broglie, that all charged physically scatterable elementary particles are
electromagnetic in nature, which includes of course the up and down quarks that make up the inner structure of
nucleons (protons and neutrons) that atomic nuclei are made of.
This clarifies why these electromagnetic elementary particles (charged up and down quarks) making up
the nucleus can enter into homo- and/or heterostatic interaction with the charges of the half-photons while the
latter are in their electrostatic phase, and it becomes just as obvious that these interactions will be intense in
relation to the inverse square of the distance between them in accordance with the Coulomb law during very
close grazing encounters, a process represented in Quantum Electrodynamics by the following Feynman graph
([14], p. 203):
Fig.3: Photon-nucleus grazing pair creation Feynman diagram.
Similarly, pair creation by close grazing of two photons, one of which exceeding the 1.022 MeV
threshold without any atomic nuclei being close by, such as was first experimentally confirmed by Kirk
McDonald and his team at the Stanford Linear Accelerator in 1997, is represented by the following Feynman
graph ([14], p. 203):
Fig.4: Photon-photon grazing pair creation Feynman diagram.
V. MISSING THE TRISPATIAL JUNCTION RENDEZVOUS
It can thus be easily imagined that any substantial Coulomb interaction between the half-photons and
the up and down quarks of the nucleus may destabilize the motion of the half-photons, pulling and pushing them
in directions that could cause them to miss, so to speak, their usual rendezvous with the local 3-spatial junction.
Fig.5: Both half-photons failing to meet the 3-spatial junction.
4. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
39
Vector a in Figure 5 represents the quantity of kinetic energy in unidirectional motion in normal space
required to maintain the speed of the photon in that space.
Dotted lines c' et c" represent the occurrences of attraction that permanently seek to attract half-
photons b' and b" toward trispatial junction o within electrostatic space.
Vectors d' and d" symbolize the deflected directions that the half-photons will tend to follow within
electrostatic space on either side of the junction as an outcome of any destabilization of the normally rectilinear
trajectory of their cyclic return motion toward the junction, and that would send them on an elliptical orbit on
the Y-y/Y-x plane that, in the case of photon of 1.022+ MeV, initiates the decoupling process.
Fig.6: Both half-photons tenting to initiate an elliptical orbit.
VI. INITIATING ELLIPTICAL ORBIT WITHIN ELECTROSTATIC SPACE
Now, being forced to accelerate diagonally with respect to the straight line that normally lets them meet
at the junction, the half-photons will unavoidably enter into an elliptical orbit within electrostatic space about
the junction on the Y-y/Y-x plane, that is on a plane parallel to the major X axis representing normal space,
while their local mutual interaction retains its intensity, since the half-photons will not set about decreasing in
quantity as they do when they actually start crossing the junction on their way to magnetostatic space.
In Fig.6, vectors d' and d" are represented with a 45o
deflection angle to symbolize that from the
moment the half-photons enter elliptical orbit within electrostatic space following initial destabilization, this
orbit will tend to become rounder and rounder due to the half-photons' inertia, thus forcing half-photons b' and
b" to accelerate more and more on that orbit.
It is here that things become more than interesting, considering that the farthest distance from each
other that half-photons reach in electrostatic space is exactly sufficient to allow them to re-accumulate all their
energy when they re-accelerate back toward the junction, this very precise amount of energy is insufficient by
structure within electrostatic space proper to fulfill the increased energy requirement for the half-photons to
maintain this forced elliptical orbit about the junction.
We know besides, from experimental measurements, that no additional energy is transmitted from the
heavy nucleus to the photon during such encounters. Experimental results show that after they separate, both
particles share uniquely the energy of the initial photon. The photon is thus forced to manage on its own, so to
speak, to provide the additional energy now required within electrostatic space for the now forced elliptical orbit
to be sustained.
VII. ENERGY CROSSING OVER FROM NORMAL SPACE TO ELECTROSTATIC
SPACE
Considering that kinetic energy appears to locally behave like an incompressible material when it is in
excess or shortage in one of the three spaces and that the three orthogonal spaces behave like communicating
vessels, the half-photons will have no other choice but to start borrowing through orthogonal translation from
the only reserve of additional energy at the photon's disposal, which is the unidirectional energy that maintains
the speed of light of the photon in normal space, which can only result in a corresponding slowing down the
group in normal space.
So, after having left their usual straight line trajectories, as the half-photons arrive on either side of the
junction, but without actually meeting it, a shortage of energy will develop that will obviously be sufficient to
trigger the entry through the junction of the required supplementary energy available in normal space.
The only energy source locally available to support this acceleration being unidirectional kinetic energy
a that maintains the speed of light of the photon in the vacuum of normal space, this available energy will have
no choice but to progressively transfer to electrostatic space to support this acceleration, which is symbolized
here by vectors a' and a" of the half-photons on their elliptical orbit (Fig.6).
5. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
40
As the orbit of the half-photons becomes rounder and rounder in electrostatic space on account of their
inertia, as they continue drawing on the photon's reserve of energy from normal space, the photon itself will
have no choice but to start slowing down in normal space as its X-space unidirectional energy is being drained
into electrostatic space (Y-space).
Finally, the slowing photon will come to an almost complete standstill in normal space, as its
constituting half-photons now streak at the speed of light in electrostatic space in opposite directions on the Y-
y/Y-x plane, momentarily on a stable orbit about the junction point, at right angle with respect to the direction
that would have permitted them to dive again into magnetostatic space.
VIII. SPEED OF LIGHT = TRANSVERSE ESCAPE VELOCITY OF THE PAIR
But since the pair of particles is known to physically separate into normal space as the final stage of the
process, we might hypothesize at this point that the speed of light could be the "escape velocity" of the half-
photons in electrostatic space. We can certainly speak of a "decoupling" velocity of the pair. We will see later
the mathematical confirmation of this apparently quite bold conclusion.So the question now is: What could
possibly cause the decoupling of the half-photons when they reach the speed of light on their electrostatic space
ultimately circular orbit about the tri-spatial junction?
IX. WHY CIRCULAR ORBITS ABOUT CENTRAL MASSES ARE IMPOSSIBLE
Let's consider Newtonian gravitation for a moment, and let's suppose that a hypothetical planet is
suddenly placed on an ideally stable and perfectly circular orbit about a star. If it possessed sufficient energy to
maintain itself on this orbit, it would be difficult to challenge the fact that the inertia of both planet and central
star would momentarily perfectly counterbalance their mutual attraction as a function of the inverse square of
the distance between them, in relation with their respective effective masses.
Let's now consider Newton’s never challenged Principle of Inertia, that is Principia's First law, that he
formulates as follows: "left to themselves, the planets would follow a uniform rectilinear motion" ([15], p. 98)!
Now back to our hypothetical planet, which is momentarily in a perfect state of equilibrium on its
theoretically perfect circular orbit, it is difficult not to conclude that it could be in a perfect state of free fall at
the precise moment when this equilibrium is reached, inertia and attraction being in a state of complete mutual
cancellation, and that it could momentarily be "left to itself" at this very precise moment.
It consequently seems impossible that at this precise moment, the planet will not immediately obey this
principle and tend to continue its route in a straight line, thus initiating a tendency for the orbit to become
elliptical, which possibly explains why the orbits of all bodies in the solar system are elliptical, considering that
perfectly circular such orbits are deemed to be forever impossible to maintain.
X. VELOCITY ON CIRCULAR ORBITS WITHOUT CENTRAL MASS
Let's consider now the two half-photons at the very moment that they reach the speed of light as their
orbit finally becomes perfectly circular on the Y-y/Y-x plane when all of the unidirectional kinetic energy
previously available in normal space has just finished completely crossing over into electrostatic space to propel
the half-photons.
Contrary to what happens in the Solar System, where the attractive force of the solar mass does not
diminish when a planet draws away from it, when both half-photons initiate this seemingly equilibrium induced
unavoidable motion away from each other caused by their tendency to move in a straight line, the attractive
force will instantly slightly and irreversibly decrease, precisely because there is no stable central mass between
them to maintain a permanent and stable attraction, which will have as an immediate result that the inertia of the
two half-photons will dominate the now irrecoverably weakened attractive force due to the however slight
increase in mutual distance involved and will allow them to escape and travel separately!
Consequently, in the case of the materialization process of electron/positron pairs, the velocity of
establishment on a circular orbit on the Y-y/Y-x plane about the obviously massless tri-spatial junction and the
escape velocity of the particles turn out to be exactly the same: the speed of light.
Now if the speed of light being reached by both particles on such a circular orbit is the actual escape
velocity of the pair in opposite directions within electrostatic space, then the known invariance of the "opposite
charges" of electrons and positrons may well have a direct relation with the decoupling radius (the distance
between momentary circular orbit and the central junction).
This may shed an entirely new light on what charge may really be. Charge could then possibly be
defined as the intensity of the return potential toward a common junction reached when this potential is
exactly counterbalanced orthogonally by the inertia of the two particles now moving at the speed of light in
opposite directions within electrostatic space, a momentary equilibrium that would induce the decoupling of the
pair.
6. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
41
Fig.7: The freshly decoupled electron and positron pair moving away from each other.
At this stage, all of unidirectional kinetic energy a that was required to maintain the speed of light of
the photon in normal space (see Fig.5), has completely transferred to electrostatic space, which allowed both
half-photons b' and b" to decouple and move separately at the speed of light a' and a" in opposite directions
within electrostatic space, while appearing to us as being two massive particles, an electron and a positron,
moving separately within normal space at a velocity corresponding to the energy that the initial decoupling
photon had in excess of the 1.022 MeV that converted to two .511 MeV/c2
rest masses.
Let us note here that Quantum Electrodynamics also considers the sign of electron and positron charges
as being a relative property as they define the electron as energy propagating forward in space-time and a
positron as an electron with energy moving backward in space-time ([14], p. 41).
By comparison, the 3-spaces model associates the positive sign of the charge of a positron to the fact
that in this expanded space geometry, its energy is by definition moving forward within electrostatic space, that
is, in the positive direction along the Y-x axis, while the negative sign of the charge of an electron is by
definition moving backward within electrostatic space, that is, in the negative direction along the Y-x axis. Both
models however define the sign as an extrinsic property of charges.
XI. RELATING PLANCK’S CONSTANT TO INTENSITY CONSTANT H (HC)
Before mathematically confirming the decoupling radius of the electron-positron pair in electrostatic
space, the direct relation between Planck's time-dependant constant and the 3-spaces model distance-dependant
electromagnetic intensity constant defined in a previous paper ([1], Section J), needs to be brought to attention.
A fundamental constant was established more than a century ago by Max Planck that allows calculating
the energy of a photon from its frequency. Let us note that contrary to the speed of light constant (c) that stems
from Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, Planck's constant (h) is a constant of kinetic nature that rightly belongs
to thermodynamics.
It is however very directly related to electromagnetism by association with the speed of light. Just like
the speed of light can be calculated from theory only from Maxwell's equations, Planck's constant could until
now be calculated from theory only from Planck's thermodynamics black body equation. But we saw in a
previous paper ([1], Section J) that it can also be calculated in the 3-spaces model by dividing the newly defined
electromagnetic intensity constant (H) by the speed of light (H/c = h).
As he analyzed Wien's experimental results on the black body, Planck determined that the luminosity
of the black body could be calculated with precision only if each cycle of any frequency of light always
corresponded to the same amount of energy: 6.62606876E-34 Joules, that is:
1e
1
πλ
c
L λTc5
1
λ 2
(1)
Where c1 = 2hc2
and c2 = hc/k (where k is the Boltzmann constant)
In other words, whatever its frequency, that is, its number of cycles per second, the energy of a photon
is always equal to the product of that frequency (f) by Planck's constant (h):
E=hf (2)
or as an alternate definition, within the 3-spaces model, the energy of a photon is always equal to
electromagnetic intensity constant H divided by the wavelength of a photon ()
λ
H
E (3)
From the definition of H in ([1], Section J, Equation 17a), that is:
mJ25E1.98644544
α2ε
e
λEhcH
0
2
(4)
7. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
42
Planck's constant can be equated to a very specific combination of other fundamental constants:
sJ347E6.62606875
αc2ε
e
h
0
2
(5)
In reality, all of the energy of the photon is present at each cycle, which is clearly put in perspective by
the electromagnetic intensity constant, and the cycling speed of each cycle is directly proportional to the
quantity of energy of the photon. The reader may appreciate that this continuous presence at maximum of the
energy of a photon becomes much more obvious in the harmonic oscillator formula if we replace the time based
hf relation with the transverse amplitude based H/ relation:
E = (n+1/2)H/ instead of E = (n+1/2)hf (6)
This continuous presence of the photon's energy at maximum is also perfectly represented by the
projection of its electric and magnetic amplitudes as symmetric stationary waves on the plane that accompanies
the photon at the speed of light as analyzed in a previous paper ([1], Section VI).
XII. CONFIRMING THE 1.022 MeV CONVERSION THRESHOLD
We will now mathematically analyze how the energy of a 1.022 MeV photon (non massive) can
convert to 2 massive .511 MeV/c2
particles (very precisely 0.5109989027 MeV/c2
each) according to the
decoupling mechanics just examined. Let us first establish the frequency of the energy of each half-photon of
the photon in the process of decoupling from that energy in Joules, that is 8.18710414E-14 J.
HzE2061.23558997
h
E
f (7)
According to equation f=c, the wavelength of that half-photon energy will be
m12E52.42631021
c
λ
f
(8)
Which turns out to be the electron Compton wavelength as well as the wavelength of a free photon that
would have the same energy, and that corresponds to the distance that such a free photon would cover in normal
space at the speed of light during each of its cycles.
Let us also recall de Broglie's inspired idea to the effect that for the orbital motion of the electron on
the ground orbit of the Hydrogen atom, an "orbital wavelength" could be calculated with equation =h/mev, and
that this wavelength corresponded exactly to the length of the orbit on which the electron moved in the Bohr
model, which is the same as the averaged out rest orbital that can be calculated with the wave function applied
to the hydrogen atom.
Knowing the long established rest mass of the electron (9.10938188E-31 kg) as well as the speed that
the half-photons must have to allow the decoupling of the pair, that is, the speed of light within electrostatic
space (v = c = 299 792 458 m/s), let's apply de Broglie's equation to the present "orbital" case to find the "orbital
wavelength" applicable to the amount of energy corresponding to the rest mass of the electron, a wavelength
that would of course be equal to the length of the decoupling orbit.
m12E52.42631021
cm
h
λ
e
o (9)
So we discover here by comparing equations 8 and 9 that the decoupling orbit of a 1.022 MeV photon
would be very precisely equal to the wavelength of a photon of same energy as an electron, and by the same
token that the velocity of the half-photons on that orbit will be exactly equal to the speed of light.
In fact, the equality of the linear wavelength and of the orbital wavelength for that level of energy,
which is the only level that allows it, directly explains why .511 MeV is the lowest energy level that allows
reaching an orbital velocity equal to the speed of light. All half-photons of lesser energy can by structure reach
only orbital velocities lower than the speed of light, which prevents them from decoupling.
Let us recall that the product of the rest mass of the electron by its theoretical classical velocity on the
Bohr orbit by the length of the Bohr orbit is equal to Planck's constant:
mvB = h (10)
We can also see that the product of the mass of the electron by its velocity on the Compton orbit and by
the length of the Compton orbit is also equal to Planck's constant
mco = h (11)
8. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
43
Which reveals, among other implications, that for a given mass, the product of its orbital velocity by
the length of the orbit is a constant, known as the quantum of circulation.
Let us note that this law applies to all orbiting electrons, even electrons in stable electrostatic orbits,
even those that are forced to remain stationary due to local electromagnetic equilibrium. Although physically
null, the "virtual mathematical velocity" of the latter case still remains a valid working parameter since the
energy that would support this velocity if it could be expressed is still present and would cause the related
electron to move at this velocity if local electromagnetic equilibrium allowed it to circulate freely at that
distance from the nucleus.
So from the electron quantum of circulation:
/sm4E27.27389503
m
h
cλvλ 2
CB (12)
We can see that the angular momentum of the decoupling half-photon is the same as that of the
electron on the Bohr orbit
mc2rc = h and consequently h
2π
h
mcrC (13)
From the equality of the orbital wavelength and the linear wavelength, we can thus draw the following
relation:
f
c
cm
h
λλ
e
o (14)
from which we can directly derive the following equation regarding the energy of a half-photon of a
photon of energy 1.022 MeV destabilizing as it grazes a nucleus, that shows how the decoupling energy allows
to smoothly transfer from equation E=hf for pure energy to the famous equation E=mc2
for massive particles:
f
c
cm
h
e
and finally E = hf = mec2
(15)
Let us recall here, that the energy of the electron (or positron) rest mass is the only energy level for
which this direct equality is possible.
And we find here again from this unique relation of equality between the energy of the electron and
that of a photon of same energy, the quantum of circulation already mentioned:
/sm4E27.27389503
c
m
h 2
2
e
f
(16)
XIII. INVERSE SQUARE DISTANCE FROM THE TRI-SPATIAL JUNCTION
On the other hand, the Coulomb law indicates that the electrostatic force is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between charged particles. In the case of the decoupling pair however, a process where
the source of the force would by definition be the tri-spatial junction about which the pair momentarily orbits, it
would be the energy induced at any distance from that source that would be inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between an elementary particle and the source considered, a distance that we will symbolize with
r. So let us take this postulate as a starting point:
2
r
1
E (where m13E23.86159264
2π
λ
r o
) (17)
This means that product Er2
is a constant. Interestingly, this radius happens to also be equal to the
Bohr radius (o) divided by 137.0359998, which is the inverse of the fine structure constant ().
We will now define this constant, symbolize it with capital letter K and name it the Electrostatic
Energy induction Constant, and whose value we can now determine:
222
e
2
mJ38E61.22085259rcmrEK (18)
This constant will be useful to explore nucleons in a coming paper, a distance-based constant, just like
electromagnetic intensity constant H defined in ([1], Section J) and previously used in Section XI.
Another point of interest is the electrostatic amplitude of the cyclic harmonic oscillating motion of the
energy of the decoupling electron. Let us first establish the angular velocity of this cyclic motion in radians per
second:
=2f =2 x 1.235589976 E20 =7.763440783 E20 rad/s (19)
9. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
44
Given that full amplitude can be obtained at a quarter of the sinusoidal representation of the cycle, let
us calculate the time required to reach this maximum:
t = T/4 = 1/4f = 2.023324929E-21 s (20)
From the equation for kinetic energy of a body in harmonic oscillation, adapted to the present case,
where v = c, we can pose mc2
= m2
A2
sin2
(t). Isolating A, we obtain the amplitude of the motion:
m13E183.86159264
)/2sin(πω
c
t)sin(ωω
c
A (21)
A value that exactly matches the decoupling radius obtained by means of the de Broglie relation (see
equation 17). What an intriguing coincidence, that confirms that the linear motion of the initial photon converted
to a perfectly circular motion of both half-photons without any loss of energy!
XIV. WHY PHOTONS WITH LESS THAN 1.022 MEV CANNOT DECOUPLE INTO PAIRS
Taking into account all of a localized photon's energy, we can now pose:
2
e2
o
MeV51.02199780 c2m
αa
2K
hE f (22)
That establishes a very clear link between the non-massive energy of a 1.022 MeV photon E=hf and the
energy of the two massive particles E=mc2
produced as this photon destabilizes while grazing a heavy nucleus.
All photons of lesser energy seem to resolve, upon destabilizing, to circular wavelengths allowing only
velocities lower than that of light, thus preventing decoupling, while all photons of higher energy, upon
destabilizing, will reach the speed of light at Compton radius circular orbits and decouple before all their energy
can orthogonally transfer to electrostatic space, the untransfered energy causing the now separating particles to
move in opposing directions in normal space at a velocity related to that remaining energy.
And it is here that we can link up with Special Relativity, since we know that for any electron in
motion: E=mc2
. We can thus pose with certainty that for photons of energy between 1.022 MeV and 211.317
MeV destabilizing in the Coulomb field of a heavy nucleus:
2
e211.317MeV1.022MeV cm2γhE f (23)
and since photons of energy equal to 211.317 MeV or more, seem to systematically produce
muon/antimuon pairs, we can also tentatively pose :
2
μ211.317MeV cm2γhE f (24)
XV. THE STABLE ELECTRON INNER ELECTROMAGNETIC EQUILIBRIUM
Since it is experimentally established that all electrons and positrons are universally identical and that
any electron indifferently attracts any positron and vice versa, it can also be concluded that any given electron
attracts all positrons existing at the same moment in the universe and vice versa, in perfect conformity with the
Coulomb law.
The fundamental material of the two particles, whose mechanics of materialization we just examined,
and that now travel separately, can also not be dissociated from each its own internal tri-spatial junction,
because of the fact that a magnetic field of fixed intensity estimated at 1,00116 is associated to all electrons, and
that magnetic properties belong exclusively to magnetostatic space in this expanded geometry.
One can wonder now how the quantity of kinetic energy that the electron is made up of can maintain
the local stable equilibrium that we know it possesses.
Any notion of equilibrium about a 3-spaces trispatial junction implies of course the idea that the
particle's energy will tend to distribute about the junction in search of such an equilibrium. This implies in turn
that the energy of the electron must mandatorily constantly be distributed into two equal parts that oppose in
such a manner that they mutually maintain this equilibrium, one half of which must mandatorily constantly
move unidirectionally in electrostatic space for electrons and positrons as we just analyzed, as opposed to half of
non-massive photons' energy being unidirectional within normal space.
XVI. OSCILLATION BETWEEN MAGNETOSTATIC AND ELECTROSTATIC SPACES
During the decoupling process, we saw how the unidirectional amount of 0.511 MeV of energy of the
destabilized photon was progressively being transferred from normal space to electrostatic space as it splits
evenly between the two half-photons as the latter accelerated on their decoupling orbit, allowing them to
eventually reach the speed of light within electrostatic space and finally decouple to move as separate entities in
the vacuum of normal space.
10. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
45
The result was then two 0.2555 MeV half-particles now moving in opposite directions on straight line
trajectories parallel to the Y-x axis within electrostatic space and to the normal space X-x axis, and whose speed
of light in opposite directions was now maintained for each of them by a locally constant unidirectional quantity
of kinetic energy of 0.2555 MeV, which when added to the half-particle energy restitutes of course the well
known complete amount of energy corresponding to an electron or positron rest mass, that is 0.511 MeV.
XVII. OSCILLATION BETWEEN MAGNETOSTATIC AND NORMAL SPACES
But since that in the dynamic photon configuration in the tri-spatial geometry, the energy constantly
unidirectional that totally occupies one of the spaces (normal space), it seems a given that if this constantly
unidirectional energy, that is 0.2555 MeV for each separating particles, moves to electrostatic space, it will now
permanently occupy this space in a stable manner, preventing the other half of the particles energy from
oscillating between an electrostatic space now saturated and magnetostatic space, as the energy of the initial
photon was doing.
This other normally oscillating half, that is the remaining 0.2555 MeV of the particle's energy will then
have no other possibility but to start pulsating in a stable manner, orthogonally to electrostatic space, through the
internal junction, between the two remaining unsaturated spaces, that is magnetostatic space and normal space,
at the frequency associated to the electron.
We established already that in magnetostatic space the energy had to enter omnidirectionally as the
photon pulsates ([1], Section XXII). So it seems logical to think that the same would hold true for the energy of
electrons and positrons.
So when this energy will reenter normal space instead of electrostatic space as it starts pulsating
according to this new tri-spatial distribution, similarly to the behavior already analyzed for photons, it would
also logically do so bi-directionally, which means that streams of electrons may be polarizable just like light,
although in a manner that remains to be identified, in relation with the phase of the amplitude and axial
orientation of this bi-directional motion of half its energy within normal space, on plane X-y/X-z perpendicular
to the direction of motion X-x.
This would then mean that electrons and positrons have exactly the same dynamic structure as photons,
the only difference being one of localization of the unidirectional half of their energy, that is, within normal
space for photons and within orthogonal electrostatic space for electrons and positrons, forcing the
electromagnetic half to oscillate between the two remaining orthogonal spaces, magnetostatic space being
common to both.
XVIII. THE ELECTRON GENERAL LC EQUATION
In other words, electrons and positrons turn out to simply be 0.511 MeV photons that could be seen as
traveling at the speed of light orthogonally to normal space! Consequently, given that the cyclic passage
between electrostatic and magnetostatic spaces proceeds without any resistance by definition, the electron and
positron can be represented by exactly the same equation involving a discrete LC oscillation that was defined for
photons in a previous paper ([1], equation 16), that is:
t)(ωsin
2
iL
t)(ωcos),(
4C
e
2
2λ
hc
E 2
Z
2
2
Y
2
X
KjJjJiIiI (25)
Where X, Y, and X respectively represent normal, electrostatic and magnetostatic spaces, but with the
following subtle difference, which is that the pair of unsigned charges of the photon (|e|2
) has now "pivoted"
over into normal space to become potential neutrino material (To be described in a coming paper) and that we
will momentarily identify here as (|e'|2
) (neutral e prime squared), and that the kinetic energy that propelled the
photon at the velocity of light in normal space (hc/2) has now "pivoted" over into electrostatic Y-space to
remain in a stable manner in that space, having become unable to contribute a velocity in normal space but
contributing the "sign of the charge" and half the transverse inertia (mass) associated to the particle.
On its part, the inductive component L of the particle simply remains in magnetostatic space,
contributing the particle's "spin" and the other half of its transverse inertia (mass), while henceforth LC
oscillating between magnetostatic Z-space and normal X-space.
Let us recall that in a photon, as the energy sphere decreased in volume in magnetostatic space, two
half-quantities begin to grown and move away from each other and from point zero in diametrically opposite
directions on the Y-y/Y-z plane within electrostatic space, thus maintaining perfect equilibrium ([1], Section VI,
Fig.4).
This transfer to electrostatic space is now impossible for the re-oriented energy of the massive electron
and positron. The only option for this energy moving out of magnetostatic space is now to transfer to normal
space now empty of energy, as two half-quantities moving away from each other and from the tri-spatial
11. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
46
junction in diametrically opposite directions on the X-y/X-z plane, thus re-establishing perfect equilibrium. For
simplicity's sake, we will assume that they align exactly with the X-y axis on this plane.
So, here is possibly the most detailed and general LC equation that can be established for the energy of
an electron at rest in this model:
t)(ωsin
2
iL
t)(ωcos),(
4C
e'
2
2λ
H
cmE 2
Z
2
CC2
XC
2
YC
2
e KjIjIiJ00 (26)
And for a positron:
t)(ωsin
2
iL
t)(ωcos),(
4C
e'
2
2λ
H
cmE 2
Z
2
CC2
XC
2
YC
2
e KjIjIiJ00 (27)
The reader is invited to carefully compare the changes in orientation of the complete set of directed unit
vectors in these equations for the electron and positron at rest, with respect to equation (25), that represents the
various directions of motion of the energy within the photon structure, that was completely explored and
developed in ([1], Section XXI), finally giving equation (16) of the previous paper, reproduced as equation (25)
above.
Let us also note that for the positron, only the direction of minor vector i subordinated to major vector
J of electrostatic space is reversed. We will afterwards show only the equation for the electron, always assuming
that the equation for the positron is identical with only this minor reversal as a difference.
XIX. INTRODUCING THE ELECTRON NEUTRINIC ENERGY
Or better yet, by the following equation making use of the localized fields definitions established in a
previous paper ([5]):
Vt)(ωsin
2μ
t)(ωcos),(
4
ε
2V
2
ε
cm 2
Z0
2
2
X
2
0
Y
2
02
e
ν
KjIjIiJ0
BE (28)
where 2
3
C
5
2π
λα
V , 2
C
3
0 λαε
πe
E ,
2
C
3
0
λα
ecπμ
B and 2
C
3
0 λαε
πe
ν
Volume V, defined in ([5], equation 32h), simply is the volume within which the amount of energy of a
photon or localized elementary particle would be contained if it was distributed with uniform density U after
being spherically integrated from infinity () to a distance from r = 0 corresponding to /2 as can be
extrapolated from Marmet's paper ([13]). In the present case, the Compton wavelength (C) will of course be
used since we are dealing with the rest mass energy of the electron.
which means that
t)(ωsin
2μ
t)(ωcos),(
4
ε
2
2
ε
c
V
m 2
Z0
2
2
X
2
0
Y
2
0
2
m
0
ν KjIjIiJ0
BE
(29)
where 2
(Greek letter nu squared) represents a state of two quantities of kinetic energy (momentarily
defined in equations (26) and (27) as (|e'|)2
) that could also be thought of as being "neutrinic energy" (a name the
reason for which will be explained in a separate paper); that cyclically convert to magnetic state and back again,
similarly to a photon's two half-photons of its electric state cyclically converting to magnetic state and back
again.
Don't we discover by the same token why electrons have always proved indivisible? Like any photon
of less than 1.022 MeV of energy, they simply are not energetic enough to allow their half-quantities (which in
this model, let us be very aware, have no other possibility but to reside and move within normal space) succeed
in decoupling!
XX. CHARGE BEING DEFINED AS A PRESSURE ON THE ORTHOGONAL PLANE
Electrostatic space existing by definition at right angles with respect to normal space, the charge of the
electron behaves with respect to our "normal" space as if it was a pressure being applied backward away from
normal space along axis Y-x, which is the axis along which the constantly unidirectional half of the electron's
energy moves in electrostatic space, and in the same manner, we perceive the charge of the positron as if it was
a pressure being applied toward normal space along the same axis.
Metaphorically speaking, the opposite charges of the electron and positron behave as fishes constantly
pushing against the glass wall of their aquarium in opposite directions (a glass wall that we could see as a plane
orthogonal to our normal space and that would separate it from both electrostatic and magnetostatic spaces),
applying a constant pressure on the wall without succeeding in moving forward.
12. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
47
It is important to understand here that the two 0.511 MeV half-photons that existed before decoupling
have not changed in nature or dynamic structure as they separated. They simply changed direction in the tri-
spatial space geometry. We are still dealing with the same two half-photons, two quantized quantities of kinetic
energy.
XXI. WHAT IS MASS
A. Electron Mass is Electrodynamic Inertia
Walter Kaufmann studied electrons at length at the beginning of the 20th
century and observed that the
measurable inertia of these elementary particles seemed to be constant at non-relativistic velocities, whichever
direction if was measured from ([8]), which is entirely consistent with the idea proposed in this expanded
geometry ([1]) that the energy making up the rest masses of elementary particles would reside outside normal
space, in extra-spatial spaces existing perpendicularly to normal space, that is electrostatic space and
magnetostatic space. This presence would then be perceived through the junction point where these spaces
interconnect that would be located at the center of the particle, a presence that could then be perceived from any
direction in normal space about this junction point and that would behave as a point-like event in normal space.
We can now see that what we perceive as the mass of particles would also be a relative impression just
like their charge, and not an intrinsic characteristic, contrary to the accepted view.
Consequently, the invariant rest mass of electrons and positrons, which is estimated at 9.10938188E-31
kg, can be nothing else in this space geometry but the inertia of decoupled 0.511 MeV/c2
half-photons whose
energy is totally engaged within electrostatic and magnetostatic spaces as previously analyzed.
Such a conclusion, which seems obvious in this augmented space geometry, is in full agreement with
Abraham’s calculations ([7]) and Kaufmann’s experiments ([8]) that showed that mechanical mass per se is
null and that the mass of electrons was exclusively of electrodynamic origin ([9], p.247).
Presently, they clarified the equivalence of mass and inertia when resistance to change of state of
motion was correlated with the direction of motion, and that quantities of unidirectional kinetic energy are
sensitive only to longitudinal interaction, that is, totally unaffected by transverse interactions, which was
verified with experiments where electrons moved at relativistic velocities.
B. Defining Electrodynamic Inertia
Consequently, the simplest definition of inertia would be that it is the resistance of unidirectional
quantities of kinetic energy to being forced to slow down or accelerate.
This is what led Poincare to conclude that there exists no mass other than electrodynamic inertia, that
mass increases with velocity and that it depended on the direction of motion, which means that a body animated
by an important velocity will not oppose the same inertia to forces orthogonally tending to deflect its trajectory,
and to those tending to decelerate its forward motion ([10], p.137).
C. Transverse Inertia vs Longitudinal Inertia
There is consequently ground to distinguish between transverse mass, or rather relativistic transverse
inertia, which can be measured as the resistance that a moving mass will offer to a force being applied
perpendicularly to the direction of its motion, and longitudinal mass, or relativistic longitudinal inertia, which
corresponds to the sum total of the rest mass, the instantaneous relativistic mass increment, plus the quantity of
unidirectional kinetic energy that maintains its velocity when measured in the direction of motion.
Let us note that these two measures of mass are relativistic, that is to say, that they depend directly on
the velocity of the particle. The other two definitions of mass, the invariant rest mass of elementary particles
and the effective rest mass of complex particles and larger bodies that we will examine in coming papers,
depend in no way on the velocity or these particles or bodies in normal space.
Let us also note that the relativistic increase in mass of particles that is usually being referred to and
that can be calculated with the gamma factor () and whose theoretical curve was confirmed by the experimental
values obtained by Bucherer and Neumann in 1914 ([4], p.172), specifically is the relativistic increase of
transverse mass of particles, that is the relativistic transverse inertia (aka instanteneous relativistic mass) of
particles, and whose expression is
22
o
ot
/cv1
m
γmm
(30)
and not that of longitudinal mass that Kaufmann also studied and that includes the kinetic energy that
sustains the corresponding instantaneous velocity as if it was part of the mass. Let us note by the way that it was
Walter Kaufmann who was the first to demonstrate the variation of the electron mass with velocity in
accordance with the relativistic equation ([12], p.238).
13. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
48
We will see in a coming paper how important these distinctions are to really understand why the actual
angle of deflection of photons' trajectories by gravity is twice that "apparently" computable from Newton's
mechanics.
Let us remember that the only difference between a 0.511 MeV photon and an electron (0.511 MeV/c2
)
is the direction of the motion of the particle at the speed of light; in normal space for the photon, and in
electrostatic space (that is, orthogonally to normal space) for the electron, and that it consequently can only be
this difference in the direction of motion in the 3-spaces geometry that can cause a measurable "mass" to be
associated to the particle in the case of the electron.
D. Conversion of half any added kinetic energy to relativistic mass
Analysis of Kaufmann's data leads to conclude that the relativistic progressive increase in transverse
mass of electrons as they accelerate is caused by a process forcing very precisely half of the imparted
unidirectional kinetic energy to continuously quantize orthogonally to the direction of motion of the electrons,
thus joining the rest mass of the electrons, as unidirectional kinetic energy is being added.
This aspect of acceleration was thoroughly explored in a separate paper ([11]).
"Being quantized orthogonally" meaning here "being translated to orthogonal electromagnetic
orientation with respect to the direction of motion in space, of the energy involved", which causes half the
unidirectional kinetic energy being added to transfer orthogonally to electrostatic and magnetostatic spaces to
now acquire a property of transverse inertia that it henceforth shares with the pulsating electron rest mass energy
on top of the inertia that it already had longitudinally.
This of course leads to conclude that any motion of massive elementary particles, such as electrons,
quarks up or quarks down for example, would involve that half the unidirectional kinetic energy imparted would
always quantize orthogonally to their direction of motion in space.
So this is why fields equation (29) for the electron at rest:
t)(ωsin
2μ
t)(ωcos),(
4
ε
2
2
ε
c
V
c
E
m 2
Z0
2
2
X
2
0
Y
2
0
2
m
20
ν KjIjIiJ00
BE (31)
where 2
3
C
5
em
2π
λα
V , 2
C
3
0
e
λαε
πe
E , 2
C
3
0
e
λα
ecπμ
B and 2
C
3
0
e
λαε
πe
ν
can be correlated and added within the corresponding spaces to the fields equation for the added kinetic
energy
K
2
Z0
2
K2
Y
2
K0
X
K Vt)(ωsin
2μ
t)(ω)cos,(
4
ε
2
2λ
hc
E
KjJjJiIiI
BE
(32)
where 2
35
K
2π
λα
V and 23
0
K
λαε
πe
E and 23
0
K
λα
ecπμ
B
in the following manner:
Table I: Combined fields equations of the electron and its carrier-photon
14. The Mechanics of Electron-Positron Pair Creation in the 3-Spaces Model
49
XXII. CONCLUSION
Analysis of the mechanics of conversion of photons of energy 1.022 MeV or more to electron-positron
pairs in the 3-spaces model reveals that electrons and positrons have exactly the same dynamic structure as
photons, the only difference being one of localization of the unidirectional half of their energy, that is, within
normal space for photons and within orthogonal electrostatic space for electrons and positrons, forcing their
electromagnetic half to oscillate between the two remaining orthogonal spaces, magnetostatic space being
common to both.
The fact that all of electron and positron energy resides in orthogonal electrostatic and magnetostatic
spaces explains in this model why all of their rest energy can be measured as having transverse inertia (mass) .
By comparison, only half the energy of a photon of same energy can be measured as having transverse
inertia, since only half of its energy resides in orthogonal electrostatic and magnetostatic spaces while the other
half, being unidirectional in normal space, opposes no transverse inertia whatsoever to any force being applied
transversally as discovered by Walter Kaufmann.
The charges of electron and positron are due in the 3-spaces model to the unidirectional half of their
energy located in electrostatic space applying pressure towards normal space from inside electrostatic space for
positrons, and applying pressure away from normal space from inside electrostatic space for electrons.
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