This document discusses various ethical theories and concepts relevant to public relations, including: 1. Aristotle's virtue ethics and the concept of finding the moral mean between extremes. Virtue is developed through practice. 2. Kant's deontological ethics and the categorical imperative, which holds that people should be treated as ends rather than means. Actions must be universalizable. 3. Utilitarian ethics as developed by Bentham and Mill, which holds that the morally right action maximizes well-being and happiness for the greatest number of people. Consequences are most important. 4. Various criticisms of these approaches are also discussed, such as how utilitarianism could justify lying, stealing

1. David Phillips
2012

2. Public Relations is frequently the
ethical heart of an organisation.
 Arguably “internal and external PR communications
control of the flow of good and bad news to the staff
and community”
 The PR team copes with company crises. PR pros sit
at the elbows of top officers drafting a company's
mission statements, its strategies, its vision.
 PR people are often put on the spot — if not to
determine the morality of a course, at least to help
envision the fallout.
 Steven R. Van Hook.

3. The tools that help ethical
behaviours
 Ethics is a universal issue and affects PR.
 We can study Bentham, Kant, R awls and Machiavelli.
 Ethics theories range from Utilitarianism ("The
greatest good for the greatest number")
to Deontology ("Do what is right, though the world
should perish").

4. Aristotle’s Ethics  Aristotle’s Ethics
 Good is that at which all
things aim.
 The proper function or
excellence of a things is its
arete (virtue).
 The human arete or virtue
is activity of the soul in
accordance with virtue.

5. Human virtue (arete)
 Humans have two kinds of virtue:
 Intellectual virtues: these relate particularly to our
professions, i.e., they will differ for a truck driver, cook,
lawyer, farmer, doctor, etc.
 Moral virtues: This virtue is common to all humans, but
it may vary in degree according to our capacities.
 Both intellectual and moral virtues are needed for us to
achieve happiness (eudaemonia)

6. Happiness: The Self-sufficient End
 Most of the ends (goals) we seek are instrumental
steps toward some ultimate goal.
 Aristotle identifies happiness (eudaemonia) as that
which we seek as a goal that is an end in itself.

7. Happiness: The Self-sufficient End
 Happiness comes from developing a good
character.
 A good character comes from the
development of good habits.

8. Good Character
People have a natural
capacity for good
character, but it must be
developed through
constant practice. Good
leaders are necessary to
guide us in the
development of good
habits.

9. Virtue (arete) as the mean, the correct
balance
 The mean is the right balance between two extremes,
the extreme of excess and the extreme of deficiency.
 Examples:
 Defect Mean Excess
 Cowardliness courage rashness
 Humility pride vanity
 Stingy giving spendthrift

10. Virtue (arete) as the mean (inbetween)
 The mean varies according to individuals
 The mean of courage is different for a marine, a
college student, and an eight-year old child
 The mean of charitable giving is different for a
billionaire, a college teacher, and a student.

11. The Categorical
Imperative

12. Kant’s One Right
The one absolute right
that humans have is the
right to be left alone.

13. KANTIAN ETHICS: OBLIGATIONS
 DEONTOLOGICAL/NONCONSEQUENTIALIST
 BASED ON REASON AND WILL
 REQUIRES DISCIPLINE AND SELF CONTROL
 REQUIRES DOING THE RIGHT THING FOR THE RIGHT
REASON
 ETHICS IS NOT CONTINGENT UPON ONE’S FEELINGS
NOR UPON THE CULTURE; RATHER, IT IS ABSOLUTE
(CATEGORICAL)

14. KANTIAN ETHICS
 ASKS “WHAT IF EVERYBODY DID THAT?” (and he
assumes we will all get the same answer if we are
disciplined and honest)
 Proposes an ideal world of self-directed individuals --
“THE KINGDOM OF ENDS”

16. Hypothetical Imperatives
IMPERATIVES OF PRUDENT
CONDUCT -- FRIENDSHIP,
KINDNESS, APPRECIATION
 Prudence Example: If I wish to have customers
continue to come to my store, then I should charge
them fair prices.

17. TYPES OF IMPERATIVES (“SHOULDS”)
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE OR
MORAL IMPERATIVE--ABSOLUTE,
A PRIORI, RATIONAL (NO IF’S,
AND’S, OR BUT’S)
 I should not lie
 I should not kill innocent people
 I should not steal

18. Universalisability & Maxims
 Kantinan ethics posits that if the action could be
universalised (i.e., everyone could do it), then it is
morally acceptable. Otherwise, it is not.
 Kant suggested that ethical proposition are a maxim
which is a subjective principle or rule that the will of
an individual uses in making a decision.

19. THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
THREE TESTS
 THE MAXIM MUST NOT BE SELF-
CONTRADICTORY
 THE MAXIM MUST BE universalisable
 THE MAXIM MUST BE ONE WHICH COULD BE
WILLED A PRIORI BY A RATIONAL PERSON
 (Galen Strawson wrote that an a priori argument is one of which "you can see that it is true just lying
on your couch)

20. Kant’s Examples: # 1
A man reduced to despair
contemplates suicide:
Is suicide universalisable?
No!
Does it treat oneself as a means or as an end?
As a means.
Therefore, the categorical imperative
dictates that suicide is morally
wrong.

21. Kant’s Examples: # 2
A man in need of money thinks about borrowing
money and realizes he will have to promise to repay
it even though he knows he cannot.
Is such behavior universalisable?
Would he be using the person as a means or as
an end?

22. Kant’s Examples: # 3
A person has a talent which he could develop to
benefit himself and others, but he prefers not to
work to improve the talent.
Is such behavior universalisable?
Would he be using himself as a means or as
an end?

23. Kant’s Examples: # 4
A prosperous person is asked for
charitable help. He considers not
helping.
Is such behavior universalisable?
Would he be using the person as a
means or as an end?

24. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

25. Four Theses of Utilitarianism
 Consequentialism: The rightness of actions is
determined solely by their consequences.
 Hedonism: Utility is the degree to which an act
produces pleasure. Hedonism is the thesis that
pleasure or happiness is the good that we seek and
that we should seek.
 Maximalism: A right action produces the greatest
good consequences and the least bad.
 Universalism: The consequences to be considered
are those of everyone affected, and everyone
equally.

26. Ethical Judgments
 Ethical philosophy differs from the sciences
because it is normative or prescriptive, rather
than descriptive.
 In other words, ethics tell us how we ought to
act or what we should do, while the sciences
are more likely to observe how things are in
nature or society.

27. Areas of Emphasis in Making Moral
Judgments
Purpose or Act, Rule, Results or
Motive or Maxim Consequences

28. Making Ethical Judgments in
Utilitarianism
 Utilitarianism says that the Result or the
Consequence of an Act is the real measure of
whether it is good or bad.
 This theory emphasizes Ends over Means.
 Theories, like this one, that emphasize the results
or consequences are called teleological or
consequentialist.

29. Two Formulations of Utilitarian Theory
Greatest Happiness:
Principle of
We ought to do
Utility: The best that which
action is that produces the
which produces greatest happiness
the greatest and least pain for
happiness the greatest
and/or reduces number of people.
pain.

30. Two Types of Utilitarianism
 Act: An Action is  Rule: An action is right
right if and only if it if and only if it conforms
produces the to a set of rules the
greatest balance of general acceptance of
pleasure over pain which would produce
for the greatest the greatest balance of
number. (Jeremy pleasure over pain for
Bentham) the greatest number.
(John Stuart Mill)

31. Application of Utilitarian Theory
 A) You attempt to  B) Youattempt to
help an elderly
help an elderly man
man across the
across the street. You
street. He gets
stumble as you go, he
across safely.
is knocked into the
 Conclusion: the path of a car, and is
Act was a good act. hurt.
 Conclusion: The Act
was a bad act.

32. Application of Utilitarian Theory
 If you can use eighty soldiers as a decoy in war, and
thereby attack an enemy force and kill several hundred
enemy soldiers, that is a morally good choice even
though the eighty might be lost.
 If lying or stealing will actually bring about more
happiness and/or reduce pain, Act Utilitarianism says
we should lie and steal in those cases.

33. Application of Utilitarian Theory
Actual Cases
 The decision at Coventry during WWII.
 The decision was made not to inform the town that they
would be bombed.
 The Ford Pinto case: A defective vehicle would
sometimes explode when hit.
 The model was not recalled and repaired by Ford because
they felt it was cheaper to pay the liability suits than to
recall and repair all the defective cars.

34. Criticisms of Bentham’s theory
Bentham’s theory could mean that if 10 people
would be happy watching a man being eaten by
wild dogs, it would be a morally good thing for the
10 men to kidnap someone (especially someone
whose death would not cause grief to many others)
and throw the man into a cage of wild, hungry dogs.

35. John Stuart Mill’s Adjustments to
Utilitarianism
 Mill argues that we must consider the quality of the
happiness, not merely the quantity.
 For example, some might find happiness with a pitcher
of beer and a pizza. Others may find happiness
watching a fine Shakespearean play. The quality of
happiness is greater with the latter.

36. Criticisms of Utilitarianism
If I am to bring the greatest happiness to the
greatest number, not putting my own
happiness above others, that may lead to a
dilemma. I live in a neighborhood where
83% of my neighbors use drugs. I could
make them most happy by helping supply
them with cheap drugs, but I feel
uncomfortable doing that. What should a
utilitarian do?

37. Criticisms of Utilitarianism
 Bernard Williams criticizes the implied
“doctrine of negative responsibility” in
Utilitarianism. For example, a thug breaks into
my home and holds six people hostage, telling
us he will kill all of us. “However,” the thug
says, “if you will kill two of your family, I will let
you and the other three live.”
 With Utilitarianism, the good thing to do is to
kill two members of my family.

38. Criticisms of Utilitarianism
 If lying, stealing, or killing could lead to an increase of
happiness for the greatest number, utilitarianism posits
that we should lie, steal or kill.
 Is this right?
 Is it right to heap taxes on the next two generation to save
a banking system and save 10,000 jobs and 20th century
jobs?
 Remember Kant?
A Prime Minister in need of money thinks about borrowing money and realises he
will have to promise to repay it even though he knows it will tax the next
generation.
Is such behavior universalisable?
Would he be using the next generation as a: means or as an end?

39. Mill’s “Rule” Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mills “ . . . Mankind must by this time have
acquired positive beliefs as to the effects of some
actions on their happiness; and the beliefs which have
thus come down are the rules of morality for the
multitude, and for the philosopher until he has
succeeded in finding better.” Mill concludes, however,
that we should always seek improvements.

40. Rights and Utilitarianism
 Many philosophers hold that we have certain
rights, either from God, nature, or from a social
contract
 Can the idea of rights be made compatible with
Utilitarianism?
 If ignoring rights brings about more happiness to
the greatest number, should we ignore so-called
rights?
 Mill’s rule-based view in On Liberty; having a
right to liberty will bring the greatest happiness

41. Consequences of Unethical Practices
 Baucus & Baucus (2000)
 Singled out 67 companies out of the Fortune 500
that had at least one illegal act – ex: antitrust,
product liabilities, discrimination
 Performance of the convicted firms were compared
to unconvicted firms (five year after the fraud was
committed)
 Convicted firms experienced significantly lower
return on sales (three year lag)
 Multiple convictions are more disastrous
 Unethical activities can affect long term
performance

42. CIPR Code
 CIPR Principles
 1. Members of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations agree to:
 Maintain the highest standards of professional endeavour, integrity,
confidentiality, financial propriety and personal conduct;
 Deal honestly and fairly in business with employers, employees, clients, fellow
professionals, other professions and the public;
 Respect the customs, practices and codes of clients, employers, colleagues,
fellow professionals and other professions in all countries where they practise;
 Take all reasonable care to ensure employment best practice including giving
no cause for complaint of unfair discrimination on any grounds;
 Work within the legal and regulatory frameworks affecting the practice of
public relations in all countries where they practise;
 Encourage professional training and development among members of the
profession;
 Respect and abide by this Code and related Notes of Guidance issued by the
Institute of Public Relations and encourage others to do the same.
 http://www.cipr.co.uk/direct/membership.asp?v1=code

43. Perceptions and reality
 Many people perceive public relations as something less
than respectable — as clever strategies to convince the
public that what's wrong is right.
 Some see public relations professionals as manipulators of
the public mind, rather than conveyors of truth.
 That is likely the reason most every code of conduct,
especially those targeted at the PR profession, stresses
honesty above all else.
 Too often our conduct falls short of the code. Spin
substitutes for truth.
 Perception substitutes for reality.
 Victory substitutes for success.

44. Are we strong enough?
 Public relations is a two way street: not only do we
represent our organization to the public, but we must
also present the public back to our organization.
We should help our colleagues understand how the
public perceives our actions.

45. Which way to turn – are we just
utilitarian?
 In some specific instances, a client's true interest may lie in
complete openness, transparency and disclosure in their
communications, and even in tub-thumping to draw attention
to their story and message. In such situations, we have every
reason to be candid, open and forthcoming.
 In many instances, however, the client's interest may lie in
seeing that particular facts never see the light of day, and if they
do burst forth for all to see, to minimize the impact, duration
and even the clarity of any resulting reporting and public
communications.
 This is called crisis avoidance, and damage control.
 It is also what many clients most value of our work as PR
practitioners.
 Is it ethical?

46. The true role?
 If PR is about creating and sustaining good, long term
relationships with publics, what is the role of a PR
manager in a bank?
 In 2009, the relationships between banks was so bad
that they did not trust each other enough to lend
money inter-bank.
 Was this a failure of PR?
 What would you do?

47. Do you like the idea?
 Do you like the idea of explaining why an
organisation should be ethical to a CEO?
 Do you like the idea of questioning ordinary mundane
activities from an ethical viewpoint
 Looking back on the last essay you wrote for this
degree, do you think you were ethical in its
preparation?