The document outlines several major ethical theories: consequentialist theories like utilitarianism which focus on producing the greatest good for the greatest number; deontological/duty-based theories like Kantianism which emphasize adherence to moral rules and duties; social contract theories which view morality as arising from implicit agreements between individuals; and virtue ethics which focuses on developing good moral character. Each theory is discussed in terms of its core principles, examples of how it applies to moral dilemmas, and potential strengths and weaknesses.

1. Ethical Theories
NICOLAS NOVIAN RUSLIM
INFORMATION SYSTEM AND TECHNOLOGY
INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI BANDUNG

2. Ethical Theories
Consequence-based
Utilitarian
Act
Utilitarianism
Rule
Utilitarianism
Duty-based
Kantilianism
Rule
Deontology
Act
Deontology
Contract-based
Social-Contract
Theory
Right-based
rights
Character-based
Character-Ethics
Virtue

3. Consequence-based
Utilitarian Theory
An individual act (X) or a social policy (Y) is morally permissible if the consequences that result
from (X) or (Y) produces the greates amount of good for the greates number of persons
affected by the act or policy.
Divided into :
1. Act Utilitarian
2. Rule Utilitarian

4. Act Utilitarian
An act, X, is morally permissible if the consequences produced by doing X result in the greatest
good for the greatest number of person affected by act X.

5. Rule Utilitarian
An act, X, is morally permissible if the consequences of following the general rule, Y, of which
act X is an instance, would bring about the greatest good for the greatest number.

6. Consequence-based
Utilitarian Theory Flawed?
Example :
A policy is under consideration in a legislative body in the nation of Tralala, where 1% of
the population would be forced to work as slaves in a manufacturing facility to produce
computer chips. Proponents of this policy argue that, if enacted as law,it would result in
lower prices for desktop computers in Tralala. It would also likely result in more overall
happiness for the nation’s citizens because the remaining 99% of the population, who
are not enslaved, would be able to purchase PC and other compute-based appliances at
a much lower price.
This policy clearly seems consistent with the principle of producing the greates good for the
greatest number of Tralala’s population.
Should it be enacted into law?

7. Duty-based
Kantilianism/ Deontological Theory
Morality must ultimately be grounded in the concept of duty, or obligations that humans have
to one another, and never in the consequences of human actions.
Divided into :
1. Rule Deontology
2. Act Deontology

8. Rule Deontology
Act always on that principle or rule that can be universally binding, without exception, for all
human beings (principles of universality and impartiality).
Every individual would be treated fairly since the same rules would apply universally to all
persons.

9. Rule Deontology
Ex :
A case of a student on submitting his assignment one week late.
Since the paper is late, the instructor is not sure if he wants to accept the submission.
Student’s argument:
◦ He is doing the instructor a favor, thus, if he submitted it on time, the instructor will be swamped with
papers. By submitting it late, the instructor will be able to read the student’s assignment, without
having the stress of so many papers to grade at once.
In deontological grounds, the student can only make an exception for himself if everyone else
(in his class) had the right to make exceptions for him or herself as well.

10. Act Deontology
Does not believe that blind adherence to certain rules can work in every case for determining
which duties we must ultimately carry out.
We have a certain prima facie (or self-evident) duties, which, all thing being equal, we must
follow.
List of prima facie duties include honesty, benevolence, justice, keeping our promise, and so
forth.
If there are no conflicts in a given situation, each prima facie duty is also called an actual duty.
Every prima facie duty is an absolute duty because it applies to every human being without
exception.
Our ability to determine what our actual duty will be in a particular situation is made possible
through a process of “rational intuitionism”.

11. What we should do when two or more
duties conflict?
Ex :
◦ You promise to meet one classmate one evening at 7:00 pm in the college library to study together for
a midterm exam for a computer science course you are taking. While driving in your car to the library,
you receive a call on your cell phone informing you that your grandmother has been taken to the
hospital and that you should go immediately to the hospital. You consider calling your classmate from
your car, but you realize you don’t have his phone number. You also realize you don’t have time to try
to reach your classmate by email. What should you do in this case?
All thing being equal, you have a moral obligation to keep your promise to your friend, while you also
need to visit your grandmother in the hospital.
You would have to weigh between the 2 prima facie duties in question to determine which will be your
actual duty in this particular circumstance.
By weighing, your actual duty is to visit your grandmother or vice versa.

12. Act vs Rules and Consequences vs
Duties
Both theories emphasize the importance of consequences
Act
Utilitarianism
Rule
Utilitarianism
Act
Deontology
Rule
Deontology
Both theories stress
this primacy of individual
Actions over general rules
Both theories stress
this primacy of rules
Both theories emphasize the importance of duty or obligation

13. Contract-based
Social Contract Theory
A moral system comes into being by virtue of certain contractual agreements between
individuals.
Each individual is free to act in ways that satisfy his or her own natural (physical) desires and to
avoid our aversions (dislikes).
While there is a sense of freedom in this natural state, each person must continually fend for
herself, and must also avoid the constant threats of others, who are inclined to pursue their
own interests and desires.

14. Social Contract Theory
Right-based Contract Theories
Thomas Hobbes :
• State of nature
• We implicitly accept a social contract
• Establishment of moral rules to govern relations among citizens
• Government capable of enforcing these rules
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• In ideal society, no one above rules
• That prevents society from enacting bad rules

15. Social Contract Theory
Example : DVD Rental Scenario
◦ Bill owns chain of DVD rental stores
◦ Collects information about rentals from customers
◦ Constructs profiles of customers
◦ Sells profiles to direct marketing firms
◦ Some customers happy to receive more mail order catalogs; others unhappy at increase in “junk mail”
Consider rights of Bill, customers and mail order companies.
Does customer have right to expect name, address to be kept confidential?
If customer rents DVD from bill, who owns information about transaction?
If Bill and customer have equal rights to information, Bill did nothing wrong to sell information.
If customers have right to expect name and address or transaction to be confidential without giving permission, then
Bill was wrong to sell information without asking for permission.

16. Character-based
Virtue Ethics
Ignores the special roles that consequences, duties and social contracts play in moral systems.
Focuses on criteria having to do with the character development of individuals and their
acquisition of good character traits from the kinds of habits they develop.
Ethical was something not merely studied, but rather to be lived or practiced.
To become an ethical person, one is required to develop certain virtues (strength or excellence).
To be a moral person, one had to acquire the right virtues.
Through proper training and acquisition of good habits and character traits, one could achieve
moral virtues such as temperance and courage that are needed to live well.

17. Character-based
Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics focuses primarily on character development and moral education, it does not
need to rely on a system of formal rules.
Emphasis on being a moral person, and not simply on understanding what moral rules are and
how they apply in certain situations.

18. Summary
Type of Theory Advantages Disadvantages
Consequence-based (Utilitarian) Stresses promotion of happiness
and utility
Ignores concerns of justice for the
minority population
Duty-based (Deontology) Stresses the role of duty and
respect for persons
Underestimate the importance of
happiness and social utility
Contract-based (Rights) Provide a motivation for morality Offers only a minimal morality
Character-based (Virtue) Stresses character development
and moral education
Depends on homogeneous
community standards for
morality.