Research methodology

1. +
Emic Vs Etic

2. + Inductive V.s Deductive
thinking

3. +
Deductive reasoning
 Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning.
Deductive reasoning starts out with a general statement, or
hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific,
logical conclusion. The scientific method uses deduction to test
hypotheses and theories.

4. +
Inductive Reasoning
 Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific
observations. In other words, starts with the observation and
then moves towards a hypothesis. This requires a certain
amount of objectivity and openness on the part of the
researcher.

5. +
The Phenomenological approach
 Was a reaction to the dominant trend of positivism - that is, a highly deductive approach
based on the scientific method which hoped to establish universal laws of human behavior.
 Participants were objectified, and their own subjective experience was being ignored. In
fact, in the positivist approach, participants were called "subjects." Today, as psychologists
like Carl Rogers have changed our understanding of psychology, we now call them
"participants." Instead of calling people "patients," we now call them "clients."
 The p approach focuses on three important factors.
 1) data is descriptive. The focus is not on quantitative data, but rather on qualitative data. It is
a much more holistic approach to looking at a participant's behavior.
 2) the process of research emphasizes inductive approaches. The idea is that we can learn
from individual experience and reality.
 3) important to recognize that "we all create our own truth." This is an existentialist focus of the
approach. This recognizes the subjective nature of a lot of research and the need to confirm
one's findings through discussion with the participant. When agreement can be reached
between the researcher and the participant as to the interpretation of findings, then we can
say that the research is credible.
 The phenomenological approach has given us such methods as the narrative interview. In
addition, they use the practice of back translation.

6. +
Etic approaches
 Much of the early research in psychology used an "etic" approach
- that is, their research has the following characteristics:
 They decided what to study and how to analyze it before arriving
in the field.
 They applied and compared their research findings globally - with
the assumption that there was some commonality of behavior
among all cultures.
 They analyzed behavior using established theories and data
collection methods from their culture or from "mainstream"
psychology.
 "Professionals" carried out the research upon arrival.

7. +
Strengths and limitations of the Etic
approach
 The research is often replicable - allowing researchers to establish the
reliability of the findings.
 The research process is less time consuming and less expensive.
 Findings may actually have global applications which could improve the
situation for many people.
 The imposed etic - that is, a sense of ethnocentrism that biases the
researcher toward what is "correct" or "normal" behaviour. It makes the
researcher blind to important differences and why they exist.
 The researchers adopt instruments for assessment rather than adapting
or developing new ones that have meaning for the participants.
Instruments include tests, questionnaires, diagnostic tools and treatments
for disorders.

8. +
Emic approaches
 Emic approaches use a more phenomenological and inductive approach to the study of culture.
Emic approaches have the following characteristics:
 Researchers first immerse themselves in the culture in order to develop understanding. They do
not come right into the field and carry out research.
 There is no hypothesis to start off the research. Research questions are developed by
interactions within the local culture.
 The researchers adapt or assemble instruments for assessment through interaction with
indigenous researchers or members of the community to be studied. When they adapt an
instrument, they are making changes to an existing instrument in order to make it more relevant
to the participants so that the findings will reflect their cultural realities. For example, Cole &
Scribner adapted their instrument in order to make sure that the vocabulary on the lists was
relevant to the Liberian children. When researchers assemble an instrument, they are basing the
entire concept and structure of the instrument on the culture which they are now immersed in. For
example, Bolton worked with Rwanda mental health leaders to assemble an instrument that
would help to determine the mental health of survivors of the Rwandan genocide.
 The goal is not to draw universal conclusions about human behaviour, but rather to apply the
findings in the culture in which the research was done. It is possible, however, that over time
several emic studies may lead to psychologists noting trends among certain cultures.

9. +
Strengths and limitations of the
Emic approach
 It is problem focused and comes up with solutions that can be applied to
directly to the community being studied.
 The results are confirmed by the participants, so we can know that the
interpretations of the research do reflect the realities of the culture.
 Has the potential to be more objective.
 Emic approaches take a long time and can be very expensive.
 Instruments may not be highly reliable, or information may not yet be available
about the reliability of the instrument within that culture.
 The etic/emic dichotomy may not be as clear as we think. Often cultural
psychologists start with an imposed etic approach and then move on to an
emic approach. It is perhaps not reasonable to expect that a researcher would
go into a culture with no idea of what s/he would want to study and only
develop a research question after a totally objective long-term interaction with a
local culture.