Slides from a business school class on rhetoric in writing

1. Ethos
―…style is the writer, and therefore what you
are, rather than what you know, will at last
determine your style.‖
–E.B. White, The Elements of Style

2. 3 skills a writer must learn
1. Grammar- use language well
 Grammar and glamour
2. Logic- think well
 Logos: the Word
3. Rhetoric- manage language well to get
jobs done in the world of affairs

3. Teaching writing
 Teachers usually teach the first 2, but not #3.
 Students often revise on basis of 1 only.
 Some teachers may push them to 2.
 But 3 (rhetoric) must also be taught.
 Reason we write.
 Just because something is true doesn’t mean
people will believe it.
 Just because something is false doesn’t mean
people won’t want to believe it.

4. 336 B.C. Aristotle defined
three facets of persuasion
1. logos- sources of persuasion that
reside in the text and words
2. pathos- not necessarily emotional.
 What exists in the audience that is being
appealed to, adapted, manipulated.

5. 336 B.C. Aristotle defined
three facets of persuasion
3. ethos- what resides in the writer as he
becomes apparent through the text.
 ethos potentially most persuasive.
 Readers must consider you believable
and want to attend to you—to pay
attention to you.
 They use the words to decide whether
to believe and attend or not.

6. Aspects of ethos
1. Knowledge or sagacity (competence, not
necessarily education but pertinent experience)
2. High moral character
3. Good will- no ulterior motive, no personal gain, just
the best interests of the reader at heart. Not
suspicious.
4. Similarity with the reader
5. Dynamism- particularly in American-style culture.
Seen in sentence structure on up.

7. Ethos a key factor
 Application letter or essay
 Resume
 Politics
 First moments of debate, meeting
 ―Senator, you’re no Jack Kennedy.‖
 ―I will not exploit, for political gain, my
opponent’s youth and inexperience.‖
 Advertising

8. Style: What you are, not what
you know
 Wandering opening paragraph:
 Lack of planning
 Unclear thinking
 Long-winded, vague statements
 Doesn’t have enough evidence
 Arrogant, doesn’t respect reader’s intelligence
 Grammar, spelling, punctuation
 Sloppy in small thingsMay be sloppy in big
things
 Doesn’t care. Then why should I?
 Ex: asking for recommendation letters

9. Style: What you are, not what
you know
 Avoiding clichés
 Knows what has been done before.
 Original thinker.
 Attention to detail
 Cares to do a good job even when task is boring or
unrewarded.
 Has internal standards, doesn’t rely on others for guidance
and approval. Mature.
 Humor
 Is familiar enough with subject to play with it. Not still
struggling to master subject.
 Is intelligent and enjoys life.
 Is fun to be around.

10. Syllogism
 May depend on enthymeme
(from Greek ―I remember‖)
1. All men are mortal (enthymeme)
2. Socrates is a man
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
 Often wise to leave out one of three, using
enthymeme as premise or basis, and let reader
decide conclusion for himself.
 Ex:
1. Networking is the path by which most people get jobs.
2. My networking skills are underdeveloped.
3. Hmmm…………

11. Enthymeme
 A kind of soft sell.
 Allow reader to make conclusion rather than
beating reader over head with conclusion.
 ―We’ve chosen you to write the report
because you always do such a professional
job.‖
 ―And therefore we know that you’ll do a
professional job this time as well.‖
 ―I know you. You’ve never been a quitter.‖

12. I AM A MAN
 1968 Sanitation
Workers Strike in
Memphis
 Followers of Martin
Luther King
 Appeal to higher
instincts and basic
premises of
Americans
 Enthymeme: ―All
men are created
equal‖

13. Logos, Pathos, Ethos in use
 Know your audience
 Know what they know (or believe they know)
 (must have decided on audience to do this).
 Use what they know to work syllogism, in
some fashion.
 Base argument or desired result on that
foundation.
 Not ―You know how frustrated you get when
both your Jaguar and your Mercedes need
repairs? That’s how I feel right now.‖

14. Bad foundations
 I want/need …
• You are the only one who can give…
• Therefore, you must do…
 You are stupid/inferior/flawed/worthless…
• I must appear to believe in you and look like
a nice person
• So obey me, don’t surprise or contradict me,
and try to win my approval (though you
never will)

15. Better foundations
 I know that you want/need …
• Here is a path by which you can get…
• Therefore, take that path and achieve your
goal (which also happens to be mine)…
 Leadership is the ability to get a person to do what
you want him to do, when you want it done, in a
way you want it done, because he wants to do it. –
Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower

16. Better foundations
 You are
talented/capable/valuable/loved…
• I just want to enjoy you as you are
• So don’t worry about pleasing me; just
be yourself, do what you do (and I will
be pleased anyway)

17. If you know your audience and
argue from a strong foundation…
 Then ethos is the factor that maintains
trust and credibility and…
 bridges the gap to the conclusion.
 This applies both to solid, responsible
logic and to irresponsible pandering.

18. If the logos and pathos are solid
(the enthymeme is well chosen)…
 Pandering:
 ―We all know liberals hate America. So when
Ted Kennedy says…‖
 ―We all know Republicans only love rich,
white people…So when Dick Cheney says…‖
 The enthymeme works for a certain, limited
audience, but…
 it is a stereotype or false assumption, i.e. the
foundation is shaky.

19. Ethos=trust
I trust him/her…
 Because she tells me what I like to hear
 Because he makes me feel good
 Because he gives me interesting challenges
 Because she helps me learn (things which
improve my life)
 Because he is willing to take risks to stick to
his beliefs, i.e. he inspires me
 Because she is an authority figure
 Because she won’t lie.

20. Aristotle’s 4 Primary drives
(cf. Maslow’s hierarchy of human imperatives)
1. To avoid the unpleasant
2. To supply one’s needs (hunger, other
fulfillments)
3. To be sexually attractive
 Henry Kissinger: ―Power is an aphrodisiac.‖
4. To satisfy one’s ego (acceptance, being held
in high regard or esteem)
Excellent writing will appeal in some
way to most or all of these drives.

21. Summary
 Decide: ―What evidence will have the most
influence on this audience?‖
 Appeal to basic drives in your audience
 Project dimensions of ethos as you have
them
 ―What about me will make the audience trust
me?‖
 Use enthymemes to give your logical
argument a solid foundation

22. Summary
 Decide: ―What evidence will have the most
influence on this audience?‖
 Know your subject
 Appeal to basic drives in your audience
 Know your audience
 Project dimensions of ethos as you have them
 ―What about me will make the audience trust me?‖
 Know yourself
 Use enthymemes to give your logical
argument a solid foundation
 Know how ideas and truths connect

23. Great persuaders are great
storytellers
 Story (illustration) often overlooked as form
of support.
 One story can be a great essay, a great
conveyer of an idea the writer wants to
convince the reader of.
 Russell Conwell ―Acres of Diamonds‖
 1870’s to 1920’s. Made same speech 5000+
times, made enough $ to endow Temple U.