Welcome to Quantum Realism, we introduce you to the real world of quantum mechanics and scientific realism. Download eBooks about Quantum Mechanics, Scientific Realism etc.
The Physics of electromagnetic waves, a discourse to engineering 1st years.
"Lets discover what electromagnetic phenomena are entailed by the Maxwell’s equations.
Electromagnetic Waves are a set of phenomena broadly categorized as “Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet Rays, Visible light, Infra-red Rays, Microwaves and Radio waves.
We will discuss them from the perspective of Maxwell’s equations."
The very basic and the most interesting mistakes we are prone to commit when it comes to Physics. From Quantum Mechanics to Gravity, we can be in slippery soil. I have been there, and I want to share a few ideas.
I have tried to keep them very logical and simpler and I hope I get my point across. If any mistakes you spot, direct them back at me. Good riddance.
The document discusses electromagnetic waves and their properties. Some key points:
1) Electromagnetic waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
2) Both the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave are transverse to the direction of wave propagation.
3) Electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. They differ in wavelength and frequency.
1. The document discusses principles of quantum chemistry including classical mechanics and its inadequacies in explaining phenomena at the atomic level, Planck's quantum theory, and properties of electromagnetic radiation.
2. Key concepts covered include de Broglie's equation describing the wave-like nature of matter, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, explanations of photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation.
3. The document also introduces quantum numbers, Hund's rule, Pauli's exclusion principle, and Aufbau's principle, which describe allowable electron configurations in atoms and molecules.
Quantum Theory. Wave Particle Duality. Particle in a Box. Schrodinger wave equation. Quantum Numbers and Electron Orbitals. Principal Shells and Subshells. A Fourth Quantum Number. Effective nuclear charge
In wireless communication, we frequently use an electromagnetic wave. In this presentation, we can study wave equation, reflection, plane wave, and transmission line.
This document discusses MATLAB simulations of electromagnetic wave propagation characteristics in water and oil. The simulations show that in water (a conductive medium), the electric and magnetic fields are out of phase and their amplitudes are continuously attenuated during propagation. But in oil (a non-conductive medium), the electric and magnetic fields remain in phase and their amplitudes remain unchanged. The simulations provide insights into how electromagnetic waves can be used to measure oil spill thickness in water.
The Physics of electromagnetic waves, a discourse to engineering 1st years.
"Lets discover what electromagnetic phenomena are entailed by the Maxwell’s equations.
Electromagnetic Waves are a set of phenomena broadly categorized as “Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet Rays, Visible light, Infra-red Rays, Microwaves and Radio waves.
We will discuss them from the perspective of Maxwell’s equations."
The very basic and the most interesting mistakes we are prone to commit when it comes to Physics. From Quantum Mechanics to Gravity, we can be in slippery soil. I have been there, and I want to share a few ideas.
I have tried to keep them very logical and simpler and I hope I get my point across. If any mistakes you spot, direct them back at me. Good riddance.
The document discusses electromagnetic waves and their properties. Some key points:
1) Electromagnetic waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
2) Both the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave are transverse to the direction of wave propagation.
3) Electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. They differ in wavelength and frequency.
1. The document discusses principles of quantum chemistry including classical mechanics and its inadequacies in explaining phenomena at the atomic level, Planck's quantum theory, and properties of electromagnetic radiation.
2. Key concepts covered include de Broglie's equation describing the wave-like nature of matter, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, explanations of photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation.
3. The document also introduces quantum numbers, Hund's rule, Pauli's exclusion principle, and Aufbau's principle, which describe allowable electron configurations in atoms and molecules.
Quantum Theory. Wave Particle Duality. Particle in a Box. Schrodinger wave equation. Quantum Numbers and Electron Orbitals. Principal Shells and Subshells. A Fourth Quantum Number. Effective nuclear charge
In wireless communication, we frequently use an electromagnetic wave. In this presentation, we can study wave equation, reflection, plane wave, and transmission line.
This document discusses MATLAB simulations of electromagnetic wave propagation characteristics in water and oil. The simulations show that in water (a conductive medium), the electric and magnetic fields are out of phase and their amplitudes are continuously attenuated during propagation. But in oil (a non-conductive medium), the electric and magnetic fields remain in phase and their amplitudes remain unchanged. The simulations provide insights into how electromagnetic waves can be used to measure oil spill thickness in water.
The chapter contains fundamentals of Modern physics, the Quantumtheory explanation of Black body radiation photoelectric effect and Compton effect, and the beginning of the de-Broglie hypothesis, wave-like properties of matter, and its proof explained in detail. It is highly useful for first-year B.Tech and BE students.
This document discusses electromagnetic waves and Maxwell's equations. It provides an overview of key topics:
- Maxwell derived equations showing electric and magnetic fields form propagating waves at the speed of light.
- The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from radio to gamma rays. Waves are generated by oscillating electric fields creating magnetic fields and vice versa.
- Maxwell's equations precisely relate the electric and magnetic fields and how they vary over time. This allowed calculation of the waves' speed as the measured speed of light.
The document provides an overview of various physics concepts including:
1) The scientific method and SI units for length, mass, and time.
2) Scalars and vectors, kinematics equations, forces, energy, momentum, waves, electricity, and magnetism.
3) Key concepts are defined such as velocity, acceleration, wavelength, frequency, reflection, refraction, electric fields, magnetic fields, circuits, and more.
Formulas for displacement, velocity, energy, momentum, wave velocity, Snell's law, Coulomb's law, and others are also presented.
A dimensionless quantity described as a fundamental physical constant characterizing the coupling strength of the electromagnetic interaction. Introduced by Sommerfeld in 1916 to describe the spacing of splitting of spectral lines in multi-electron atoms, it is formed from four physical constants: electric charge, speed of light in vacuo, Planck's constant and electric permittivity of free space.
The inverse fine structure constant (=137.035999...) represents the spin precession whirl no. of the electron. The electron exhibits a slight precession due to an imbalance of electrostatic and magnetostatic energy levels. Electric charge is a result of this spin precession and represents a loop closure failure (torsion defect) similar to topological charge.
Rest mass results from quantum wave interference due to precession. Hence, electric charge, rest mass and the fine structure constant are interrelated and directly calculable.
This document discusses Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction and Maxwell's equations. It begins by introducing Faraday's discovery that changing magnetic fields induce electric fields. It then explains Maxwell's unification of previous works into four equations, including adding the displacement current term. The document derives the differential and integral forms of Maxwell's equations and discusses their implications, including that changing electric and magnetic fields can generate each other and propagate as electromagnetic waves.
This document provides information and homework problems related to electromagnetic theory and electromagnetic homework help. It includes 6 problems about Maxwell's stress tensor, forces on dielectric materials and conductors due to electric and magnetic fields, energy balance in conductors, the memory function, and using Kramers-Kronig relations to obtain sum rules and properties of the dielectric function. Students are directed to a website and contact information for assistance with electromagnetic assignment help.
This document provides information about quantum mechanics concepts such as:
1. The origin of spectral lines from hydrogen atoms and the Rydberg formula for calculating wavelengths.
2. De Broglie's hypothesis that particles have an associated wavelength and the formula for calculating this wavelength.
3. Davisson and Germer's experiment in 1927 which provided evidence for the wave nature of electrons by observing diffraction patterns when electrons were fired at a nickel crystal.
I am Irene M. I am an Electromagnetism Assignment Expert at eduassignmenthelp.com. I hold a Ph.D. in Electromagnetism, from California, USA. I have been helping students with their homework for the past 8 years. I solve assignments related to Electromagnetism.
Visit eduassignmenthelp.com or email info@eduassignmenthelp.com.
You can also call on +1 678 648 4277 for any assistance with Electromagnetism Assignments.
The WKB approximation is a method to find approximate solutions to the Schrodinger equation. It was developed in 1926 by Wentzel, Kramer, and Brillouin. The approximation assumes the wavefunction is an exponentially varying function with amplitude and phase that change slowly compared to the de Broglie wavelength. It can be used to obtain approximate solutions and energy eigenvalues for systems where the classical limit is valid. The approximation breaks down near classical turning points where the particle's energy is equal to the potential energy. The document provides examples of using the WKB approximation to solve the time-independent Schrodinger equation in one dimension for cases where the particle's energy is both greater than and less than the potential energy.
[1] Photoelectric effect provides evidence that light behaves as particles called photons, with each photon having energy hν. This explains the threshold frequency and instantaneous emission.
[2] Compton scattering demonstrates that photons transfer discrete packets of energy and momentum to electrons during collisions, with the photon's wavelength increasing in accordance with conservation laws. This provided direct evidence that photons are real particles.
[3] Pair production demonstrates that a photon's energy can be converted into an electron-positron pair, as predicted by Einstein's equation E=mc2. A minimum photon energy of 1.02 MeV is required to produce the pairs.
This document provides instructions for navigating a presentation on vibrations and waves. It begins with directions for viewing the presentation as a slideshow and advancing through it. It then lists the chapter contents which cover topics like simple harmonic motion, wave properties, and wave interactions. Sample problems and objectives are provided for each section. The document concludes with multiple choice questions related to simple harmonic motion.
This document provides 6 problems related to electromagnetism for assignment help. It addresses topics like polarization, Fresnel's formulas, electromagnetic waves in plasma, skin effect, group velocity, and surface electromagnetic waves. It gives the questions, outlines the approach and key steps to solve each problem, and provides the solutions. The document aims to help students with assignments on electromagnetic theory and related concepts in electromagnetism.
The document discusses the electronic structure of atoms. It introduces quantum numbers like the principal quantum number n, angular momentum quantum number l, and magnetic quantum number ml, which describe the allowed orbitals for electrons. Orbitals include s, p, and d orbitals with different shapes. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers. Electron configurations show how electrons are arranged in orbitals based on increasing energy.
This document discusses plane electromagnetic waves. It defines plane waves as waves whose wavefronts are infinite parallel planes of constant amplitude normal to the phase velocity vector. The electric and magnetic fields of a plane wave are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. Plane waves can be linearly, circularly, or elliptically polarized depending on the orientation and behavior of the electric field vector over time. Linear polarization occurs when the electric field is oriented along a fixed line. Circular polarization results when the electric field traces out a circle, and elliptical polarization is characterized by an elliptical trace.
The document discusses the classical scattering cross section in mechanics. It begins by introducing scattering cross sections as important parameters in physics. It then discusses central forces and how scattering of particles can be considered under classical central force approximations. The rest of the document derives the classical Rutherford differential scattering cross section formula by analyzing particle scattering via a central force and equating impact parameters with scattering angles and energies. It notes how this classical formula fits real scattering problems well but departs at higher energies, requiring quantum mechanical treatment.
This document discusses the Zeeman effect, which is the splitting of a spectral line into multiple components in the presence of an external magnetic field.
It defines the Zeeman effect and introduces the concept of perturbed and unperturbed Hamiltonians. It describes the degenerate and non-degenerate cases and applies stationary perturbation theory. Specifically, it shows the derivation of the first-order Zeeman effect using Hamiltonian mechanics to obtain the energy correction term proportional to the magnetic field strength and angular momentum.
Finally, it notes some applications of the Zeeman effect, including its use in magnetograms of the sun, theories of bird navigation, and techniques like nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging.
The Significance of the Speed of Light relating to EinsteinKenny Hansen
This document discusses Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity and how it relates to the universal constant speed of light. It explores how light can behave as both a particle and wave, and how its speed is directly linked to concepts like mass, time, and energy. The speed of light is fundamental to our understanding of physics and the nature of the universe according to Einstein's theory.
This document discusses several aspects of diffraction and polarization of light. It begins by introducing diffraction and how it occurs when light encounters an obstacle or aperture. It then discusses single-slit diffraction and how a slit wider than the wavelength of light produces interference patterns downstream. Next, it explains how to calculate the angle for destructive interference using the path difference between light from different points across the slit. It also discusses diffraction from circular apertures and the Airy disk pattern. Finally, it defines polarization as the orientation of oscillations in transverse waves and discusses polarized and unpolarized light.
The document provides information on quantum theory and its application to atomic structure. It discusses key concepts such as:
1) Energy is quantized and can only be emitted or absorbed in discrete packets called quanta.
2) Electrons in atoms exist in discrete energy levels called shells or orbitals. They can only transition between these levels by absorbing or emitting quanta of energy.
3) Quantum numbers are used to describe the specific energy state of each electron in an atom, including its distance from the nucleus, energy, and orientation.
The chapter contains fundamentals of Modern physics, the Quantumtheory explanation of Black body radiation photoelectric effect and Compton effect, and the beginning of the de-Broglie hypothesis, wave-like properties of matter, and its proof explained in detail. It is highly useful for first-year B.Tech and BE students.
This document discusses electromagnetic waves and Maxwell's equations. It provides an overview of key topics:
- Maxwell derived equations showing electric and magnetic fields form propagating waves at the speed of light.
- The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from radio to gamma rays. Waves are generated by oscillating electric fields creating magnetic fields and vice versa.
- Maxwell's equations precisely relate the electric and magnetic fields and how they vary over time. This allowed calculation of the waves' speed as the measured speed of light.
The document provides an overview of various physics concepts including:
1) The scientific method and SI units for length, mass, and time.
2) Scalars and vectors, kinematics equations, forces, energy, momentum, waves, electricity, and magnetism.
3) Key concepts are defined such as velocity, acceleration, wavelength, frequency, reflection, refraction, electric fields, magnetic fields, circuits, and more.
Formulas for displacement, velocity, energy, momentum, wave velocity, Snell's law, Coulomb's law, and others are also presented.
A dimensionless quantity described as a fundamental physical constant characterizing the coupling strength of the electromagnetic interaction. Introduced by Sommerfeld in 1916 to describe the spacing of splitting of spectral lines in multi-electron atoms, it is formed from four physical constants: electric charge, speed of light in vacuo, Planck's constant and electric permittivity of free space.
The inverse fine structure constant (=137.035999...) represents the spin precession whirl no. of the electron. The electron exhibits a slight precession due to an imbalance of electrostatic and magnetostatic energy levels. Electric charge is a result of this spin precession and represents a loop closure failure (torsion defect) similar to topological charge.
Rest mass results from quantum wave interference due to precession. Hence, electric charge, rest mass and the fine structure constant are interrelated and directly calculable.
This document discusses Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction and Maxwell's equations. It begins by introducing Faraday's discovery that changing magnetic fields induce electric fields. It then explains Maxwell's unification of previous works into four equations, including adding the displacement current term. The document derives the differential and integral forms of Maxwell's equations and discusses their implications, including that changing electric and magnetic fields can generate each other and propagate as electromagnetic waves.
This document provides information and homework problems related to electromagnetic theory and electromagnetic homework help. It includes 6 problems about Maxwell's stress tensor, forces on dielectric materials and conductors due to electric and magnetic fields, energy balance in conductors, the memory function, and using Kramers-Kronig relations to obtain sum rules and properties of the dielectric function. Students are directed to a website and contact information for assistance with electromagnetic assignment help.
This document provides information about quantum mechanics concepts such as:
1. The origin of spectral lines from hydrogen atoms and the Rydberg formula for calculating wavelengths.
2. De Broglie's hypothesis that particles have an associated wavelength and the formula for calculating this wavelength.
3. Davisson and Germer's experiment in 1927 which provided evidence for the wave nature of electrons by observing diffraction patterns when electrons were fired at a nickel crystal.
I am Irene M. I am an Electromagnetism Assignment Expert at eduassignmenthelp.com. I hold a Ph.D. in Electromagnetism, from California, USA. I have been helping students with their homework for the past 8 years. I solve assignments related to Electromagnetism.
Visit eduassignmenthelp.com or email info@eduassignmenthelp.com.
You can also call on +1 678 648 4277 for any assistance with Electromagnetism Assignments.
The WKB approximation is a method to find approximate solutions to the Schrodinger equation. It was developed in 1926 by Wentzel, Kramer, and Brillouin. The approximation assumes the wavefunction is an exponentially varying function with amplitude and phase that change slowly compared to the de Broglie wavelength. It can be used to obtain approximate solutions and energy eigenvalues for systems where the classical limit is valid. The approximation breaks down near classical turning points where the particle's energy is equal to the potential energy. The document provides examples of using the WKB approximation to solve the time-independent Schrodinger equation in one dimension for cases where the particle's energy is both greater than and less than the potential energy.
[1] Photoelectric effect provides evidence that light behaves as particles called photons, with each photon having energy hν. This explains the threshold frequency and instantaneous emission.
[2] Compton scattering demonstrates that photons transfer discrete packets of energy and momentum to electrons during collisions, with the photon's wavelength increasing in accordance with conservation laws. This provided direct evidence that photons are real particles.
[3] Pair production demonstrates that a photon's energy can be converted into an electron-positron pair, as predicted by Einstein's equation E=mc2. A minimum photon energy of 1.02 MeV is required to produce the pairs.
This document provides instructions for navigating a presentation on vibrations and waves. It begins with directions for viewing the presentation as a slideshow and advancing through it. It then lists the chapter contents which cover topics like simple harmonic motion, wave properties, and wave interactions. Sample problems and objectives are provided for each section. The document concludes with multiple choice questions related to simple harmonic motion.
This document provides 6 problems related to electromagnetism for assignment help. It addresses topics like polarization, Fresnel's formulas, electromagnetic waves in plasma, skin effect, group velocity, and surface electromagnetic waves. It gives the questions, outlines the approach and key steps to solve each problem, and provides the solutions. The document aims to help students with assignments on electromagnetic theory and related concepts in electromagnetism.
The document discusses the electronic structure of atoms. It introduces quantum numbers like the principal quantum number n, angular momentum quantum number l, and magnetic quantum number ml, which describe the allowed orbitals for electrons. Orbitals include s, p, and d orbitals with different shapes. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers. Electron configurations show how electrons are arranged in orbitals based on increasing energy.
This document discusses plane electromagnetic waves. It defines plane waves as waves whose wavefronts are infinite parallel planes of constant amplitude normal to the phase velocity vector. The electric and magnetic fields of a plane wave are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. Plane waves can be linearly, circularly, or elliptically polarized depending on the orientation and behavior of the electric field vector over time. Linear polarization occurs when the electric field is oriented along a fixed line. Circular polarization results when the electric field traces out a circle, and elliptical polarization is characterized by an elliptical trace.
The document discusses the classical scattering cross section in mechanics. It begins by introducing scattering cross sections as important parameters in physics. It then discusses central forces and how scattering of particles can be considered under classical central force approximations. The rest of the document derives the classical Rutherford differential scattering cross section formula by analyzing particle scattering via a central force and equating impact parameters with scattering angles and energies. It notes how this classical formula fits real scattering problems well but departs at higher energies, requiring quantum mechanical treatment.
This document discusses the Zeeman effect, which is the splitting of a spectral line into multiple components in the presence of an external magnetic field.
It defines the Zeeman effect and introduces the concept of perturbed and unperturbed Hamiltonians. It describes the degenerate and non-degenerate cases and applies stationary perturbation theory. Specifically, it shows the derivation of the first-order Zeeman effect using Hamiltonian mechanics to obtain the energy correction term proportional to the magnetic field strength and angular momentum.
Finally, it notes some applications of the Zeeman effect, including its use in magnetograms of the sun, theories of bird navigation, and techniques like nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging.
The Significance of the Speed of Light relating to EinsteinKenny Hansen
This document discusses Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity and how it relates to the universal constant speed of light. It explores how light can behave as both a particle and wave, and how its speed is directly linked to concepts like mass, time, and energy. The speed of light is fundamental to our understanding of physics and the nature of the universe according to Einstein's theory.
This document discusses several aspects of diffraction and polarization of light. It begins by introducing diffraction and how it occurs when light encounters an obstacle or aperture. It then discusses single-slit diffraction and how a slit wider than the wavelength of light produces interference patterns downstream. Next, it explains how to calculate the angle for destructive interference using the path difference between light from different points across the slit. It also discusses diffraction from circular apertures and the Airy disk pattern. Finally, it defines polarization as the orientation of oscillations in transverse waves and discusses polarized and unpolarized light.
The document provides information on quantum theory and its application to atomic structure. It discusses key concepts such as:
1) Energy is quantized and can only be emitted or absorbed in discrete packets called quanta.
2) Electrons in atoms exist in discrete energy levels called shells or orbitals. They can only transition between these levels by absorbing or emitting quanta of energy.
3) Quantum numbers are used to describe the specific energy state of each electron in an atom, including its distance from the nucleus, energy, and orientation.
Heisgnberg principle, energy levels & atomic spectraNoor Fatima
Heisgnberg principle, energy levels & atomic spectra word document full discription on these topics avaivale can be used as presentations or assignments. hope so it may help
Presented Presentation on college level about Raman spectroscopy where I describe about Principle and phenomena and their instrumentation and applications to chemistry.
This document is Einstein's seminal 1905 paper "Concerning an Heuristic Point of View Toward the Emission and Transformation of Light". In the paper, Einstein summarizes issues with existing theories of light and blackbody radiation. He proposes that light energy is quantized rather than continuous, consisting of discrete "energy quanta" localized in space that can only be emitted or absorbed as complete units. This revolutionary idea helped lay the foundations for the development of quantum mechanics.
Electromagnetic waves are an essential aspect of the study of physics, particularly in the realm of electromagnetism. These waves are characterized by their ability to propagate through space without the need for a medium, unlike mechanical waves such as sound waves. At the heart of electromagnetic theory lies the groundbreaking work of James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated a set of equations that unified the phenomena of electricity and magnetism.
Thesis on the masses of photons with different wavelengths.pdf WilsonHidalgo8
It deals with the methods and calculations to measure the masses of photons with different wavelengths.
where I was able to create two experimental calculations to explain the measurements of the masses of the photons.
and I hope that this thesis competes with others, in order to obtain a physics prize.
This document summarizes key concepts about particle-wave duality and electromagnetic waves. It discusses how electrons can be interpreted as both particles and waves, and how electromagnetic waves exhibit both wave and particle properties depending on the circumstances. Maxwell showed that electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. The photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation are discussed, which classical physics could not explain, leading to developments in quantum theory including Planck's hypothesis of quantized energy levels of oscillators.
The document discusses wave-particle duality and Louis de Broglie's hypothesis that all matter has both wave-like and particle-like properties. It summarizes key experiments that supported this idea, including Davisson and Germer's 1927 experiment in which electron beams were diffracted by crystal lattices, demonstrating their wave-like behavior. The document also explains how de Broglie's hypothesis resolved issues with early atomic models by introducing the concept of electron standing waves within atoms.
The document discusses several optical phenomena including:
1) The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence of a light ray equals the angle of reflection.
2) Transmission of light refers to the percentage of incident light that passes through a medium.
3) Refraction causes light to bend when passing from one medium to another with a different speed, as described by Snell's law.
The document discusses several optical phenomena including:
1) The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence of a light ray equals the angle of reflection.
2) Transmission of light refers to the percentage of incident light that passes through a medium.
3) Refraction causes light to bend when passing from one medium to another with a different speed, as described by Snell's law.
This chapter discusses the evolution of atomic models and the arrangement of electrons in atoms. It covers difficult concepts such as electrons occupying specific energy levels and orbitals. Students are advised to do all assigned homework and bring their textbook to class to fully understand these abstract ideas. Key models discussed include the Rutherford model, the planetary model, Bohr's model linking electrons and photon emission, and the modern quantum mechanical model based on probability.
This document provides a summary of key concepts about electrons in atoms, including:
1) It discusses the evolution of atomic models from Rutherford to Bohr, focusing on explaining the arrangement of electrons. The quantum mechanical model describes electron probability clouds rather than fixed orbits.
2) It covers atomic orbitals and how electrons fill different orbitals based on their principal and angular momentum quantum numbers. Higher principal quantum numbers correspond to higher energy levels further from the nucleus.
3) The document emphasizes that electrons fill orbitals based on the Aufbau principle to achieve the lowest possible energy configuration. Understanding electron configurations is essential to describing elements and their properties.
The symmetry occurs in most of the phenomena explained by physics, for example, a particle has positive or negative charges, and the electric dipoles that have the charge (+q) and (-q) which are at a certain distance (d), north or south magnetic poles and for a magnetic bar or magnetic compass with two poles: North (N) and South (S) poles, spins up or down of the electron at the atom and for the nucleons in the nucleus In this form, the particle should also have mass symmetry. For convenience and due to later explanations, I call this mass symmetry or mass duality as follows: mass and mass cloud. The mass cloud is located in the respective orbitals given by the Schrödinger equation. The orbitals represent the possible locations or places of the particle which are determined probabilistically by the respective Schröndiger equation.
The document discusses the electronic structure of atoms. It introduces quantum numbers like the principal quantum number n, angular momentum quantum number l, and magnetic quantum number ml, which describe the allowed electron orbitals in an atom. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers. Electron configurations show how electrons are arranged among the orbitals in an atom based on filling orbitals in order of increasing energy.
Quantum mechanics is the science of the very small that explains the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic level. Some key aspects of quantum mechanics include wave-particle duality, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, Schrodinger's wave equation, quantum superposition, quantum entanglement, and more. Many experiments such as the double slit experiment provide evidence of these quantum effects.
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Wave particle unity and a physically realist interpretation of light
1. Wave Particle Unity and a Physically Realist Interpretation of Light
by
Robert French
EMAIL – robert.e.french@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper sketches a program towards giving a physically realist model of the photon in
terms of properties of the electromagnetic field. It is both shown how to rework
traditional wave and particle concepts so as to have a unified concept and how parallel
electromagnetic fields can be associated with each charged particle. An account of both
light propagation and of interactions with matter is sketched. A suggestion is made as to
how the account may be able to explain EPR correlations in the case of polarization
entanglement. A possible empirical test is also discussed.
Key Words: Wave Particle Unity; Bell States; Entanglement; Advanced Wave
2. 2
I hold that the key to understanding quantum properties of light involves
transforming the traditional concept of the electromagnetic field. Instead of holding that
an electric field is a single field created by a summation of effects from different charges,
I hold that the overall field is comprised of a series of parallel three-dimensional
subspaces each associated with a charged source particle. Mathematically, the two
approaches are the same though, it is just that the summations occur at different locations.
Under the traditional account, the strength of the E field at a given location is
proportional to a vector summation of the effects from each charge q and the force at this
location is proportional to the strength of the field there. In contrast, under my account
the strength of each field is a function of the source particle charge and distance from it,
and the resultant force at a given location is proportional to a vector summation of the
effects from each of the fields at that location. Hence, as in the first case, the resultant
force is a function of a summation of the charges and the distances from them.
I identify particles with waves, which I will call here 'wave-particles.' In the case
of light (where the waves are electromagnetic fields and the particles are photons), I am
thus identifying photons with oscillating electromagnetic fields. On the surface this
position may appear to be paradoxical, since, as traditionally conceived, particles possess
precise locations (an extreme version of which is the point particle) and waves are
conceived as being spread out over all physically possible paths. Traditionally waves are
conceived as being undulations traveling over a medium where the medium does not
travel, while particles travel through space. Also, waves are conceived as being able to
3. 3
pass by each other without any mutual effects, while in the extreme traditional conception
particles are conceived as being impenetrable. Also, in the extreme traditional conception
particles are conceived as being indivisible while waves break up into wavelets when
they reach a barrier. I believe that the following moves to some extent alleviate threse
traditional difficulties.
First, I locate the wave-particles in separate parallel three-dimensional subspaces
in an overall four-dimensional space (not Minkowski spacetime since all of the
dimensions are just spatial and not also temporal). I thus hold that the wave-particles are
able to 'glide by' each other without affecting each other until they reach a potential
absorber. For purposes of this exposition, potential absorbers are taken as being finitely-
sized four-dimensional entities, and thus impinging on each of the subspaces at a given
location. Secondly, I believe that a 'traveling wave' which consists of oscillating 'matter'
traveling independently of a medium is at least coherent, although for the purposes of this
paper I will not make a stand on whether light consists of such a wave. Also, I do not
hold that it is typically the numerically identical photon which is both emitted and later
absorbed. Instead, as I will be elaborating on shortly, I hold that photons are routinely
broken up into what I term 'partial photons' and then recombined in a discrete manner in
the absorption process.
In the photon emission process, I hold that a photon number state (Fock state) is
created in the field associated with the emitting particle. It will be propagated at the speed
of light c in this field until complications set in as with elastic scattering and reflections.
It might appear that there is a conflict here with traditional accounts of quantum
electrodynamics (QED) since according to traditional accounts (1) where the vector
4. 4
potential is quantized, the electric field vanishes for photon number states. However, this
is only the average value of the field, and thus there can still be fluctuations on either side
of the value. It can also be noted that the average intensity of the field (the square of the
field strength) will remain positive. I should also note that for the purposes of this
exposition, the electromagnetic fields associated with light will be postulated to possess
both vector (force) and scalar (energy) aspects; the two aspects being related, in the case
of the plane electromagnetic wave, by the energy density of the wave E2
+ B2
. I also
postulate that these fields are modulated at the rate associated with energy fields;i. e. an
inverse square rate.
I hold then that light consists of spherical waves oscillating perpendicular to the
line of propagation. The E wave and the B wave will be in adjacent subspaces oscillating
on orthogonal axes, with the frequency of oscillation corresponding to , the frequency of
the corresponding wavelength of light. Angles of polarization here will be determined by
the axes of rotation of the E waves. The rotational waves will be defined as having a
radial propagation of c and a transverse propagation in the form of an oscillating
rotational wave with a maximum speed of c. They will also be defined as being
rotationally perpendicular to each other and so as to be out of phase by . The equations
for the effective angular velocities Ω1 and Ω 2 for these two oscillating fields can thus be
defined as
Ω 1 = (c/r)acos(t) [1]
and
Ω 2 = (c/r)bsin(t) [2]
5. 5
where r is the radius from the source particle at time t, is the angular frequency of the
light wave, and a and b are orthogonal radial unit vectors centered at the source particle
and aligned with the axes of rotation respectively of the E and B fields.
I will now discuss a linkage between these rotational waves and probability
amplitudes. I will deal first with the case where there is just a single path linking the
particles emitting and subsequently absorbing the photon, and then will deal with the
multiple path case. In the single path case I wish to introduce two probability amplitudes
1 and 2. These correspond to the real (cosine) and "imaginary" (sine) terms of the
Euler identity expansion for the probability amplitude (using the Feynman path integral
approach) of a physically possible path between two points
= eiS/h
= cos(S/h) + i sin (S/h) [3]
where S is the action between the points, h is Planck's constant. and is the probability
amplitude for the path. It should be emphasized that only paths close to the classical paths
actually contribute to the amplitudes and thus that the crazy ones cancel out, as Feynman
notes. (2, 3) I also wish to construe these amplitudes realistically in terms of properties of
the foregoing rotational waves Ω1 and Ω 1 . In particular, 1 and 2 can be defined as
follows:
1 = A(ω1/2
/c1/2
r)cos(t) [4]
2= A(ω1/2
/c1/2
r)sin(t) [5]
where r is the distance from the source particle, and A=(c/4πωΔr)1/2
is a normalization
factor for a wave packet emitted between times t1 and t2 traveling at c over a finite
distance to a potential absorber. The width of the wave packet is thus Δr = c(t1 – t2). I will
interpret these amplitudes physically as corresponding to the E and B force fields. The
6. 6
probability P for a photon being absorbed is traditionally given by multiplying a
probability amplitude by its complex conjugate. In my notation this corresponds to
summing the squares of 1 and 2. Thus, the probability density for absorption is given
by:
P = * = 1
2
+ 2
2
=A2
(/cr2
)cos2
(t) + A2
(/cr2
)sin2
(t) [cm-3
] [6]
It can be noted that the while the magnitudes of the probability amplitudes
associated with physically possible paths of light rays vary at an inverse ratio with respect
to their distances from their source particles, the probability for absorption here is
inversely proportional to the square of that distance. This corresponds to the energy
density (intensity) of the electromagnetic field. I will now deal with the multiple path
case.
The multiple path case involves interference effects from among the contributions
from the different physically possible paths. I wish to explain interference effects in terms
of the claim that there is a superposition of rotational effects from among the previously-
mentioned rotational waves when they meet a potential absorber. Since potential
absorbers will impact each of the subspaces of the different rotational waves, there will
thus be a superposition of their various effects. The probability for absorption then is
given by the absolute square of the sum (the "kernel" as defined by Feynman (2, p. 26))
of the probability amplitudes associated with individual physically possible paths. Phase
factors of these probability amplitudes account for constructive or destructive
interference among the different paths.
Since I am using sine and cosine notation, kernels in my interpretation of
Feynman’s account will be comprised of two parts K1 and K2, corresponding to the
7. 7
summations of the respective probability amplitudes 1 and 2. K1 and K2 will thus
correspond to the resultant rotational effects, taking all of the rotational waves together
respectively of the waves for the E fields and the B fields. The sum of these two kernels
will then determine the probability of absorption of the individual wave packets; e. g., the
probability P for light to travel between two points a and b would be given by adding the
squares of the two kernels:
P = * = K1
2
+ K2
2
= (1)2
+ (2)2
[7]
The summations are over all physically possible paths from a to b, and 1 and 2
are the probability amplitudes, as previously characterized, associated with wave packets
for each physically possible path from a to b when these have been suitably normalized.
The overall probability for absorption thus corresponds to the intensity at a given location
of a superposition of the electromagnetic fields from the various source particles. It can
be noted that Feynman (2, Ch. 4) has shown that the resulting differential equation here is
the Schrodinger equation, although I will not summarize his derivation in this paper. It
should also be emphasized again that it need not be the numerically same photon as that
which is emitted from one source which is absorbed here, but that rather a discrete
amount of energy is drawn from a 'pool' to which many different sources may
contribute.(4)
In the case where light is not absorbed, I hold that two processes occur. First,
elastic scattering will occur, where I hold that only a partial collapse of the wave packet
takes place, with photons being literally divided into distinct portions in the process.
These distinct partial photons will subsequently be propagated in different subspaces of
spherical rotational waves, each possessing the same frequency as the original rotational
8. 8
wave and centered at the location of scattering. The second process involves light which
is not scattered being 'pushed aside' (the Renninger (5) effect) creating a shadow in the
given direction and increasing the density (and hence also the chances of absorption)
from other locations. I will not derive the relative ratios (i. e., the cross sections) for
scattering and the Renninger effect.
It can next be noted that a beamsplitter involves both the transmission and the
reflection of light, and thus splits a light beam in two. According to standard quantum
mechanics, a beamsplitter splits a probability wave but not a particle. Since I am
identifying waves with particles though, the particle must also be split at the beamsplitter.
It can be noted that beamsplitters are key optical components in classical interference
experiments, where they are needed to separate beams before they are recombined, with a
phase differential, at a detector. They are also key components with polarization
entanglement experiments, which, after a brief digression on the absorption process, I
will elaborate a bit on.
I hold that in the absorption process a discrete amount of energy (E=h) is drawn
from the distinct subspaces of each wave-particle (e. g., a partial photon) impacting on
the absorbing particle. The relative ratios drawn from each subspace correspond to the
partial photon densities at the location. The energy is drawn from along past trajectories
until a node, involving a four-dimensional particle, is reached. The node plays the role of
providing a four-dimensional 'link' between three-dimensional subspaces. The energy is
then drawn from along other possible trajectories in subspaces centered on the node to
other locations where the partial photon already has a 'presence.' The sense of 'presence'
here is the same a s the sense in which the absorbed photon had a presence at its detector;
9. 9
i. e., it had a potential to be absorbed there. I hold that this backwards and forward wave
process must take place in the present; i. e., during the absorption time, and thus both
waves must travel faster than c. The concept of a backwards wave here is analogous to
the concept of an advanced wave developed by Klyshko (6), only under my conception of
it, the wave does not go backwards in time and instead acts instantly in the present. I also
believe that the backward and forward wave process just sketched is the key for
explaining the correlations at a distance which occur in polarization entanglement
experiments and thus I will now turn to a discussion of that subject.
In polarization entanglement experiments orthogonal signal and idler probability
amplitudes are made to overlap at a detector. (7) It can be noted that the corresponding
force field strengths are changed respectively at a cos and sin rate by a polarizer
placed at an angle to the original bases angles. Since the intensity (energy) of a field is
given by the square of the force field strength, energy fields (from which photons,
possessing a discrete packet of energy, are drawn) emerging from a polarizer are cut in
accordance with Malus' law I cos2
. It should be emphasized here that, under my
account, the original fields are not being cut in strength or filtered by the polarizer.
Instead, since in effect I am defending an emission theory of light, I hold that new fields
(driven by the old ones) are being created by the polarizer. A new basis of polarization is
then given by the relevant Jones operator of the polarizer.
10. 10
Diagram 1 Illustration of advanced force field rotational waves from one detection
system being cut by polarizers at the opposite detection system resulting in polarization
entanglement.
It is now possible to identify the field components from which the energy is
drawn from in both singles counting and coincidence counting in polarization
entanglement experiments. First there are energy fields associated with the original signal
Coincidence
Counter
Detector 1 Detector 2
Polarizer
Θ1
Polarizer
Θ2
H1 V1 SinΘ2 H2 CosΘ2 V2 V2 H2 CosθV1 Sinθ1 H1
CosΘ1H1 SinΘ1V1 CosΘ1SinΘ2H2 Sin Θ1CosΘ2V2 SinΘ2V2 Cos Θ2H2 SinΘ2CosΘ1V1 CosΘ2SinΘ1H1
Down Converted Light from Non-polarizing Beamsplitter
Advanced
Waves
11. 11
and idler fields as they converge together at each individual detector. These energy fields
are given respectively by sin2
1 + cos2
1 and sin2
2 + cos2
2 terms. Since sin2
+ cos2
= 1 the total singles counts from combining the two energy fields will remain constant as
a function of polarization angle. I will now turn to my discussion of the situation for
coincidence counting, which is considerably more subtle
In my explanation of the non-local effects of polarization entanglement associated
with coincidence counting I invoke two steps. The first step is illustrated in Diagram 1.
This involves the force fields, which I explicated as rotational waves, at the two
detectors. I then invoke advanced waves analogous to those proposed by Klyshko (6)
except as I previously noted I do not hold that they go backwards in time. For the
purposes of this paper I will leave it as an open question as to whether these waves are
generated by the polarizers or by the detectors themselves. For the Ψ
Bell states (8) I
hold that advanced waves from each of the rotational waves at one detector are cut by
the polarizers at the opposite detection system. This results in a sinΘ1cosΘ2 wave being
present at one detector and a sinΘ2cosΘ1 wave being present at the other detector. The
angle sum and difference identities 122121 cossincossinsin can then
be invoked to show how this is equivalent to the sine of the sum or difference of the
angles between the two polarizers. Similarly with the Φ±
Bell states the rotational waves
sinΘ1sinΘ2 are present at one detector and cosΘ1cosΘ2 at the other. Here the identity
122121 sinsincoscoscos can be invoked on the rotational waves at
the two detectors. It can be noted that when the terms for any of the Bell states are
squared the result gives the probability for correlated two photon absorption from the
12. 12
Diagram 2 Illustration of advanced waves from one detection system being cut by
polarizers at the opposite detection system resulting in polarization entanglement.
respective two detectors. It can also be remarked that for each of the Bell states this
results in an interference term sin Θ1cosΘ1sinΘ2cosΘ2 which cannot be factored (9).
Coincidence
Counter
Detector 1 Detector 2
Polarizer
Θ1
Polarizer
Θ2
H1 V1 Sin
2
Θ2 H2 Cos
2
Θ2 V2 V2 H2 Cos
2
θV1 Sin
2
θ1 H1
Cos
2
Θ1H1 Sin
2
Θ1V1 Cos
2
Θ1Sin
2
Θ2H2 Sin
2
Θ1Cos
2
Θ2V2 Sin
2
Θ2V2 Cos
2
Θ2H2 Sin
2
Θ2Cos
2
Θ1V1 Cos
2
Θ2Sin
2
Θ1H1
Down Converted Light from Non-polarizing Beamsplitter
Advanced
Waves
13. 13
The second step involves joint energy field absorption as is illustrated in Digure 2.
As shown, the absorption process also involves advanced waves, only in this case for
energy fields which are cut respectively at sin2
and cos2
rates in accordance with Malus’s
law. For the Ψ±
Bell states this results in sin2
1cos2
2 H2 and cos2
1sin2
2 V2 energy
fields being present at one detector and cos2
2sin2
1 H1 and sin2
2cos2
1 V1 energy
fields being present at the other detector. In the absorption processes associated with
coincidence counting energy is redistributed in a joint process so that the energy fields
associated with both sine terms are absorbed at one detector and the energy fields
associated with both cosine terms are absorbed at the other detector. It should be pointed
out that the energy for two photon absorption here is continuously present at the two
detectors while the corresponding wave packets are present at them. It should also be
emphasized again that it is the probability for the joint absorption process which is
modulated by the first step process which includes the cross term sinΘ1cosΘ1sinΘ2cosΘ2.
Similar remarks hold for the case of the Φ±
Bell states except in these cases the advanced
waves are cut by polarizers on a new set of basis beams changed in polarization by 450
by
a quarter wave plate.
By the preceding considerations, the energy of the ”partial photons” present at
each detector can be jointly absorbed in either of two alternative ways sin2
(1 2 ) or
cos2
(1 2) corresponding respectively to the Ψ
and Φ
Bell states. The joint energy
associated with these states can be measured by the difference between the polarization
vectors of the two polarizers with coincidence counting. It should be stressed again that
the photon absorption at each separate detector draws energy from the sets of energy
fields jointly present at both detectors. This is because when a joint absorption event
14. 14
occurs, energy redistribution must occur so as to include the energy represented by the
cross term sin1cos1sin2cos which cannot be factored into particular terms for the
energy fields present at the two detectors individually.
It can also be pointed out that in the case of each of the Bell states, due to the
Young inequality ab ≤ ap
/p + bq
/q where p = q = 2, the cross term sin1cos1sin2cos2
is always equal to or less than the squared terms sin2
1cos2
2 and sin2
2cos2
1 or
cos2
1cos2
2 and sin2
2sin2
1 and thus negative energy is never involved here. The
preceding can be interpreted as the process of correlated two photon absorption from the
combined energy fields present at the two detectors with correlated photon pairs from the
fields being jointly absorbed by the process of correlated photon absorption. (10) It can
be remarked that it has been argued that this process can occur with two absorbers at a
macroscopic distance from each other. (11)
My claim is thus that the energy fields associated with the polarization
entanglement experiments are absorbed in tandem over the spatially extended region
encompassing the two detectors. As Maudlin (12) emphasizes a special reference frame
(e. g., that of the source particle) is required here. It can be noted that since the field
properties depend on the polarization angles of both polarizers, they can only be
measured by coincidence counts from both detectors. It can also be noted that Aspect's
(13) experiments have shown that a common cause explanation of the correlations does
not work. In his experiments the set of polarizers being sent to is changed in flight by
fast acousto-optic switches after the photons have left their source. Since there is a space-
like separation between the absorption events at the detectors the correlations cannot be
explained by any subluminal communication between the detection events. It can be
15. 15
noted that at very low intensities of down-converted light (e. g., at the single photon
level), there are anticorrelations, showing photon number squeezing, between detection
events at two detectors after a beam has been separated by a beamsplitter. (14) Thus, as in
the joint absorption case just discussed, the energy for the photon being absorbed is
drawn from along past and forward trajectories in such a manner as to provide a link with
the second detector. Depending on the nature of the experiment involved the key node, as
previously defined, for creating the link may be in a beamsplitter or even in a down-
conversion crystal. I should emphasize again that the foregoing account parallels the
account in terms of advanced waves given by Klyshko (6) and also the transactional
account of Cramer (15) only it does not involve backwards in time causation, which I
find to be quite implausible.
It may be possible to test this last claim empirically using a pockels cell triggered
by a pulsed laser. In particular, if the pockels cell is temporally coordinated with pulses
generating down-converted photon pairs so that it changes polarization once a pair has
passed it, this should interfere with the advanced waves required for a joint absorption
event, and this should result in different statistics for coincidence counting. This can also
be done for a space-like separation of the absorption events at the two detectors by
feeding the light into optical fibers which are a few km in length (the record now for
sending down converted light is over 100 km., so this should be technically feasible)
(16).
16. 16
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5. M. Renninger, Zeit Fur Phys.158, 417 (1960).
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7. Y. Shih, Reports in Progress in Physics 66, 1009 (2003). 13.
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