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![raised the shout of emancipation. Such a shout never before or since
has ascended from earth to the ear of God.
For a week these rejoicings were continued in Paris. The Field of
Mars was converted into an immense ball-room, where thousands
listened to enchanting music, and with the overflowings of fraternal
love engaged in feasting, dancing, and all manner of games. At night
the city blazed with illuminations, and the flame of fireworks turned
darkness into day. The trees of the Elysian Fields were festooned
with brilliant lamps, shedding a mild light upon the most attractive of
scenes. There was no intoxication, no tumult, no confusion. All
classes intermingled, with kind words on every lip and kind looks
beaming from every face. No carriages were permitted to enter
these avenues, that the rich and the poor might share the festivities
alike. Pyramids of fire were placed at intervals in the midst of the
mass of foliage. The white dresses of the ladies who were
sauntering through those umbrageous alleys, the music, the dances,
the games, the shouts of laughter, led almost every one to the
delusive hope that the old world of care and sorrow had vanished to
give place to a new era of universal love and joy.[256]
The site of the Bastille was converted into an open square, and at
the entrance of the inclosure was an inscription "Ici l'on danse"
(Dancing here). For centuries the groans of the captive had
resounded through the vaults of that odious prison. The groans had
now ceased, and happy hearts throbbed with the excitement of the
song and the dance.
La Fayette gave a splendid review of the National Guard. The king,
the queen, and the dauphin attended the review, and were warmly
greeted by the people. The queen assumed the attitude of
reconciliation, and graciously presented her hand to the delegates to
kiss.
The delegates from the departments, before they left Paris, went in
a body to present their homage to the king. With one voice they
expressed to him their respect, gratitude, and affection. The chief of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-21-320.jpg)
![Professor William Smyth, one of the most candid of English writers,
"the Constituent Assembly was supposed to have freed the country
from temporal and spiritual thraldom; the government had been
rested on free principles; the Bastille had been destroyed, lettres de
cachet abolished, feudal impediments and oppressions of every kind
removed, religious liberty established, the system of law made
uniform, the criminal jurisprudence reformed, monasteries
abolished; and by making the military force consist of the citizens of
the country, freedom, and all those new and weighty advantages,
seemed to be forever secured from the machinations of arbitrary
power."
The aristocracy, however, of England and Europe were struck with
alarm. The emancipation of the people in France threatened their
emancipation throughout the civilized world. Edmund Burke
espoused the cause of the aristocracy. With eloquence quite
unparalleled he roused England and Europe to war. In view of his
fierce invectives Michelet exclaims, in language which will yet be
pronounced by the world as not too severe,
"Mr. Pitt, feeling sure of the European alliance, did not hesitate to
say in open parliament that he approved of every word of Burke's
diatribe against the Revolution and against France—an infamous
book, full of calumny, scurrilous abuse, and insulting buffoonery; in
which the author compares the French to galley-slaves breaking
their chains, treads under foot the declaration of the rights of man,
tears it in pieces and spits upon it. Oh! what a cruel, painful
discovery. Those whom we thought our friends are our most bitter
enemies."[257]
Thirty thousand copies of Burke's memorable "Reflections" were sold
almost in a day. The sovereigns of Europe were so highly elated that
they transmitted to him their thanks. The nobles and the higher
clergy of France wrote to him letters of acknowledgment, and the
nobility of England lavished upon him their applause. These
"Reflections" combined aristocratic Europe against popular rights,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-23-320.jpg)
![and the people had no resource left them but to defend their
liberties with the sword.
FOOTNOTES:
[251] For the speech in full, see Thiers, vol. i., p. 126.
[252] M. Fromont, in his memoirs entitled "Recueil de divers
Ecrits relatifs à la Revolution," very frankly writes, "I repaired
secretly to Turin (January, 1790), to the French princes, to solicit
their approbation and their support. In a council which was held
on my arrival, I demonstrated to them that, if they would arm the
partisans of the altar and of the throne, and make the interests of
religion go hand in hand with those of royalty, it would save both.
The real argument of the revolutionists being force, I felt that the
real answer was force. Then, as at present, I was convinced of
this great truth—that religious zeal alone can stifle the Republican
mania.
"In consequence of this dread (of the new order of things), they
secretly set at work the most efficacious means for ruining the
internal resources and for thwarting the proposed plans, several
of which were calculated to effect the re-establishment of order, if
they had been wisely directed and supported."
[253] "There is no country in the world," says Voltaire, "where
there are so many contradictions as in France. The king gives the
actors wages, and the curé excommunicates them."
[254] "The whole of Europe—on the one hand Austria and Russia,
on the other England and Prussia—were gradually gravitating
toward the selfsame thought, the hatred of the Revolution.
However, there was this difference, that liberal England and
philosophical Prussia needed a little time in order to pass from
one pole to the other—to prevail upon themselves to give
themselves the lie, to abjure and disown their principles, and
avow that they were the enemies of liberty."—Michelet, p. 327.
[255] Memoirs of the Marquis of Ferrières.
[256] No one familiar with the writings of that day will affirm that
this description is too highly drawn. Upon this point Patriots and
Royalists agree. See Ferrières, t. ii., p. 89, on the part of the
Royalists, and Alphonse Esquiros, p. 38, on the part of the
Revolutionists.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-24-320.jpg)
![[257] Michelet's French Revolution, p. 415.
CHAPTER XX.
FLIGHT OF THE KING.
Riot at Nancy.—Prosecution of Mirabeau.—Issue of Assignats.—
Mirabeau's Interview with the Queen.—Four political Parties.—
Bishops refuse to take the Oath to the Constitution.—Character
of the Emigrants.—The King's Aunts attempt to leave France.—
Debates upon Emigration.—Embarrassment of the Assembly.—
Death of Mirabeau.—His Funeral.—The King prevented from
visiting St. Cloud.—Duplicity of the King.—Conference of the
Allies.—Their Plan of Invasion.—Measures for the Escape of the
King.—The Flight.
THE grand gala days, in the Field of Mars, celebrating the formation
of the Constitution, soon passed. The twenty thousand delegates,
having been fêted even to satiety, returned to their homes; the
Constituent Assembly resumed its labors.[258] The cares and toils of
life again pressed heavily upon the tax-exhausted and impoverished
millions of France.
The Belgians, in imitation of France, had commenced a struggle for
freedom. The King of France permitted Austria to send her troops
across the French territory into Belgium to crush the patriots. Many
of the most influential of the opponents of the Revolution were still
leaving France and uniting with the armed emigrants on the
frontiers. England, Austria, Sardinia, and Prussia were manifestly
forming an alliance to punish the French patriots, and to restore the
tyranny of the execrable old régime. The court, emboldened by
these proceedings, were boasting of the swift destruction which was
to overwhelm the advocates of reform, and commenced a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-25-320.jpg)
![perfect liberty, but he was continually watched. The queen was
exceedingly anxious for flight. The king was ever vacillating, but
generally, influenced by such advisers as Mirabeau and La Fayette,
inclined to accept the Revolution. He was also haunted with the idea
that his cousin, the Duke of Orleans, wished to frighten him into
flight, that the Assembly might declare the throne vacant, and place
the sceptre in the duke's hand as the sworn friend and supporter of
the Revolution.
Mirabeau had commenced his career as one of the most ardent
advocates of reform, but he now wished to arrest the progress of
the revolutionary chariot, as he affirmed that it had passed beyond
its proper goal. His course was attributed by some to bribery on the
part of the court. His friends say that he was only influenced by his
own patriotic intelligence. At St. Cloud there is a retired summer-
house, embowered in foliage, at the summit of a hill which crowns
the highest part of the park. The queen appointed an interview with
Mirabeau at this secluded spot.
The statesman of gigantic genius, who seemed to hold in his hand
the destinies of France, left Paris on horseback one evening, under
pretense of visiting a friend. Avoiding observation, he turned aside
into a by-path until he reached a back gate of the park. Here he was
met in the dark by a nobleman, who conducted him to the retreat of
the queen, who was waiting to receive him. His constitution was
already undermined by dissipation and unintermitted labors. His
cheeks were sunken, his eyes inflamed, his complexion sallow, and a
flabby corpulency announced the ravages of disease; but,
notwithstanding all these defects, his genial spirit and courtly
bearing made him one of the most fascinating of men.[259]
The queen was then thirty-five years of age. Care and grief had
sadly marred her marvelous beauty. Her proud spirit was chagrined
in being compelled to look for support to one of the leaders of the
people. But little is known respecting what passed at this private
interview. At its close Mirabeau said to the queen,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-27-320.jpg)
!["Madam, when your august mother admitted one of her subjects to
the honor of her presence, she never dismissed him without allowing
him to kiss her hand."
The queen, responding to the gallantry, graciously presented her
hand. Mirabeau, bowing profoundly, kissed it, and then, raising his
head, said proudly,
"Madam, the monarchy is saved."[260]
Suddenly Mirabeau became rich, set up a carriage, furnished his
house sumptuously, and gave magnificent entertainments. He
immediately commenced a course of cautious but vigorous measures
to overthrow the Constitution and establish one less democratic,
which should give more stability and efficiency to the royal power.
He affirmed that this was essential to the peace and prosperity of
France, and that, instead of being bought over by the court, he had
bought the court over to his views.
"But suppose the court refuses," said one of his friends, "to adopt
your plans?"
"They have promised me every thing," Mirabeau replied.
"But suppose they should not keep their word?" it was rejoined.
"Then," said Mirabeau, "I will overthrow the throne and establish a
republic."
It can hardly be denied that the Constitution was too democratic for
a monarchy and hardly democratic enough for a republic. In the
natural course of events public opinion would sway either to
strengthening the throne or to diminish still more its prerogatives.
There were now four parties in France. The first consisted of the old
aristocratic classes of the clergy and the nobles, now mostly
emigrants, and busy in effecting a coalition of surrounding
monarchies to quell the Revolution, and by fire and sword to
reinstate the rejected despotism of the Bourbons.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-28-320.jpg)
![The second class was composed of the king and Mirabeau, with the
queen reluctantly assenting to its principles, and others of the nobles
and priests who were disposed, some from choice and others from
the consciousness of necessity, partially to accept the Revolution.
They were willing to adopt a constitution which should seriously limit
the old prerogatives of the crown. But they wished to repudiate the
constitution now adopted, and to form one less democratic, which
would still grant many prerogatives to the king.
The third party consisted of the great majority of the Assembly,
headed by sincere and guileless patriots like La Fayette, and
sustained probably by the great majority of the purest and best men
in the kingdom, who were in favor of the constitution which the
nation had accepted. While they did not regard it as perfect, they
felt that it was a noble advance in the right direction, and that the
salvation of the liberties of France now depended upon allegiance to
this constitution.
There was a fourth class, restless, tumultuous, uninformed,
composed of the lowest portion of the populace, who could ever be
roused to phrensy by the cry of "Aristocracy," who were ripe for any
deeds of violence, and who regarded that firmness of law which
protected order, property, and life as tyranny. They occupied the
lowest possible platform of democracy.
Such was the condition of France as the Constituent Assembly now
endeavored to consolidate the new institutions and to bring harmony
from the chaos into which the nation had been plunged. While in
these circumstances of unparalleled peril, combined Europe was
watching for an opportunity to pounce upon the distracted nation.
All public functionaries were required to take oath to the new
constitution. The clergy, as bound by the laws of the Romish Church,
appealed to the Pope for instructions. At the same time the opposing
bishops and nobles wrote to the Pope urging him to withhold his
assent.[261] The king had sanctioned the decrees. The Pope, under
various pretexts, postponed an answer. Many of the bishops and
curates consequently refused to take the oath. The Assembly was](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-29-320.jpg)
![not disposed to wait for the decision of a foreign potentate, and,
accepting those bishops and curates who took the oath, immediately
nominated new bishops and curates to take the place of those who
refused. Justly and frankly the Assembly declared that it wished to
do no violence to conscience, but that it could not appoint as public
functionaries those men who refused to take the oath of allegiance
to the Constitution of the kingdom. This increased exasperation, and
enabled many of the bishops to appeal to the fanatic populace to
rise in defense of the endangered Church.
The emigrants now made a general rendezvous at Coblentz, in the
territory of the Elector of Treves, and at other points of the frontier.
[262] These men, composing what was called the court, consisted
mainly of the higher nobles who had long been pampered with the
favors of the monarchy, and who looked with contempt upon the
nobles of the rural districts. Haughty, dissolute, and frivolous, they
scorned any appeal to the popular arm, even to popular fanaticism
for support. The only recourse to which they would condescend
were the armies of England, Austria, and Prussia. The rural nobles,
on the other hand, and the rural bishops, were secretly organizing
their friends within the kingdom to fall fiercely in civil war upon the
patriots so soon as the solid battalions of the allies should cross the
frontiers.[263]
In this state of things the king's aunts decided to leave France. They
had proceeded in their carriage on the way to Rome as far as Arnay-
le-Duc, when they were arrested. The feverish state of the public
mind led to suspicions that their emigration might accelerate
impending perils. The Assembly took the matter into deliberation
whether the ladies should be permitted to depart. The question was
settled by a keen sally of Menou.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-30-320.jpg)
![audacity, opposed any law against emigration.[264]
"I admit," said he, "that a bad use is made of this liberty at the
present moment. But that by no means authorizes this absurd
tyranny. I beg you to remember that I have all my life combated
against tyranny, and that I will combat it wherever I find it. That
popularity to which I have aspired, and which I have enjoyed, is not
a feeble reed. I will thrust it deep into the earth, and will make it
shoot up in the soil of justice and of reason. And I now solemnly
swear, if a law against emigration is voted, I swear to disobey you."
[265]
The Assembly was truly in a dilemma. They could not prohibit
emigration without grossly violating that declaration of rights which
they had just adopted with solemnities which had arrested the
attention of the world. They could not permit this flood of emigration
without exposing France to ruin; for it was well known that the
nobles, with all the wealth they could accumulate, were crossing the
frontiers merely to organize themselves into armies for the invasion
of France.
Mirabeau never displayed more power than on this occasion, in
overawing and commanding the Assembly. He succeeded in
arresting the measure. This, however, was his last triumph. Disease
was making rapid ravages, his frame was exhausted, and death
approached. A sudden attack of colic confined him to his chamber,
and soon all hope of recovery was relinquished. He was still the idol
of the people, and crowds, in breathless silence, thronged around
his abode, anxious to receive bulletins of his health. The king and
the people alike mourned, for both were leaning upon that vigorous
arm.
He could not repress an expression of satisfaction in view of his
labors and his accomplishments. To his servants he said, "Support
this head, the greatest in France." "William Pitt," he remarked, "is
the minister of preparations. He governs with threats. I would give](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-32-320.jpg)
![him some trouble if I should live."[266] On the morning of his death
he said to an attendant,
"Open the window. I shall die to-day. All that can now be done is to
envelop one's self in perfumes, to crown one's self with flowers, to
surround one's self with music, that one may sink quietly into
everlasting sleep."
Soon, in a paroxysm of extreme agony, he called for opium, saying,
"You promised to save me from needless suffering."
To quiet him a cup was presented, and he was deceived with the
assurance that it contained the desired fatal opiate. He swallowed
the draught, and in a moment expired, in the forty-second year of
his age. It was the 2d of April, 1791. His death caused profound
grief. All parties vied alike in conferring honor upon his remains. The
nation went into mourning, a magnificent funeral was arranged, and
the body was deposited in the tomb with pomp surpassing that
which had accompanied the burial of the ancient kings of France.
Suspicions are still cherished that Mirabeau died the victim of poison.
[267]
The funeral of Mirabeau was the most imposing, popular, and
extensive of any recorded in history, always excepting that
unparalleled display of a nation's gratitude and grief which
accompanied the transfer of the remains of Napoleon from St.
Helena to the Invalides. It is estimated that four hundred thousand
men took a part in the funeral pageant of Mirabeau. The streets
were draped in mourning, and pavements, windows, balconies, and
house-tops were thronged with sad and silent spectators.
La Fayette headed the immense procession, and was followed by the
whole Constituent Assembly, and by the whole club of Jacobins,
who, in a dense mass, assumed to be chief mourners on the
occasion, though Mirabeau had for some time held himself aloof
from their tumultuous meetings. It was eight o'clock in the evening
before the procession arrived at the Church of Saint Eustache, where
a funeral oration was pronounced by Cérutti. The arms of twenty](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-33-320.jpg)
![thousand of the National Guard were then discharged at once. The
crash caused the very walls of the church to rock, shivering to atoms
every pane of glass.
It was now night, and, by the light of a hundred thousand torches,
the procession resumed its course. New instruments of music had
been invented, which were then heard for the first time—the
trombone and the tamtam. As the vast procession traversed the
streets through the gloomy shades of night, illumined by the glare of
flickering torches, with the tolling of bells, blending, now with the
wail of the chant and now with the pealing requiems of martial
bands, all the elements of sublimity seemed combined to affect the
heart and overawe the soul. It was near midnight when the
sarcophagus was deposited in its tomb at the Church of Saint
Geneviève, over whose portal was inscribed these words,
"AUX GRANDS HOMMES LA PATRIE RECONNAISSANTE."
Mirabeau was the master-spirit of the Revolution. After his death
there were multitudes struggling for the leadership, with no man of
sufficient prominence to attain and retain it. The funeral of Mirabeau
was the funeral of emancipated France. From that hour the
Revolution was on the rush to ruin.
"Time," writes Michelet, "which reveals every thing, has revealed
nothing that really proves the reproach of treason to be well
founded. Mirabeau's real transaction was an error, a serious, fatal
error, but one that was then shared by all in different degrees. At
that time all men, of every party, from Cazalès and Maury down to
Robespierre, and even to Marat, believed France to entertain Royalist
opinions. All men wanted a king. The number of Republicans was
truly imperceptible. Mirabeau believed that it was necessary to have
a king with power, or no king at all. It is true that Mirabeau appears
to have received sums to defray the expense of his immense
correspondence with the Departments—a sort of ministry that he
was organizing at his own house. He makes use of this subtle
expression—this excuse which does not excuse him—that he had not
been bought; that he was paid, not sold."[268]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-34-320.jpg)
![faithful to the oath which he had taken to the Constitution, and that
all those who intimated any thing to the contrary were his enemies
and the enemies of the country. He soon after, however, declared to
an envoy sent to him from the Emperor Leopold, that this letter by
no means contained his real sentiments, but that it was wrung from
him by the peril of his situation.[269]
A conference of the foreign powers was held on the 20th of May,
1791, at Mantua, in Italy, where Leopold, Emperor of Austria, and
brother of Marie Antoinette, then chanced to be. At this conference
Count d'Artois appeared in behalf of the emigrants. Prussia was
represented by Major Bischofverder, England by Lord Elgin, and
Louis XVI. by the Count de Durfort. Several other of the kingdoms
and principalities of Europe were represented on the occasion. The
Count de Durfort returned from this conference to Louis XVI. in
Paris, and brought him the following secret declaration in the name
of the Emperor Leopold:[270]
Austria engaged to assemble thirty-five thousand men on the
frontiers of Flanders. At the same time fifteen thousand men from
the smaller German States would attack Alsace. Fifteen thousand
Swiss troops were to be marched on Lyons, and the King of Sardinia,
whose daughter the Count d'Artois had married, was to assail
Dauphiné. The king of Spain, cousin of Louis XVI., was to gather
twenty thousand troops upon the slopes of the Pyrenees, to fall like
an avalanche down upon southern France. Prussia engaged to co-
operate cordially. The King of England, notwithstanding the
eloquence of Burke's pamphlet, could not yet venture to call upon
the liberty-loving English to engage in this infamous crusade against
the independence and the liberty of a sister kingdom. But the king,
as Elector of Hanover, engaged to take an active part in the war. A
protest against the Revolution was to be drawn up in the name of
the whole house of Bourbon, whose divine right to despotism in
France had been questioned by the French people, and this protest
was to be signed by those branches of the Bourbons who were
occupying the thrones of Spain, Naples, and Parma.[271]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-36-320.jpg)
![Plans for the invasion having been thus arranged, Louis XVI.
resolved immediately to effect his escape to the frontier. He could
then place himself at the head of these foreign armies, and lash
France into obedience, and consign those patriots who had been
toiling for liberty to the dungeon and the scaffold.
Never was the condition of a nation more full of peril, or apparently
more hopeless. This impending destruction was enough to drive any
people into the madness of despair. It is hard to wear the fetters of
bondage even when one has never known any thing better. But,
after having once broken those chains and tasted the sweets of
liberty, then to have the shackles riveted anew is what few human
spirits can endure.
It was not the intention of the king immediately to leave France. He
arranged to go to Montmedy, about two hundred miles from Paris,
taking the very retired Chalons road through Clermont and
Varennes. The Marquis of Bouillé, a general entirely devoted to the
court party, formed a camp at Montmedy to receive the king, under
the pretense of watching hostile movements on the frontiers. Small
detachments of cavalry were also very quietly posted at different
points on the road to aid in the flight. All the arrangements were
made for starting on the 20th of June.[272]
The king, though on the whole a worthy man, and possessing some
excellent traits of character, was in some points weak almost to
imbecility. All the energy of the family was with the queen, and she,
with the Marquis of Bouillé, planned the escape. They were often
thwarted, however, in their wishes by the obstinacy of the king. La
Fayette was entirely deceived, and but few even of the court were
intrusted with the secret. Still, rumors of flight had been repeatedly
circulated, and the people were in a state of constant anxiety lest
the court should carry off the king. They hardly believed that the
king himself wished to join the emigrants, and to urge war against
the Constitution which he had sworn to accept.
The Swiss Guards still surrounded the Tuileries. They were stationed,
however, only at the exterior posts. The interior of the palace, the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-37-320.jpg)
![staircases, and the communications between the rooms were
occupied by the National Guard, in whom the nation could place
more reliance. It was a long-established custom that troops should
be thus stationed throughout the palace, that the royal family might
be protected from impertinence or from any irruption of popular
violence. Since the terrible scenes of the 5th and 6th of October it
became more important than ever that a strong guard should
encircle the royal family. But while the ostensible duty of this guard
was only to protect the king from insult, it had also a secret mission
to prevent the king's escape.
La Fayette, to whom the whole business was intrusted, oppressed
with the responsibility of his office, was continually, by night and by
day, visiting the posts. To the officers who had charge of the night-
watch he had given secret orders that the king was not to be
permitted to leave the palace after midnight. Thus the king was truly
a prisoner, and he was fully conscious of it, though every possible
effort was adopted to conceal from him the humiliating fact.
M. Bouillé and the queen were compelled to yield to the whims of
the king, and to adopt measures which threatened to frustrate the
plan. The king insisted upon having an immense carriage
constructed which could take the whole party, though the unusual
appearance of the carriage would instantly attract all eyes; he
insisted upon traveling a very unfrequented route, which would
excite the curiosity of every one who should see the carriage pass;
he insisted upon stationing military detachments along the route,
though Bouillé urged that such detachments if small could render no
service, and if large would excite suspicion; he insisted upon taking
the governess of the children, because the governess said that she
loved the children too much to be separated from them, though
Bouillé urged that instead of the incumbrance of a governess they
should take in the carriage an officer accustomed to traveling, and
who could aid in any unexpected emergency. The king, though fickle
as the wind upon questions of great moment, was, like all weak
men, inflexible upon trifles.[273]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-38-320.jpg)
![would be likely to excite. He had a passport prepared, in which the
governess was represented as a German baroness, Madame de
Korff, traveling with her two children. The king was her valet-de-
chambre, the queen her waiting-maid. The proverbial wealth of the
German barons and the peculiar style of the equipage to which they
were accustomed happily favored this idea.[274]
The morning was just beginning to dawn as Count Fersen kissed the
hands of the king and queen and left them to prosecute their
perilous journey, while he took flight for the frontier through
Flanders. The coach was drawn by six horses, who were driven at
the utmost speed, relays of horses having been established at short
stages. The sun at length rose bright and cheerful. The country was
smiling in all the verdure of blooming June. Every revolution of the
wheels was bearing them farther from Paris. It was hardly possible
that their flight could be discovered until a late hour in the morning.
There were no telegraphs in those days to send intelligence with
lightning speed to arrest their flight. Having six or eight hours the
start of their pursuers, and being abundantly supplied with fresh
horses, escape seemed now almost certain. Hope began to cheer
their hearts.
Some slight interruptions had retarded their progress, and it was
about three o'clock in the afternoon when they entered Chalons,
some ninety miles from Paris. The queen, with an exultant smile,
exclaimed, "All goes well. If we were to have been stopped at all it
would have been before now."
At Chalons they exchanged horses. The king now felt that he was
safe, for the Marquis of Bouillé had posted detachments of troops at
every important point between Chalons and Montmedy. With
characteristic imprudence, as the carriage was surrounded with
idlers at Chalons, the king put his head out of the window, showing
his well-known face to the crowd. The postmaster instantly
recognized the king, but, being himself an ardent Royalist, divulged
not his secret, but aided in putting in the fresh horses, and ordered
the postillions to drive on.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-40-320.jpg)
![[258] "I have read many histories of revolutions, and can affirm
what a Royalist avowed in 1791, that never had any great
revolution cost less bloodshed and weeping. In reality, only one
class, the clergy, was able, with any appearance of truth, to call
itself robbed; and, nevertheless, the result of that spoliation was,
that the great bulk of the clergy, starved under the old system for
the emolument of a few prelates, had at length a comfortable
livelihood."—Michelet, p. 417.
[259] "If I had never lived with Mirabeau," says Dumont, "I
should never have known what a man can make of one day—
what things may be placed within the interval of twelve hours. A
day for this man is more than a week or a month is for others.
The mass of things he guided on together was prodigious; from
the scheming to the executing, not a moment lost."—Dumont, p.
311.
[260] Michelet, p. 333.
[261] Thiers, vol. i., p. 166. Ferrières, t. ii., p. 198.
[262] "Many of the emigrants had joined the army in a state of
complete destitution. Others were spending improvidently the last
relics of their fortunes. All were in good spirits, for the camp life
was free and joyous. They confidently believed that the end of
autumn would find them restored to their splendid homes, to
their groves, to their forests, and to their dove-cots."—
Chateaubriand's Memoirs of the Duke de Berri.
[263] See Recueil de divers Ecrits relatif à la Revolution, p. 62;
also Chateaubriand's Memoirs of the Duke de Berri.
In reference to England Michelet remarks, with much truth: "The
first power is aristocracy, the second aristocracy, and the third
aristocracy. This aristocracy goes on incessantly recruiting its
body with all those who grow rich. To be rich in order to be noble
is the absorbing thought of the Englishman. Property, specially
territorial and feudal, is the religion of the country."—Michelet's
French Revolution, p. 432.
[264] "The meeting ended at half past five, and Mirabeau went to
the house of his sister, his intimate and dear confidante, and said
to her, 'I have pronounced my death-warrant. It is now all over
with me, for they will kill me.'"—Michelet, p. 461.
[265] The peculiar character of Mirabeau is illustrated by the
following well-authenticated anecdote. He was, on one occasion,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-42-320.jpg)
![reading a report to the Assembly upon some riots in Marseilles,
which he affirmed were fomented by the partisans of the court.
He was incessantly interrupted by the aristocratic party with such
abusive epithets as "calumniator, liar, assassin, scoundrel." He
stopped a moment, looked at them with an imperturbable smile,
and, in his most honeyed tones, said, "Gentlemen, I wait till these
amenities be exhausted."—Dumont, Souvenirs, p. 278.
[266] The English people were at this time generally in sympathy
with the Revolution. The aristocratic government of England was
in deadly hostility to it. In 1792, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, then
head scholar in Jesus College, Cambridge, wrote an Ode to
France, commencing with the words,
"When France, in wrath, her giant limbs upreared,
And, with that oath which smote air, earth, and sea,
Stamped her strong foot, and said she would be free,
Bear witness for me how I hoped and feared."
In consequence of this ode, and his avowed attachment to the
principles of the Revolution, he became so obnoxious to his
superiors that he was constrained to leave the college abruptly,
without a degree.—Cyclopædia of English Literature, Article S.T.
Coleridge.
[267] M. Thiers, in the impetuosity of his narrative, is not always
accurate in details. He gives the 20th of April as the date of
Mirabeau's death. Mignet assigns it to the 2d of March. Nearly all
other authorities agree upon the 2d of April. It is indeed
wonderful that upon such a subject there should be such a
diversity of statement. The event at the time was deemed so
momentous, that the Jacobin Club voted that the anniversary of
his death should, through all future time, be celebrated with
funereal pomp.
[268] Mirabeau claims, and his friends claim for him, and
probably with justice, that he wished to be the mediator between
the Revolution and the monarchy—to save royalty and liberty,
believing that, under the circumstances, royalty was essential to
liberty. But the folly of the court thwarted every endeavor. They
would not accede to any measure of justice and moderation. The
court wished only to make him unpopular. Mirabeau saw his
position, from which no struggles could extricate him, and he died
of disappointment and grief. Had he not then died, he would, in a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21519-250614151151-d22a935c/85/Evolution-4th-Edition-by-Futuyma-Douglas-43-320.jpg)
Evolution, 4th Edition by Futuyma, Douglas
- 1. Evolution, 4th Editionby Futuyma, Douglas download https://ebookluna.com/product/evolution-4th-edition-by-futuyma- douglas/ Download full version ebook from https://ebookluna.com
- 3. Brief Contents UNIT I AnIdea that Changed the World 1 CHAPTER 1 Evolutionary Biology 3 CHAPTER 2 The Tree of Life 27 CHAPTER 3 Natural Selection and Adaptation 55 CHAPTER 4 Mutation and Variation 79 CHAPTER 5 The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 103 CHAPTER 6 Phenotypic Evolution 135 CHAPTER 7 Genetic Drift: Evolution at Random 165 CHAPTER 8 Evolution in Space 191 CHAPTER 9 Species and Speciation 213 UNIT Ill Products of Evolution: What Natural Selection Has Wrought 245 CHAPTER 10 All About Sex 247 CHAPTER 11 How to Be Fit 275 CHAPTER 12 Cooperation and Conflict 295 CHAPTER 13 Interactions among Species 321 CHAPTER 14 The Evolution of Genes and Genomes 345 CHAPTER 15 Evolution and Development 369 ftl.l UNIT IV lAIII Macroevolution and the History of Life 399 CHAPTER 16 Phylogeny: The Unity and Diversity of Life 401 CHAPTER 17 The History of Life 431 CHAPTER 18 The Geography of Evolution 469 CHAPTER 19 The Evolution of Biological Diversity 491 CHAPTER 20 Macroevolution: Ill UNITV Evolution above the Species Level 515 aw Evolution and Homo sapiens 545 CHAPTER 21 The Evolutionary Story of Homo sapiens 547 CHAPTER 22 Evolution and Society 573
- 4. Contents UNIT I AnIdea that Changed the World 1 CHAPTER 1 Evolutionary Biology "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense except in the Light of Evolution" 6 What Is Evolution? Is It Fact or Theory? 7 The Evolution of Evolutionary Biology 9 Before Darwin 9 Charles Darwin 10 Darwin's evolutionary theory 13 Evolutionary biology after Darwin 15 CHAPTER 2 The Tree of Life 27 The Tree of Life, from Darwin to Today 28 BOX 2A Classification, Taxonomic Practice, and Nomenclature 32 Phylogenetic Trees 33 Inferring phylogenies: An introduction 35 Variations on the Phylogenetic Theme 38 Branches of a phylogenetic tree sometimes rejoin 38 CHAPTER 3 3 The evolutionary synthesis 16 Evolutionary biology since the synthesis 16 BOX 1A Fundamental Principles of Biological Evolution 18 How Evolution Is Studied 18 Philosophicallssues 20 Ethics, religion, and evolution 21 SUMMARY 22 Not only organisms have "phylogenies" 39 Phylogenetic Insights into Evolutionary History 41 Inferring the history of character evolution 41 Estimating time of divergence 42 Patterns of evolution 43 BOX 2B Evidence for Evolution 44 SUMMARY 52 Natural Selection and Adaptation 55 Adaptive Evolution Observed 57 Natural Selection 59 The meaning of natural selection 59 Natural selection and chance 61 The effective environment depends on the organism 61 Levels of Selection 62 Selfish genes and unselfish behaviors 63
- 5. VIII CONTENTS Selection oforganisms and groups 64 Species selection 65 The Nature of Adaptations 66 Selection of and selection for 67 Recognizing adaptations 67 Imperfections and Constraints 71 UNIT II How Evolution Works 77 CHAPTER 4 Mutation and Variation The Machinery of Inheritance 79 The Inheritance of Variation 82 Gene mixing by segregation 83 Gene mixing by recombination 85 Gene mixing with asexual inheritance 88 Mutation: The Ultimate Source of Variation 88 Point mutations 89 Structural mutations 89 CHAPTER 5 Natural Selection and the Evolution of Diversity 72 What Not To Expect of Natural Selection 74 SUMMARY 75 79 Rates and Effects of Mutations 91 Mutation rates 91 BOX 4A Estimating Mutation Rates 92 Effects of mutations 92 Germ line mutations and somatic mutations 94 Is Mutation Random? 94 Nongenetic Inheritance 96 SUMMARY 99 The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 103 Natural Selection and Evolution in Real Time 104 Evolution by Selection and Inheritance 106 Fitness: The Currency of Selection 107 Positive Selection: The Spread of Beneficial Mutations 108 BOX SA Evolution by Selection on a Single Locus 109 The rate of adaptation 110 Chance and adaptation: The probability that a beneficial mutation spreads 115 Evolutionary Side Effects 116 Hitchhiking: When one allele goes for a ride with another 117 When Selection Preserves Variation 119 Overdominance 120 Other forms of balancing selection 122 Selection That Favors the Most Common 125 Underdominance: When heterozygotes suffer 125 Positive frequency-dependent selection 126 The Evolution of a Population's Mean Fitness 126 The fundamental theorem of natural selection and the adaptive landscape 127 Deleterious Mutations 130 A mutation-selection balance 130 The mutation load 130 SUMMARY 132
- 6. CONTENTS IX CHAPTER6 Phenotypic Evolution135 Genotypes and Phenotypes 136 Fitness Functions Describe Selection on Quantitative Traits 139 Measuring the Strength of Directional Selection 143 Evolution by Directional Selection 144 When genes interact: Dominance and epistasis 147 Adaptation from standing genetic variation versus new mutations 147 Can adaptation rescue species from extinction? 148 CHAPTER 7 Artificial Selection 149 Correlated Traits 151 Constraints and trade-offs 152 The causes of genetic correlations 153 Phenotypic Plasticity 155 The Genetic Architecture of Quantitative Traits 156 Quantitative trait loci 156 The genetics of quantitative traits 158 SUMMARY 161 Genetic Drift: Evolution at Random 165 What Is Random Genetic Drift? 166 The Genealogy of Genes 170 How Strong Is Genetic Drift? 172 Populations that change in size 173 Drift and Genetic Variation within Species 174 Estimating population size 176 Genetic Drift and Natural Selection 177 Crossing an adaptive valley by drift 180 The fate of beneficial mutations in large populations 180 8 ~ - -~ CHAPTER 8 Evolution in Space Patterns in Space 192 Gene Flow 193 How is gene flow measured? 194 Genetic Divergence between Populations 196 Gene Flow and Selection 198 191 The Evolution of Differences among Species 181 The neutral theory of molecular evolution 182 Searching the Genes for Signatures of Adaptation 183 Synonymous versus nonsynonymous differences 184 The MK test 186 Divergence among populations 186 SUMMARY 188 Tension zones 201 Gene Flow and Drift 202 Gene flow, local adaptation, and drift 203 The Evolution of Dispersal 204 The Evolution of Species' Ranges 207 SUMMARY 209
- 7. X CONTENTS CHAPTER 9 Speciesand Speciation What Are Species? 215 BOX 9A Diagnosis of a New Species 219 Reproductive Isolation 220 Prezygotic barriers 222 Postzygotic barriers 223 How fast does reproductive isolation evolve? 225 The Causes of Speciation 227 213 BOX 9A Speciation in the Lab 228 The Geography of Speciation 235 Allopatric speciation 235 Sympatric speciation 238 Parapatric speciation 241 The Genomics of Speciation 242 SUMMARY 243 UNIT Ill Products of Evolution: What Natural Selection Has Wrought 245 CHAPTERlO All About Sex 247 What Are Females and Males? 249 Why Sex? 263 Sexual Selection 251 Why are males sexually selected? 253 Sexual selection by male-male competition 254 Sexual selection by female choice 257 Sexual selection in flowering plants 260 Sex Ratios 260 CHAPTERll How to Be Fit 275 Life History Traits as Components of Fitness 276 Costs of reproduction 278 Fitness in age-structured populations 279 Senescence 280 Evolution of the Population Growth Rate and Density 281 Diverse life histories 282 CHAPTER 12 Advantages to sex in changing environments 264 Selective interference favors sex and recombination 265 Selfing and Outcrossing 269 SUMMARY 271 Number of offspring 286 Life histories and mating strategies 286 Specialists and Generalists 288 Advantages of specialization 289 Specialization without trade-offs 289 Experiments on niche evolution 291 SUMMARY 292 Cooperation and Conflict 295 The Costs and Benefits of Interacting 296 Social Interactions and Cooperation 296 Cooperation among Unrelated Individuals 297 Reciprocity 298
- 8. BOX 12A EvolutionarilyStable Strategies 299 Shared Genes and the Evolution of Altruism 300 BOX 12B Calculating Relatedness 301 BOX 12C Altruistic Mating Displays In Turkeys 303 Spite 304 Conflict and Cooperation in Close Quarters: The Family 304 Conflict between mates 304 CHAPTER 13 CONTENTS XI Murder in the family 306 Parent-offspring conflict 308 Eusocial animals: The ultimate families 308 Levels of Selection 310 Selfish DNA 310 Selfish mitochondria 312 Group selection 313 Cooperation and Major Evolutionary Transitions 315 SUMMARY 317 Interactions among Species 321 Coevolution and Interactions among Species 322 The Evolution of Enemies and Victims 324 Aposematism and mimicry 328 Plants and herbivores 329 Parasite-host interactions and infectious disease 331 ,../ .... ' CHAPTER 14 Mutualisms 334 The Evolution of Competitive Interactions 337 Evolution and Community Structure 339 SUMMARY 342 14 ~ The Evolution of Genes and Genomes 345 The Birth of a Gene 347 Gene families 351 The Death of a Gene 353 Evolution of Protein-Coding Genes 354 Evolution of coding regions by genetic drift 354 Evolution of coding regions by positive selection 355 Evolution of Gene Expression 356 Gene Structure 358 Chromosome Evolution 359 CHAPTER 15 Fissions, fusions, and the evolution of chromosome number 359 Inversions and the evolution of chromosome structure 360 Evolution of Genome Size and Content 361 Genomes large and small 362 Genetic parasites and transposable elements 362 Routes to the evolution of the smallest and largest genomes 364 SUMMARY 366 15 ~~ Evolution and Development 369 Comparative Development and Evolution 371 Gene Regulation 375 BOX 15A Some Methods in Developmental Genetics 376 Hox genes and the genetic toolkit 378 Developmental-Genetic Bases of Phenotypic Evolution 382
- 9. XII CONTENTS Evolution bycis-regulatory mutations 382 Evolution by trans-regulatory mutations 383 Overview: The genetics and development of phenotypic evolution 386 Evolvability and Developmental Pathways 386 Constraints on Adaptive Evolution 389 Phenotypic Plasticity and Canalization 391 Does phenotypic plasticity contribute to evolution? 394 SUMMARY 396 UNIT IV Macroevolution and the History of Life 399 ,..,, . CHAPTER 16 16 ~;.--::~ • .I Phylogeny: The Unity and Diversity of Life 401 Inferring Phylogenies 402 Why estimating phylogenies can be hard 404 Methods for estimating phylogenies 409 BOX 16A Estimating Trees with Likelihood 412 How Do We Use Phylogenies? 416 Dating evolutionary events 416 CHAPTER 17 The History of Life 431 Discovering the history of genes and cultures 417 Reconstructing ancestors 419 Studying adaptations: The comparative method 421 Classification 424 SUMMARY 427 Some Geological Fundamentals 432 The colonization of land 447 The fossil record 435 Paleozoic life on land 449 Before Life Began 435 The Emergence of Life 436 Precambrian Life 438 The Cambrian Explosion and the Origins of Animal Diversity 440 Paleozoic Life 443 CHAPTER 18 The end-Permian mass extinction 450 Mesozoic Life 452 The Cenozoic Era 459 The modern world takes shape 459 The adaptive radiation of mammals 460 Pleistocene events 463 SUMMARY 466 The Geography of Evolution 469 Biogeographic Evidence for Evolution 470 Major Patterns of Distribution 471 Historical factors affecting geographic distributions 474 Historical Explanations of Geographic Distributions 476 Vicariance 476 Dispersal 477 Phytogeography 480 Geographic Range Limits: Ecology and Evolution 481 Geographic Patterns of Diversity 484 SUMMARY 487
- 10. CONTENTS XIII CHAPTER 19 TheEvolution of Biological Diversity 491 Estimating and Modeling Changes in Biological Diversity 493 Studying diversity in the fossil record 494 Diversity through the Phanerozoic 495 Rates of origination and extinction 496 Mass extinctions 500 CHAPTER 20 Phylogenetic Studies of Diversity 502 The shapes of phylogenies 506 Does Species Diversity Reach Equilibrium? 507 SUMMARY 511 Macroevolution: Evolution above the Species Level 515 The Origin of Major New Forms of Life 516 The origin of mammals 517 Gradualism and Saltation 520 The Evolution of Novelty 524 Incipient and novel features: Permissive conditions and natural selection 524 Complex characteristics 526 Homology and the emergence of novel characters 527 From Microevolution to Macroevolution 529 Rates of evolution 529 Gradualism and punctuated equilibria 533 Speciation and phenotypic evolution 534 Trends, Predictability, and Progress 536 Trends: Kinds and causes 536 Are there major trends in the history of life? 538 Predictability and contingency in evolution 540 The question of progress 542 SUMMARY 543 UNIT V Evolution and Homo sapiens 545 CHAPTER 21 The Evolutionary Story of Homo sapiens 547 Where Did We Come From? 548 Our closest living relatives 548 How humans differ from other apes 549 Our ancestry: Hominins through time 551 The Arrival of Homo sapiens 555 The human history of hybridization 556 The diversity of human populations 557 Brain and Language 558 Diet and Agriculture: A Revolution in Our World 559 BOX 21A Domesticated Plants and Animals 561 Natural Selection, Past and Present 562 Our genetic loads 563 Natural selection and evolution in real time 565 Evolutionary mismatches 565 The Evolution of Culture 566 SUMMARY 569
- 11. XIV CONTENTS CHAPTER 22 Evolutionand Society BOX 22A Refuting Antievolutionary Arguments 574 Creationism and Science 577 Creationism 577 The nature of science 578 The Evidence for Evolution 579 The fossil record 579 Phylogenetic and comparative studies 580 Genes and genomes 580 Biogeography 580 Failures of the argument from design 581 Evolution, and its mechanisms, observed 583 The Uses and Implications of Evolutionary Science 584 APPENDIX: A Statistics Primer A-1 GLOSSARY G-1 LITERATURE CITED LC-1 ILLUSTRATION CREDITS IC-1 INDEX 1-1 573 Evolution by natural selection: A broad and flexible concept 584 Practical applications of evolutionary science 584 Using organisms' adaptations 585 Agriculture and natural resources 585 Conservation 587 BOX 22B The Current Extinction Crisis 587 Health and medicine 589 Evolution and Human Behavior 593 Variation in cognitive and behavioral traits 594 Human behavior: Evolution and culture 596 Understanding nature and humanity 598 SUMMARY 600
- 12. It is thoroughlyestablished that all known organisms descended from a single ancient common ancestor. This means that all characteristics of organisms, in all their glorious diver- sity, have evolved. Anatomical and cellular traits, biochemi- cal, molecular, neural and developmental processes, life histo- ries and ecological relationships-all can be viewed from the dual perspectives of current mechanism (how they work) and of history (how and why they came to be). The disciplines of organismal biology, including paleobiology, ecology, animal behavior, physiology, and systematics, continue to be central to evolutionary science, but are now being enriched by the genomic revolution, new analytical methods, and new evolu- tionary theory. The fourth edition of Evolution keeps pace with this explosively developing field. There are now two authors with broadly overlapping but complementary areas of expertise. The organization, content, and style of the book are reworked to such an extent that it is largely a new book. Key changes include: • Many human examples are used throughout, and there is an all-new chapter on human evolution. • A new primer in statistics gives a concise and accessible introduction to the field. • Theoretical concepts are developed in a more informal and inviting style. • The book has been entirely re-illustrated. The book is organized into these units: I. An Idea that Changed the World Chapter 1 opens with an overview of evolutionary biology and its history. The next two chapters introduce two of the most fundamental ideas in evolution: evolutionary trees (Chapter 2) and the concepts of natural selection and adap- tation (Chapter 3). II. How Evolution Works The first four chapters of this unit develop genetics and inheri- tance (Chapter 4), one-locus population genetics (Chapter 5), Preface quantitative genetics (Chapter 6), and genetic drift (Chapter 7). Chapter 8, which is entirely new, discusses spatial patterns and the evolution of dispersal. Chapter 9 then tackles species and speciation in a coherent treatment that has been streamlined relative to the third edition. Every chapter in this unit has been completely rewritten. Ill. Products of Evolution: What Natural Selection Has Wrought This unit treats key aspects of the evolution of phenotypes and genotypes: the all-new Chapter 10 on sexual selection and sexual reproduction, Chapter 11 with a rewritten exposition of the evolution of life histories and ecological niches, Chap- ter 12 on cooperation and conflict with new topics that include the evolution of virulence in pathogens, Chapter 13 on inter- actions among species, Chapter 14 on the evolution of genes and genomes, and Chapter 15 on evolution and development. These last two chapters have been rewritten in their entirety. IV. Macroevolution and the History of Life Chapter 16 develops the topic of phylogeny in detail. Chapter 17 provides a grand tour through the history of life. We turn to analysis of these historical data in Chapter 18, on bioge- ography, and Chapter 19, on patterns and causes of changes in biological diversity through time. Concepts drawn from throughout the book culminate in Chapter 20, which treats macroevolution. V. Evolution and Homo sapiens Perhaps no topic in biology has captured the imagination of scientists and the public alike than the tremendous recent advances in understanding human evolution. Chapter 21 con- veys this excitement with a synthesis of sources that include paleontology, genomics, and cultural anthropology. Our final chapter (22) looks at how evolutionary biology impacts soci- ety, including belief systems and our understanding of human behavior. More than any other science, evolutionary biology has had to prove its validity: in the United States, about half the
- 13. XVI PREFACE population doesnot accept evolution by natural selection, and many of them are college students. To teach evolution, then, is to teach the nature of science, the habit of reasoning between hypothesis and evidence, and the habit ofcritical evalu- ation. At a time when science and evidence are increasingly misunderstood or even dismissed, we feel it is important to teach students what science is, how it works, and why it is the most reliable way of knowing that has yet been devel- oped. Evolutionary biology is an ideal vehicle for this impor- tant function. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Countless colleagues and students have contributed indi- rectly to this book, through their lectures, publications, con- versations, and questions. We are indebted to the reviewers of chapter drafts for abundant, invaluable advice and correc- tions: Anurag Agrawal, Richard Bambach, Brian Barringer, David Begun, Andrew Brower, Brian Charlesworth, Jerry Coyne, Christopher Dick, Diego Figueroa, John Fleagle, Jacob Gardner, Kenneth Hayes, David Hillis, Gene Hunt, David Innes, David Jablonski, Elizabeth Jockusch, Joel Kingsolver, David Lohman, Greg Mayer, Duane McKenna, Mark McPeek, Monica Medina, Christopher Organ, Sally Otto, David Quel- ler, Kaustuv Roy, Michael Ryan, Ellen Simms, Montgomery Slatkin, David Spiller, Stephen Stearns, Joseph Travis, Mark Welch, Noah Whiteman, Michael Whitlock, David Sloan Wil- son, Greg Wray, Stephen Wright, Yaowu Yuan, and Roman Yukilevich. We are very grateful to David Hall, J. Matthew Hoch, and David Houle for writing the Problems and Discus- sion Topics at the chapter ends. For advice, references, answers to questions, correc- tions, and many other favors, Douglas Futuyma is grateful to Richard Bambach, Michael Bell, Jackie Collier, Stefan Cover, Jerry Coyne, Joel Cracraft, Liliana Davalos-Alvarez, Charles Davis, Christopher Dick, Daniel Dykhuizen, Walter Eanes, John Fleagle, Brenna Henn, Andreas Koenig, Spen- cer Koury, Harilaos Lessios, Jeffrey Levinton, James Mallet, Ross Nehm, Sally Otto, Joshua Rest, Martin Schoenhals, David Stern, Ian Tattersall, Robert Thacker, and Krishna Veeramah. Douglas Futuyma thanks Rob DeSalle and the American Museum of Natural History for generously pro- viding work space in that marvelous institution, and the Department of Ecology and Evolution at Stony Brook for unending support and intellectual sustenance. Mark Kirkpatrick is most grateful to the following people for their generous help with countless aspects of this proj- ect: Diego Ayala, Claudia Bank, Daniel Bolnick, Andrius Dagilis, Larry Gilbert, Shyamalika Gopalan, Matthew Hahn, David Hall, David Hillis, Robin Hopkins, David Houle, Matheiu Joron, Tom Juenger, Peter Keightley, Mar- cus Kronfrost, Curtis Lively, James Mallet, Richard Merrill, Michael Miyagi, Nancy Moran, Rasmus Nielsen, Mohamed Noor, Howard Ochman, Kenneth Olson, Sally Otto, Daven Presgraves, Trevor Price, David Queller, Fernando Racimo, Michael Ryan, Sara Sawyer, Dolph Schluter, Michael Shap- iro, Stephen Shuster, Montgomery Slatkin, Ammon Thomp- son, Michael Wade, Stuart West, and Harold Zakon. Mark Kirkpatrick also thanks his colleagues and members of his laboratories at the University of Texas and the University of Montpellier for countless enlightening discussions. This book was only made possible by the tireless work of many people at Sinauer Associates, consistently done with professionalism and a sense of humor. We are particularly in debt to Joanne Delphia, Laura Green, David Mcintyre, Andy Sinauer, and Chris Small.
- 14. How to Learn ~volutionaryBiology The great geneticist Fran<;ois Jacob, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for discovering mechanisms by which gene activity is regulated, wrote that "there are many generalizations in biology, but precious few theories. Among these, the theory of evolution is by far the most important." Why? Because, he said, evolution explains a vast range of biological information and unites all of the biological sci- ences, from molecular biology to ecology. "In short," he wrote, "it provides a causal explanation of the living world and its heterogeneity." Jacob did not himself do research on evolution, but like most thoughtful biologists, he recognized its pivotal importance in the biological sciences. Evolution provides an indispensable framework for understanding phenomena that range from the structure and size of genomes to the ecological interactions among different species. And it has many philosophical implications and practical applications, ranging from understanding human diversity and behavior to health and medicine, food production, and environmental science. Your course on evolution is likely to differ from almost any other course in biology you may have had, and it may pres- ent an unfamiliar challenge. Because all organisms, and all their characteristics, are products of a history of evolution- ary change, the scope of evolutionary biology is far greater than any other field of biological science. In a course in cell biology, you are expected to learn many factual aspects of cell structure and function, which apply very broadly to various types of cells in almost all organisms. But courses in evolution generally do not emphasize the factual details of the evolution of particular groups of organisms-the amount of information would be impossibly overwhelming. There certainly are some important facts-for example, you should learn about major events in the history of life. But for the most part, your course is likely to emphasize the general principles of evolution, especially the processes ofevolutionary change that apply to most or all organisms, how we can learn what has happened in the evolutionary past, and the most com- mon patterns ofchange, those that have characterized many different groups of organisms. For example, you will learn that natural selection is a consistent, statistical difference between groups of repro- ducing entities (such as large versus small individuals of a species) in the number of descendants they have. By under- standing how a characteristic can affect survival or repro- duction, we can arrive at generalizations about how certain characteristics are likely to evolve. For instance, it is easy for us to understand why a feature would be likely to evolve if it made males more attractive to females so that they have more offspring. But evolution by natural selection equally well explains why about half of the human genome consists of repeated DNA sequences that do nothing of value to the human organism! (The reason is that DNA sequences are also reproducing entities, and any sequence that can make more copies of itself will automatically increase more than a sequence that makes fewer copies. This is the essence of natural selection.) So the abstract concept of natural selec- tion has a great range of applications and implications that will make up much of what you will want to learn about evolution. It is important to learn how evolutionary hypotheses have been tested, in other words, what the evidence is for (or against) postulated histories and causes of evolutionary change. Evolutionary biology largely concerns events that happened in the past, so it differs from most other biological disciplines, which analyze the properties and functions of organisms' characteristics without reference to their history. We often must make inferences about past events and about ongoing processes that are difficult to see in action (e.g., dif- ferences in the replication rate of different DNA sequences). We make inferences by (1) posing informed hy potheses, then (2) generating predictions (making deductions) from
- 15. XVIII HOW TOLEARN EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY these hypotheses about data that we can actually obtain, and finally (3) judging the validity of each hypothesis by the match between our observations and what we expect to see if the hypothesis were true. For example, if you imagine that the long tail feathers of males in a species of bird evolved because such males attract more females and therefore have more offspring, you might predict that if you lengthened males' tail feathers, they will mate with more females. (The experiment has been done, with exactly this outcome.) You will find that throughout this book, we develop an idea, or hypothesis, theoretically, and then present one or two examples of empirical (i.e., real-world) studies that biologists have done, which provide evidence supporting the idea. Understanding the theoretical ideas, and how and why the empirical study provides evidence for them, is the key to learning evolutionary biology. It is also the key to understanding how science works. Science isn't merely accumulating facts. In every field, scien- tists try to develop general principles that explain how natu- ral phenomena work. Often, there are several conceivable explanations. The community of scientists in a field devel- ops fuller understanding by devising alternative hypotheses and thinking of what kind of data would support one while refuting another. There is a competition of ideas (and com- petition among scientists) that results in a closer approach to reality. We cannot prove that a scientific hypothesis is abso- lutely true, but we can hope for very high confidence-and no other method of knowing can be shown to come as close. You can have very high confidence that DNA is the basis of inheritance, that human consumption of fossil fuels causes global climate change, and that humans have evolved from the same ancestor as all other animals, and from a much older ancestor of all the living things we know of. In every field of science, the unknown greatly exceeds the known. Thousands of research papers on evolution- ary topics are published each year, and many of them raise new questions even as they attempt to answer old ones. No one, least of all a scientist, should be afraid to say "I don't know" or 'Tm not sure." To recognize where our knowledge and understanding are uncertain or lacking is to see where research may be warranted, or where exciting new research trails might be blazed. We hope that some readers will find evolution so rich a subject, so intellectually challenging, so fertile in insights, and so deep in its implications that they will adopt our subject as a career. But all readers, we hope, will find in evolutionary biology the thrill of understanding and the excitement of finding both answers and intriguing new questions about the living world, including ourselves. Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, wrote Virgil: happy is the person who could learn the nature of things.
- 16. Media and Supplements toaccompany Evolution, Fourth Edition FOR STUDENTS Companion Website (evolution4e.sinauer.com) Evolution's Companion Website features review and study tools to help students master the material presented in the textbook. Access to the site is free of charge, and requires no passcode. The site includes: • Chapter Outlines and Summaries: Concise overviews of the important topics covered in each chapter. • Data Analysis Exercises: These inquiry-based problems are designed to sharpen the student's ability to reason as a scientist, drawing on data from real experiments and pub- lished papers. • Simulation Exercises: Interactive modules that allow students to explore many of the dynamic processes of evolution and answer questions based on the results they observe. • Online Quizzes: Quizzes that cover all the major concepts introduced in each chapter. These quizzes are assignable by the instructor. (Instructor registration is required.) • Flashcards: Easy-to-use flashcard activities that help stu- dents learn and review all the key terminology introduced in each chapter. • The complete Glossary FOR INSTRUCTORS (Available to qualified adopters) Instructor's Resource Library The Evolution Instructor's Resource Library includes a variety of resources to help instructors in developing their courses and delivering their lectures. The IRL includes the following: • Textbook Figures and Tables: All of the figures (including photographs) and tables from the textbook are provided as JPEGs, reformatted and relabeled for optimal readability when projected. • PowerPoint Presentations: For each chapter, all of the figures and tables are provided in a ready-to-use PowerPoint pre- sentation that includes titles and full captions. • Answers to the textbook end-of-chapter Problems and Dis- cussion Topics. • Quiz Questions: All of the questions from the Companion Website's online quizzes are provided in Microsoft Word format. • Data Analysis and Simulation Exercises: All of the exercises from the Companion Website are provided as Word docu- ments, with answers, for use in class or as assignments. Online Quizzing The Companion Website includes an online quiz for each chapter of the textbook. Via the instructor's area of the com- panion website, these quizzes can be assigned or opened for use by students as self-quizzes. Custom quizzes can be cre- ated using any combination of publisher-provided questions and instructor-created questions. Quiz results are stored in an online gradebook and can be exported. (Note: Instructors must register with Sinauer Associates in order for their students to access the quizzes.) Value Options eBook Evolution, Fourth Edition is available as an eBook, in several different formats, including VitalSource, RedShelf, Yuzu, and BryteWave. All major mobile devices are supported. For details on the eBook platforms offered, please visit www.sinauer.com/ebooks. Looseleaf Textbook (ISBN 978-1-60535-696-9) Evolution is also available in a three-hole punched, looseleaf format. Students can take just the sections they need to class and can easily integrate instructor material with the text.
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- 19. "We swear eternalfidelity to the nation, the law, and the king; to maintain, to the utmost of our power, the Constitution decreed by the National Assembly and accepted by the king, and to remain united with every Frenchman by the indissoluble ties of fraternity." When he closed, every banner waved, every sabre gleamed, and sixty thousand voices shouted, as with thunder peal, "We swear it!" The president of the National Assembly then repeated the oath, and all the deputies and the four hundred thousand spectators responded, "We swear it." The king then rose in front of his throne. In a loud, distinct voice, which seemed to vibrate through the still air to the remotest part of the vast and thronged amphitheatre, he repeated the solemn oath, "I, King of the French, swear to the nation to employ all the powers delegated to me by the constitutional law of the state in maintaining the Constitution decreed by the National Assembly and accepted by me."
- 20. GRAND CELEBRATION ONTHE FIELD OF MARS. A more sublime moment never occurred in a nation's history. Every heart throbbed, and thousands of eyes were dimmed with tears. Even the queen was roused by the enthusiasm of the scene. Inspired by the impulse which glowed in every bosom, she rose, stepped forward into the presence of the people, and, raising her beautiful boy, the little dauphin, in her arms, said, in a loud voice, "See my son! he joins, as well as myself, in the same oath." Every eye beheld the act, and the words she uttered were repeated with electric speed along the lines. Enthusiasm burst all bounds. The spectators rose from their seats, and the air was filled with the roar of five hundred thousand voices, as every man, woman, and child shouted, "Vive le Roi! Vive la Reine! Vive le Dauphin!" The crowds on Montmartre, St. Cloud, Sevres, and Meudon caught the shout, and re-echoed it in tumultuous reverberations. And then came another peal still louder, as battery after battery of artillery, on the field, on the bridges, in the streets, and on the heights, simultaneously mingled their majestic voices with the clash of martial bands and the acclaim of regenerated France. God seemed to smile upon this jubilee of his enfranchised children. The clouds had all disappeared. The sun shone brilliantly, and the Majesty of heaven apparently condescended to take a prominent part in the ceremonies of the eventful day. In conclusion, the Te Deum was again chanted by the vast choir, and the deep-voiced cannon proclaimed "Peace to the nation and praise to the Lord." At the same hour all France, assembled in the eighty-three departments, took the same oath of fidelity to the nation, the law, and the king. Discord seemed to have passed away. No murmurs were heard. No man raised a voice of opposition. The general tide of rejoicing swept resistlessly over the land. From mountain to mountain the roar of cannon transmitted the tidings, from valley to valley chimes from the church bells caught and re-echoed the joyful sound, and from central Paris to the ocean, to the Rhine, to the Alps, and to the Pyrenees, twenty-four millions of people in one hour
- 21. raised the shoutof emancipation. Such a shout never before or since has ascended from earth to the ear of God. For a week these rejoicings were continued in Paris. The Field of Mars was converted into an immense ball-room, where thousands listened to enchanting music, and with the overflowings of fraternal love engaged in feasting, dancing, and all manner of games. At night the city blazed with illuminations, and the flame of fireworks turned darkness into day. The trees of the Elysian Fields were festooned with brilliant lamps, shedding a mild light upon the most attractive of scenes. There was no intoxication, no tumult, no confusion. All classes intermingled, with kind words on every lip and kind looks beaming from every face. No carriages were permitted to enter these avenues, that the rich and the poor might share the festivities alike. Pyramids of fire were placed at intervals in the midst of the mass of foliage. The white dresses of the ladies who were sauntering through those umbrageous alleys, the music, the dances, the games, the shouts of laughter, led almost every one to the delusive hope that the old world of care and sorrow had vanished to give place to a new era of universal love and joy.[256] The site of the Bastille was converted into an open square, and at the entrance of the inclosure was an inscription "Ici l'on danse" (Dancing here). For centuries the groans of the captive had resounded through the vaults of that odious prison. The groans had now ceased, and happy hearts throbbed with the excitement of the song and the dance. La Fayette gave a splendid review of the National Guard. The king, the queen, and the dauphin attended the review, and were warmly greeted by the people. The queen assumed the attitude of reconciliation, and graciously presented her hand to the delegates to kiss. The delegates from the departments, before they left Paris, went in a body to present their homage to the king. With one voice they expressed to him their respect, gratitude, and affection. The chief of
- 22. the Bretons droppedon his knee and presented to the monarch his sword. "Sire," said he, "I deliver to you, pure and sacred, the sword of the faithful Bretons. It shall never be stained but with the blood of your enemies." LOUIS XVI. AND THE DEPUTATION OF THE BRETONS. The heart of the kind-hearted king was touched. He returned the sword, and, throwing his arms around the neck of the chief of the Bretons, said, in tones broken with emotion, "That sword can not be in better hands than those of my dear Bretons. I have never doubted their fidelity and affection. Assure them that I am the father, the brother, the friend of all the French." For a moment there was silence, and all alike were moved by the affecting scene. The chief of the Bretons then rejoined, "Sire, all the French, if I may judge from our hearts, love and will love you because you are a citizen-king." Many of the most influential men in England contemplated with admiration this immense reform, in which, to use the language of
- 23. Professor William Smyth,one of the most candid of English writers, "the Constituent Assembly was supposed to have freed the country from temporal and spiritual thraldom; the government had been rested on free principles; the Bastille had been destroyed, lettres de cachet abolished, feudal impediments and oppressions of every kind removed, religious liberty established, the system of law made uniform, the criminal jurisprudence reformed, monasteries abolished; and by making the military force consist of the citizens of the country, freedom, and all those new and weighty advantages, seemed to be forever secured from the machinations of arbitrary power." The aristocracy, however, of England and Europe were struck with alarm. The emancipation of the people in France threatened their emancipation throughout the civilized world. Edmund Burke espoused the cause of the aristocracy. With eloquence quite unparalleled he roused England and Europe to war. In view of his fierce invectives Michelet exclaims, in language which will yet be pronounced by the world as not too severe, "Mr. Pitt, feeling sure of the European alliance, did not hesitate to say in open parliament that he approved of every word of Burke's diatribe against the Revolution and against France—an infamous book, full of calumny, scurrilous abuse, and insulting buffoonery; in which the author compares the French to galley-slaves breaking their chains, treads under foot the declaration of the rights of man, tears it in pieces and spits upon it. Oh! what a cruel, painful discovery. Those whom we thought our friends are our most bitter enemies."[257] Thirty thousand copies of Burke's memorable "Reflections" were sold almost in a day. The sovereigns of Europe were so highly elated that they transmitted to him their thanks. The nobles and the higher clergy of France wrote to him letters of acknowledgment, and the nobility of England lavished upon him their applause. These "Reflections" combined aristocratic Europe against popular rights,
- 24. and the peoplehad no resource left them but to defend their liberties with the sword. FOOTNOTES: [251] For the speech in full, see Thiers, vol. i., p. 126. [252] M. Fromont, in his memoirs entitled "Recueil de divers Ecrits relatifs à la Revolution," very frankly writes, "I repaired secretly to Turin (January, 1790), to the French princes, to solicit their approbation and their support. In a council which was held on my arrival, I demonstrated to them that, if they would arm the partisans of the altar and of the throne, and make the interests of religion go hand in hand with those of royalty, it would save both. The real argument of the revolutionists being force, I felt that the real answer was force. Then, as at present, I was convinced of this great truth—that religious zeal alone can stifle the Republican mania. "In consequence of this dread (of the new order of things), they secretly set at work the most efficacious means for ruining the internal resources and for thwarting the proposed plans, several of which were calculated to effect the re-establishment of order, if they had been wisely directed and supported." [253] "There is no country in the world," says Voltaire, "where there are so many contradictions as in France. The king gives the actors wages, and the curé excommunicates them." [254] "The whole of Europe—on the one hand Austria and Russia, on the other England and Prussia—were gradually gravitating toward the selfsame thought, the hatred of the Revolution. However, there was this difference, that liberal England and philosophical Prussia needed a little time in order to pass from one pole to the other—to prevail upon themselves to give themselves the lie, to abjure and disown their principles, and avow that they were the enemies of liberty."—Michelet, p. 327. [255] Memoirs of the Marquis of Ferrières. [256] No one familiar with the writings of that day will affirm that this description is too highly drawn. Upon this point Patriots and Royalists agree. See Ferrières, t. ii., p. 89, on the part of the Royalists, and Alphonse Esquiros, p. 38, on the part of the Revolutionists.
- 25. [257] Michelet's FrenchRevolution, p. 415. CHAPTER XX. FLIGHT OF THE KING. Riot at Nancy.—Prosecution of Mirabeau.—Issue of Assignats.— Mirabeau's Interview with the Queen.—Four political Parties.— Bishops refuse to take the Oath to the Constitution.—Character of the Emigrants.—The King's Aunts attempt to leave France.— Debates upon Emigration.—Embarrassment of the Assembly.— Death of Mirabeau.—His Funeral.—The King prevented from visiting St. Cloud.—Duplicity of the King.—Conference of the Allies.—Their Plan of Invasion.—Measures for the Escape of the King.—The Flight. THE grand gala days, in the Field of Mars, celebrating the formation of the Constitution, soon passed. The twenty thousand delegates, having been fêted even to satiety, returned to their homes; the Constituent Assembly resumed its labors.[258] The cares and toils of life again pressed heavily upon the tax-exhausted and impoverished millions of France. The Belgians, in imitation of France, had commenced a struggle for freedom. The King of France permitted Austria to send her troops across the French territory into Belgium to crush the patriots. Many of the most influential of the opponents of the Revolution were still leaving France and uniting with the armed emigrants on the frontiers. England, Austria, Sardinia, and Prussia were manifestly forming an alliance to punish the French patriots, and to restore the tyranny of the execrable old régime. The court, emboldened by these proceedings, were boasting of the swift destruction which was to overwhelm the advocates of reform, and commenced a
- 26. prosecution of Mirabeau,the Duke of Orleans, and others of the popular party, for instigating the movement of the 5th and 6th of October, when the royal family were taken from Versailles to Paris. These movements created much alarm, and even the royal troops at Metz and Nancy, who were mostly composed of Swiss and Germans, fraternized with the populace. A new issue of eight hundred millions of bonds or assignats was decreed, which quite abundantly replenished the treasury. There was never a paper currency created upon so valuable a pledge, or sustained by security more ample and undoubted. The assignats represented the whole public domain, and could at any time be exchanged for the most valuable landed property. Still, Talleyrand with singular precision predicted the confusion which eventually resulted from these issues. In the majestic march of events, Necker had for some time been passing into oblivion. The king had been forced to recall him. Hated by the court, neglected by the Assembly, forgotten by the people, he soon found his situation insupportable, and, sending in his resignation, retired to Switzerland, from which safe retreat he watched the terrific gatherings of the revolutionary storm. Civil war was sure to break out the moment the court could obtain possession of the person of the king. The pliant nature of the monarch would immediately yield to the influences which surrounded him, and the court, under such circumstances, could find no difficulty in inducing him to sanction any acts of violence to regain their power. But while the king was in Paris, in the hands of the Assembly, he would sanction the decrees of the Assembly, and thus the aristocrats could not wage war against the patriots without at the same time waging war against the king. Foreign monarchies could not be induced to take this step. Thus the retention of the king was peace; his escape, civil war. The court were plotting innumerable plans to effect his escape. La Fayette, at the head of the National Guard, was fully awake to the responsibility of guarding him with the utmost vigilance. The king was apparently left at
- 27. perfect liberty, buthe was continually watched. The queen was exceedingly anxious for flight. The king was ever vacillating, but generally, influenced by such advisers as Mirabeau and La Fayette, inclined to accept the Revolution. He was also haunted with the idea that his cousin, the Duke of Orleans, wished to frighten him into flight, that the Assembly might declare the throne vacant, and place the sceptre in the duke's hand as the sworn friend and supporter of the Revolution. Mirabeau had commenced his career as one of the most ardent advocates of reform, but he now wished to arrest the progress of the revolutionary chariot, as he affirmed that it had passed beyond its proper goal. His course was attributed by some to bribery on the part of the court. His friends say that he was only influenced by his own patriotic intelligence. At St. Cloud there is a retired summer- house, embowered in foliage, at the summit of a hill which crowns the highest part of the park. The queen appointed an interview with Mirabeau at this secluded spot. The statesman of gigantic genius, who seemed to hold in his hand the destinies of France, left Paris on horseback one evening, under pretense of visiting a friend. Avoiding observation, he turned aside into a by-path until he reached a back gate of the park. Here he was met in the dark by a nobleman, who conducted him to the retreat of the queen, who was waiting to receive him. His constitution was already undermined by dissipation and unintermitted labors. His cheeks were sunken, his eyes inflamed, his complexion sallow, and a flabby corpulency announced the ravages of disease; but, notwithstanding all these defects, his genial spirit and courtly bearing made him one of the most fascinating of men.[259] The queen was then thirty-five years of age. Care and grief had sadly marred her marvelous beauty. Her proud spirit was chagrined in being compelled to look for support to one of the leaders of the people. But little is known respecting what passed at this private interview. At its close Mirabeau said to the queen,
- 28. "Madam, when youraugust mother admitted one of her subjects to the honor of her presence, she never dismissed him without allowing him to kiss her hand." The queen, responding to the gallantry, graciously presented her hand. Mirabeau, bowing profoundly, kissed it, and then, raising his head, said proudly, "Madam, the monarchy is saved."[260] Suddenly Mirabeau became rich, set up a carriage, furnished his house sumptuously, and gave magnificent entertainments. He immediately commenced a course of cautious but vigorous measures to overthrow the Constitution and establish one less democratic, which should give more stability and efficiency to the royal power. He affirmed that this was essential to the peace and prosperity of France, and that, instead of being bought over by the court, he had bought the court over to his views. "But suppose the court refuses," said one of his friends, "to adopt your plans?" "They have promised me every thing," Mirabeau replied. "But suppose they should not keep their word?" it was rejoined. "Then," said Mirabeau, "I will overthrow the throne and establish a republic." It can hardly be denied that the Constitution was too democratic for a monarchy and hardly democratic enough for a republic. In the natural course of events public opinion would sway either to strengthening the throne or to diminish still more its prerogatives. There were now four parties in France. The first consisted of the old aristocratic classes of the clergy and the nobles, now mostly emigrants, and busy in effecting a coalition of surrounding monarchies to quell the Revolution, and by fire and sword to reinstate the rejected despotism of the Bourbons.
- 29. The second classwas composed of the king and Mirabeau, with the queen reluctantly assenting to its principles, and others of the nobles and priests who were disposed, some from choice and others from the consciousness of necessity, partially to accept the Revolution. They were willing to adopt a constitution which should seriously limit the old prerogatives of the crown. But they wished to repudiate the constitution now adopted, and to form one less democratic, which would still grant many prerogatives to the king. The third party consisted of the great majority of the Assembly, headed by sincere and guileless patriots like La Fayette, and sustained probably by the great majority of the purest and best men in the kingdom, who were in favor of the constitution which the nation had accepted. While they did not regard it as perfect, they felt that it was a noble advance in the right direction, and that the salvation of the liberties of France now depended upon allegiance to this constitution. There was a fourth class, restless, tumultuous, uninformed, composed of the lowest portion of the populace, who could ever be roused to phrensy by the cry of "Aristocracy," who were ripe for any deeds of violence, and who regarded that firmness of law which protected order, property, and life as tyranny. They occupied the lowest possible platform of democracy. Such was the condition of France as the Constituent Assembly now endeavored to consolidate the new institutions and to bring harmony from the chaos into which the nation had been plunged. While in these circumstances of unparalleled peril, combined Europe was watching for an opportunity to pounce upon the distracted nation. All public functionaries were required to take oath to the new constitution. The clergy, as bound by the laws of the Romish Church, appealed to the Pope for instructions. At the same time the opposing bishops and nobles wrote to the Pope urging him to withhold his assent.[261] The king had sanctioned the decrees. The Pope, under various pretexts, postponed an answer. Many of the bishops and curates consequently refused to take the oath. The Assembly was
- 30. not disposed towait for the decision of a foreign potentate, and, accepting those bishops and curates who took the oath, immediately nominated new bishops and curates to take the place of those who refused. Justly and frankly the Assembly declared that it wished to do no violence to conscience, but that it could not appoint as public functionaries those men who refused to take the oath of allegiance to the Constitution of the kingdom. This increased exasperation, and enabled many of the bishops to appeal to the fanatic populace to rise in defense of the endangered Church. The emigrants now made a general rendezvous at Coblentz, in the territory of the Elector of Treves, and at other points of the frontier. [262] These men, composing what was called the court, consisted mainly of the higher nobles who had long been pampered with the favors of the monarchy, and who looked with contempt upon the nobles of the rural districts. Haughty, dissolute, and frivolous, they scorned any appeal to the popular arm, even to popular fanaticism for support. The only recourse to which they would condescend were the armies of England, Austria, and Prussia. The rural nobles, on the other hand, and the rural bishops, were secretly organizing their friends within the kingdom to fall fiercely in civil war upon the patriots so soon as the solid battalions of the allies should cross the frontiers.[263] In this state of things the king's aunts decided to leave France. They had proceeded in their carriage on the way to Rome as far as Arnay- le-Duc, when they were arrested. The feverish state of the public mind led to suspicions that their emigration might accelerate impending perils. The Assembly took the matter into deliberation whether the ladies should be permitted to depart. The question was settled by a keen sally of Menou.
- 31. MOB OPPOSING THEFLIGHT OF THE KING'S AUNTS. "All Europe," said he, "will be astonished to learn that a great Assembly has spent several days in deciding whether two old ladies shall hear mass at Paris or at Rome." The worthy ladies continued the journey without interruption. The king's next elder brother, usually called Monsieur, subsequently Louis XVIII., remained with the king in Paris. The next brother, however, the Count d'Artois, subsequently Charles X., was actively participating with the emigrants at Coblentz. The very difficult question respecting emigration was now brought forward in the Assembly. It seemed to be a gross act of tyranny to prohibit French citizens from withdrawing from or entering France at their pleasure. On the other hand the enemies of regenerated France were daily leaving the kingdom with all the resources they could collect; and from the frontier, where they were plotting foreign and civil war, they were continually entering the kingdom to make preparations for the invasion. Mirabeau, who was at this time conspiring for the escape of the king, with his accustomed vehemence and his overpowering
- 32. audacity, opposed anylaw against emigration.[264] "I admit," said he, "that a bad use is made of this liberty at the present moment. But that by no means authorizes this absurd tyranny. I beg you to remember that I have all my life combated against tyranny, and that I will combat it wherever I find it. That popularity to which I have aspired, and which I have enjoyed, is not a feeble reed. I will thrust it deep into the earth, and will make it shoot up in the soil of justice and of reason. And I now solemnly swear, if a law against emigration is voted, I swear to disobey you." [265] The Assembly was truly in a dilemma. They could not prohibit emigration without grossly violating that declaration of rights which they had just adopted with solemnities which had arrested the attention of the world. They could not permit this flood of emigration without exposing France to ruin; for it was well known that the nobles, with all the wealth they could accumulate, were crossing the frontiers merely to organize themselves into armies for the invasion of France. Mirabeau never displayed more power than on this occasion, in overawing and commanding the Assembly. He succeeded in arresting the measure. This, however, was his last triumph. Disease was making rapid ravages, his frame was exhausted, and death approached. A sudden attack of colic confined him to his chamber, and soon all hope of recovery was relinquished. He was still the idol of the people, and crowds, in breathless silence, thronged around his abode, anxious to receive bulletins of his health. The king and the people alike mourned, for both were leaning upon that vigorous arm. He could not repress an expression of satisfaction in view of his labors and his accomplishments. To his servants he said, "Support this head, the greatest in France." "William Pitt," he remarked, "is the minister of preparations. He governs with threats. I would give
- 33. him some troubleif I should live."[266] On the morning of his death he said to an attendant, "Open the window. I shall die to-day. All that can now be done is to envelop one's self in perfumes, to crown one's self with flowers, to surround one's self with music, that one may sink quietly into everlasting sleep." Soon, in a paroxysm of extreme agony, he called for opium, saying, "You promised to save me from needless suffering." To quiet him a cup was presented, and he was deceived with the assurance that it contained the desired fatal opiate. He swallowed the draught, and in a moment expired, in the forty-second year of his age. It was the 2d of April, 1791. His death caused profound grief. All parties vied alike in conferring honor upon his remains. The nation went into mourning, a magnificent funeral was arranged, and the body was deposited in the tomb with pomp surpassing that which had accompanied the burial of the ancient kings of France. Suspicions are still cherished that Mirabeau died the victim of poison. [267] The funeral of Mirabeau was the most imposing, popular, and extensive of any recorded in history, always excepting that unparalleled display of a nation's gratitude and grief which accompanied the transfer of the remains of Napoleon from St. Helena to the Invalides. It is estimated that four hundred thousand men took a part in the funeral pageant of Mirabeau. The streets were draped in mourning, and pavements, windows, balconies, and house-tops were thronged with sad and silent spectators. La Fayette headed the immense procession, and was followed by the whole Constituent Assembly, and by the whole club of Jacobins, who, in a dense mass, assumed to be chief mourners on the occasion, though Mirabeau had for some time held himself aloof from their tumultuous meetings. It was eight o'clock in the evening before the procession arrived at the Church of Saint Eustache, where a funeral oration was pronounced by Cérutti. The arms of twenty
- 34. thousand of theNational Guard were then discharged at once. The crash caused the very walls of the church to rock, shivering to atoms every pane of glass. It was now night, and, by the light of a hundred thousand torches, the procession resumed its course. New instruments of music had been invented, which were then heard for the first time—the trombone and the tamtam. As the vast procession traversed the streets through the gloomy shades of night, illumined by the glare of flickering torches, with the tolling of bells, blending, now with the wail of the chant and now with the pealing requiems of martial bands, all the elements of sublimity seemed combined to affect the heart and overawe the soul. It was near midnight when the sarcophagus was deposited in its tomb at the Church of Saint Geneviève, over whose portal was inscribed these words, "AUX GRANDS HOMMES LA PATRIE RECONNAISSANTE." Mirabeau was the master-spirit of the Revolution. After his death there were multitudes struggling for the leadership, with no man of sufficient prominence to attain and retain it. The funeral of Mirabeau was the funeral of emancipated France. From that hour the Revolution was on the rush to ruin. "Time," writes Michelet, "which reveals every thing, has revealed nothing that really proves the reproach of treason to be well founded. Mirabeau's real transaction was an error, a serious, fatal error, but one that was then shared by all in different degrees. At that time all men, of every party, from Cazalès and Maury down to Robespierre, and even to Marat, believed France to entertain Royalist opinions. All men wanted a king. The number of Republicans was truly imperceptible. Mirabeau believed that it was necessary to have a king with power, or no king at all. It is true that Mirabeau appears to have received sums to defray the expense of his immense correspondence with the Departments—a sort of ministry that he was organizing at his own house. He makes use of this subtle expression—this excuse which does not excuse him—that he had not been bought; that he was paid, not sold."[268]
- 35. FUNERAL OF MIRABEAU. Thedeath of Mirabeau seemed to paralyze the hopes of the king, and he now resolved to spare no endeavors to secure his escape. On the 18th of April the king took his carriage at Versailles, intending to ride to St. Cloud. A rumor spread through the city that he was contemplating flight. The populace collected and stopped the horses. La Fayette immediately hastened to the spot with a company of the guards, dispersed the mob, who offered no other violence than to obstruct the departure of the king, and cleared a passage. The king, however, who now wished to have it appear that he was held a prisoner, as most certainly he virtually was, refused to go, and returned indignantly into the palace. By the advice of his ministers he repaired to the Assembly, and complained warmly of the insult he had encountered. The king was received with the utmost kindness by the Assembly, cordially greeted, and was assured that every thing should be done to prevent the possible occurrence of another similar outrage. To disarm suspicion and appease the public mind the king, on the 23d of April, sent a letter to the foreign embassadors declaring that he had no intention of leaving France, that he was resolved to be
- 36. faithful to theoath which he had taken to the Constitution, and that all those who intimated any thing to the contrary were his enemies and the enemies of the country. He soon after, however, declared to an envoy sent to him from the Emperor Leopold, that this letter by no means contained his real sentiments, but that it was wrung from him by the peril of his situation.[269] A conference of the foreign powers was held on the 20th of May, 1791, at Mantua, in Italy, where Leopold, Emperor of Austria, and brother of Marie Antoinette, then chanced to be. At this conference Count d'Artois appeared in behalf of the emigrants. Prussia was represented by Major Bischofverder, England by Lord Elgin, and Louis XVI. by the Count de Durfort. Several other of the kingdoms and principalities of Europe were represented on the occasion. The Count de Durfort returned from this conference to Louis XVI. in Paris, and brought him the following secret declaration in the name of the Emperor Leopold:[270] Austria engaged to assemble thirty-five thousand men on the frontiers of Flanders. At the same time fifteen thousand men from the smaller German States would attack Alsace. Fifteen thousand Swiss troops were to be marched on Lyons, and the King of Sardinia, whose daughter the Count d'Artois had married, was to assail Dauphiné. The king of Spain, cousin of Louis XVI., was to gather twenty thousand troops upon the slopes of the Pyrenees, to fall like an avalanche down upon southern France. Prussia engaged to co- operate cordially. The King of England, notwithstanding the eloquence of Burke's pamphlet, could not yet venture to call upon the liberty-loving English to engage in this infamous crusade against the independence and the liberty of a sister kingdom. But the king, as Elector of Hanover, engaged to take an active part in the war. A protest against the Revolution was to be drawn up in the name of the whole house of Bourbon, whose divine right to despotism in France had been questioned by the French people, and this protest was to be signed by those branches of the Bourbons who were occupying the thrones of Spain, Naples, and Parma.[271]
- 37. Plans for theinvasion having been thus arranged, Louis XVI. resolved immediately to effect his escape to the frontier. He could then place himself at the head of these foreign armies, and lash France into obedience, and consign those patriots who had been toiling for liberty to the dungeon and the scaffold. Never was the condition of a nation more full of peril, or apparently more hopeless. This impending destruction was enough to drive any people into the madness of despair. It is hard to wear the fetters of bondage even when one has never known any thing better. But, after having once broken those chains and tasted the sweets of liberty, then to have the shackles riveted anew is what few human spirits can endure. It was not the intention of the king immediately to leave France. He arranged to go to Montmedy, about two hundred miles from Paris, taking the very retired Chalons road through Clermont and Varennes. The Marquis of Bouillé, a general entirely devoted to the court party, formed a camp at Montmedy to receive the king, under the pretense of watching hostile movements on the frontiers. Small detachments of cavalry were also very quietly posted at different points on the road to aid in the flight. All the arrangements were made for starting on the 20th of June.[272] The king, though on the whole a worthy man, and possessing some excellent traits of character, was in some points weak almost to imbecility. All the energy of the family was with the queen, and she, with the Marquis of Bouillé, planned the escape. They were often thwarted, however, in their wishes by the obstinacy of the king. La Fayette was entirely deceived, and but few even of the court were intrusted with the secret. Still, rumors of flight had been repeatedly circulated, and the people were in a state of constant anxiety lest the court should carry off the king. They hardly believed that the king himself wished to join the emigrants, and to urge war against the Constitution which he had sworn to accept. The Swiss Guards still surrounded the Tuileries. They were stationed, however, only at the exterior posts. The interior of the palace, the
- 38. staircases, and thecommunications between the rooms were occupied by the National Guard, in whom the nation could place more reliance. It was a long-established custom that troops should be thus stationed throughout the palace, that the royal family might be protected from impertinence or from any irruption of popular violence. Since the terrible scenes of the 5th and 6th of October it became more important than ever that a strong guard should encircle the royal family. But while the ostensible duty of this guard was only to protect the king from insult, it had also a secret mission to prevent the king's escape. La Fayette, to whom the whole business was intrusted, oppressed with the responsibility of his office, was continually, by night and by day, visiting the posts. To the officers who had charge of the night- watch he had given secret orders that the king was not to be permitted to leave the palace after midnight. Thus the king was truly a prisoner, and he was fully conscious of it, though every possible effort was adopted to conceal from him the humiliating fact. M. Bouillé and the queen were compelled to yield to the whims of the king, and to adopt measures which threatened to frustrate the plan. The king insisted upon having an immense carriage constructed which could take the whole party, though the unusual appearance of the carriage would instantly attract all eyes; he insisted upon traveling a very unfrequented route, which would excite the curiosity of every one who should see the carriage pass; he insisted upon stationing military detachments along the route, though Bouillé urged that such detachments if small could render no service, and if large would excite suspicion; he insisted upon taking the governess of the children, because the governess said that she loved the children too much to be separated from them, though Bouillé urged that instead of the incumbrance of a governess they should take in the carriage an officer accustomed to traveling, and who could aid in any unexpected emergency. The king, though fickle as the wind upon questions of great moment, was, like all weak men, inflexible upon trifles.[273]
- 39. At midnight ofthe 20th of June, the king, the queen, Madame Elizabeth, the sister of the king, the two royal children, and Madame Tourzel their governess, carefully disguised themselves in one of the interior rooms of the Tuileries. Creeping cautiously down, in three successive parties, an obscure flight of stairs, and emerging by a gate which was contrived to be left unguarded, the fugitives, mingling with the groups of people who ever at that time were leaving the chateau, crossed the Carrousel, and, taking different streets, groped along through the darkness until they all met on the Quai des Théatins, where two hackney-coaches awaited them. In breathless silence they took their seats. The Count de Fersen, a Prussian noble, young, handsome, enthusiastic, who was inspired with a chivalric admiration of Marie Antoinette, had made all the arrangements for the escape from the city. Disguised as a coachman, he conducted the king, who led the young dauphin by the hand. The count immediately mounted the box of the coach which contained the royal family, and drove rapidly some twelve miles to the little town of Bondy, where the capacious carriage constructed for the king was waiting before the door of an Englishman, Mr. Crawford. At the same hour in a similar manner the king's brother, Monsieur the Count of Provence, subsequently Louis XVIII., left the Palace of the Luxembourg, and with his family traveled all night toward Flanders, where he crossed the frontiers in safety. At Bondy the king, the queen, Madame Elizabeth, the two children, Maria Theresa being about ten years of age and Louis seven, with their governess, took their seats in the large carriage. One of the body-guard of the king, disguised as a servant, sat on the box, and another, as footman, sat behind. M. de Vallory rode on horseback, that he might gallop forward and order the relays of horses. The waiting women of the queen, who, by the strangest infatuation, had been included in the party, took the other carriage. The Marquis of Bouillé, an energetic, heroic man, finding that he could not control the arrangements of the king, did every thing in his power to avert the suspicion which the strange-looking cortège
- 40. would be likelyto excite. He had a passport prepared, in which the governess was represented as a German baroness, Madame de Korff, traveling with her two children. The king was her valet-de- chambre, the queen her waiting-maid. The proverbial wealth of the German barons and the peculiar style of the equipage to which they were accustomed happily favored this idea.[274] The morning was just beginning to dawn as Count Fersen kissed the hands of the king and queen and left them to prosecute their perilous journey, while he took flight for the frontier through Flanders. The coach was drawn by six horses, who were driven at the utmost speed, relays of horses having been established at short stages. The sun at length rose bright and cheerful. The country was smiling in all the verdure of blooming June. Every revolution of the wheels was bearing them farther from Paris. It was hardly possible that their flight could be discovered until a late hour in the morning. There were no telegraphs in those days to send intelligence with lightning speed to arrest their flight. Having six or eight hours the start of their pursuers, and being abundantly supplied with fresh horses, escape seemed now almost certain. Hope began to cheer their hearts. Some slight interruptions had retarded their progress, and it was about three o'clock in the afternoon when they entered Chalons, some ninety miles from Paris. The queen, with an exultant smile, exclaimed, "All goes well. If we were to have been stopped at all it would have been before now." At Chalons they exchanged horses. The king now felt that he was safe, for the Marquis of Bouillé had posted detachments of troops at every important point between Chalons and Montmedy. With characteristic imprudence, as the carriage was surrounded with idlers at Chalons, the king put his head out of the window, showing his well-known face to the crowd. The postmaster instantly recognized the king, but, being himself an ardent Royalist, divulged not his secret, but aided in putting in the fresh horses, and ordered the postillions to drive on.
- 41. About ten milesfrom Chalons is the bridge of Sommeville, which crosses a narrow stream, where the Duke of Choiseul and M. Goguelat were stationed with fifty hussars. They were to secure the king's passage, and then to remain and block up the road against all pursuers. Faithful to the plan, they were at the bridge, with the mounted hussars, at the appointed hour. The strange assemblage of a military force at that spot excited the curiosity of the peasants, and a great crowd was gathered. Every mind throughout France was then in a very sensitive state. The crowd increased, and in the adjoining villages the alarm-bells were beginning to ring. As the royal carriages did not appear for five or six hours later than they were expected, the Duke of Choiseul, to appease the ferment, left the spot, and the people then dispersed. Soon after the detachment had left the king arrived, and was surprised to find no troops. It was then between four and five o'clock in the evening. In great perplexity and anxiety he drove rapidly on two hours farther to St. Menehould, where he was to find another detachment of troops; but the Duke of Choiseul had sent forward to St. Menehould and Chalons, informing the detachments there that he had waited six hours for the arrival of the king; that the plan had probably miscarried; that excitement was rapidly rising among the people; and that the detachments had better retire. The king, unaware of all this, was astonished and bewildered in still finding no troops, and naturally, but imprudently, again looked out of the window. The excited crowd which was gathered around the carriages suspected that they contained the royal family. A young man named Drouet, son of the postmaster, instantly recognized the king, from his resemblance to the imprint on the coins in circulation. Without communicating his discovery to any one, he mounted a horse, and, taking a cross road, galloped some twelve or fifteen miles to Varennes, to inform the municipality and cause the arrest of the party. FOOTNOTES:
- 42. [258] "I haveread many histories of revolutions, and can affirm what a Royalist avowed in 1791, that never had any great revolution cost less bloodshed and weeping. In reality, only one class, the clergy, was able, with any appearance of truth, to call itself robbed; and, nevertheless, the result of that spoliation was, that the great bulk of the clergy, starved under the old system for the emolument of a few prelates, had at length a comfortable livelihood."—Michelet, p. 417. [259] "If I had never lived with Mirabeau," says Dumont, "I should never have known what a man can make of one day— what things may be placed within the interval of twelve hours. A day for this man is more than a week or a month is for others. The mass of things he guided on together was prodigious; from the scheming to the executing, not a moment lost."—Dumont, p. 311. [260] Michelet, p. 333. [261] Thiers, vol. i., p. 166. Ferrières, t. ii., p. 198. [262] "Many of the emigrants had joined the army in a state of complete destitution. Others were spending improvidently the last relics of their fortunes. All were in good spirits, for the camp life was free and joyous. They confidently believed that the end of autumn would find them restored to their splendid homes, to their groves, to their forests, and to their dove-cots."— Chateaubriand's Memoirs of the Duke de Berri. [263] See Recueil de divers Ecrits relatif à la Revolution, p. 62; also Chateaubriand's Memoirs of the Duke de Berri. In reference to England Michelet remarks, with much truth: "The first power is aristocracy, the second aristocracy, and the third aristocracy. This aristocracy goes on incessantly recruiting its body with all those who grow rich. To be rich in order to be noble is the absorbing thought of the Englishman. Property, specially territorial and feudal, is the religion of the country."—Michelet's French Revolution, p. 432. [264] "The meeting ended at half past five, and Mirabeau went to the house of his sister, his intimate and dear confidante, and said to her, 'I have pronounced my death-warrant. It is now all over with me, for they will kill me.'"—Michelet, p. 461. [265] The peculiar character of Mirabeau is illustrated by the following well-authenticated anecdote. He was, on one occasion,
- 43. reading a reportto the Assembly upon some riots in Marseilles, which he affirmed were fomented by the partisans of the court. He was incessantly interrupted by the aristocratic party with such abusive epithets as "calumniator, liar, assassin, scoundrel." He stopped a moment, looked at them with an imperturbable smile, and, in his most honeyed tones, said, "Gentlemen, I wait till these amenities be exhausted."—Dumont, Souvenirs, p. 278. [266] The English people were at this time generally in sympathy with the Revolution. The aristocratic government of England was in deadly hostility to it. In 1792, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, then head scholar in Jesus College, Cambridge, wrote an Ode to France, commencing with the words, "When France, in wrath, her giant limbs upreared, And, with that oath which smote air, earth, and sea, Stamped her strong foot, and said she would be free, Bear witness for me how I hoped and feared." In consequence of this ode, and his avowed attachment to the principles of the Revolution, he became so obnoxious to his superiors that he was constrained to leave the college abruptly, without a degree.—Cyclopædia of English Literature, Article S.T. Coleridge. [267] M. Thiers, in the impetuosity of his narrative, is not always accurate in details. He gives the 20th of April as the date of Mirabeau's death. Mignet assigns it to the 2d of March. Nearly all other authorities agree upon the 2d of April. It is indeed wonderful that upon such a subject there should be such a diversity of statement. The event at the time was deemed so momentous, that the Jacobin Club voted that the anniversary of his death should, through all future time, be celebrated with funereal pomp. [268] Mirabeau claims, and his friends claim for him, and probably with justice, that he wished to be the mediator between the Revolution and the monarchy—to save royalty and liberty, believing that, under the circumstances, royalty was essential to liberty. But the folly of the court thwarted every endeavor. They would not accede to any measure of justice and moderation. The court wished only to make him unpopular. Mirabeau saw his position, from which no struggles could extricate him, and he died of disappointment and grief. Had he not then died, he would, in a
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