This laboratory manual provides instructions for undergraduate students to complete hydraulic engineering experiments in a laboratory setting. It includes layout of the laboratory, general safety guidelines, procedures for 4 experiments involving open channel flow, specific energy relationships, flow over a hump/weir, and hydraulic jumps. It also includes procedures for 4 design exercises applying hydraulic principles and equations. Graphs, tables, and spaces are provided for recording observations, calculations, and results. The goal is for students to apply hydraulic theory and gain practical experience with hydraulic phenomena in a controlled environment.

1. HYDRAULICS ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COURSE CODE: CEN4141
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL PUNJAB-LAHORE

2. 2
PREFACE
This Laboratory Manual is intended to provide undergraduate engineering students an
understanding of the practical applications of running water covering all experiments related
to the fourth year level of the B.Sc. Civil Engineering.
It explains the procedures of performing various experiments in the hydraulic laboratory. The
use of this manual in conducting the laboratory work described will lead the students in the
preparation of a laboratory report which is sufficiently detailed and exhaustive. It is a
convenient way of imparting instructions for handling apparatus, indicating the range and
accuracy of observations, and providing a guide to the presentations of results. The students
are required to interpret the result of experiment, with a view to make them appreciate the
importance and significance of the test in real life situations.
This manual is complete in itself and required graph sheets, etc. form an integral part of each
experiment included. For each experiment, the observations can be entered on the tabulated
sheets, calculations made and the results plotted on graph sheets attached. It is expected that
this manual will help students effectively in understanding the principles of hydraulics.
Theory is discussed with the help of photographs to quickly grasp the basic concepts. It also
contains brief procedure for the experiment, precautions, self-explanatory tables of
observations and calculations, blank spaces for writing results and finally comments on the
results. As practiced universally, SI units are used in this Manual. However, wherever felt
necessary, values in alternate units are also provide to facilities students.
In this Laboratory Manual, totally four experiments and four designs are covered. Experiment
number 1 refer the basic hydraulics equation, 2 refers the Specific energy relationship with
flow depth, 3 refers the effect of hump/weir on specific energy and 4 refers the hydraulic jump
development in laboratory flume. Design Exercises refers the basic hydraulic concepts related
to open channel flows. Two open ended experiments are also included.
Suggestions for improvements are welcome.

3. EVALUATION OF LAB REPORTS: SCORING RUBRICS
Subject: Hydraulics Engineering Student’s Name and Registration Number:
Category Excellent (9 - 10) Good (7 - 8) Average (5 - 6) Below Average (1 - 4) Poor (ZERO) Grade
Data, figures,
graphs, tables, etc.
All figures, graphs, tables
properly drawn, numbered
and captioned
All figures, graphs, tables
properly drawn but still have
minor problems and can be
improved
Most figures, graphs, tables
okay but still missing some
required features
Figures, graphs, tables
poorly constructed, missing
titles, units, captions etc.
Figures, graphs, tables
missing or copied
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Comments and
Conclusions
All important data
comparisons are correctly
interpreted; conclusions have
been clearly made
Data comparisons need only
minor improvement;
conclusions could be better
stated
Data comparisons almost
accurate; some conclusions are
misstated
Incomplete or incorrect
interpretation of data;
conclusions missing
important points
Conclusion and/or
comments missing or
copied
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Grammar, spelling,
sentence structure
Very well-written; nospelling
or grammatical errors
Readable but still room for
improvement
Some rough spots in writing;
occasional spelling or
grammatical errors
Rough or immature writing
style; frequent spelling or
grammatical errors
Writing style not
makingany sense at all
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Appearance All sections in order
All sections in order but still
room for improvement
Appearance is rough but
readable
Sloppy appearance Very poor appearance
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Submission
Properly covered; submitted
well in time
Covered; submitted at the
eleventh hour
Submitted just at the deadline Submittedafter the deadline No submission
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Total Score Marks Obtained out of 50 Marks Obtained out of 10
Evaluated by: _________________

4. 4
EVALUATION OF LAB VIVA/PERFORMANCE: SCORING RUBRICS (EXPERIMENT # 1 - 4)
Subject: Hydraulics Engineering Student’s Name and Registration Number:
Category Excellent (9 - 10) Good (7 - 8) Average (5 - 6) Below Average (1 - 4) Poor (ZERO) Grade
Identifying Problem
and specifying
constraints
Student restates the
problem clearly and
precisely and identifies
many constraints
Student restates the
problem clearly and
identifies several
constraints
Student restates the
problem clearly and
identifies some
constraints
Student does not restate
the problem clearly and
identifies minor
constraints
Student does not restate the
problem clearly and fails to
identify constraints
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Exploring
Possibilities
Student thoroughly
analyzes the pluses and
minuses of a variety of
possible solutions
Student analyzes some
pluses and minuses of a
variety of possible
solutions
Student satisfactorily
analyzes the pluses and
minuses of a variety of
possible solutions
Student inadequately
analyzes the pluses and
minuses of a variety of
possible solutions
Student does not analyze
the pluses and minuses of a
variety of possible solutions
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Developing a design
proposal
Design proposal is accurate
and comprehensive
Design proposal is
accurate ,containing all
pertinent elements
Design proposal is
adequate , containing all
pertinent elements
Design proposal is
inadequate and lacking
pertinent information
Design proposal is wrong
and incomprehensive
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Results and
Analysis
All formulae, calculations
and conclusions are
accurate
All formulae, calculations
and conclusions are
accurate but some minor
steps are missing
Formulae, calculations
and conclusions contain
some inaccuracies
Formulae, calculations
and conclusions are
incorrect.
Student is unable to
perform any calculations
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Understanding of
Objectives vis-à-vis
Theory
Student fully understands
the link between performed
job and associated
theoretical concepts
Student reasonably
understands the link
between performed job
and associated theoretical
concepts
Student has some
difficulty in explaining
link between job and
associated theoretical
concepts
Student cannot identify
the associated theoretical
concepts
Student is unable to answer
any question relating
associated theoretical
concepts
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Total Score Marks Obtained out of 50 Marks Obtained out of 10
Evaluated By: ____________________

5. 5
EVALUATION OF LAB VIVA/PERFORMANCE:SCORING RUBRICS (DESIGNEXERCISE# 1 - 4)
Subject: Hydraulics Engineering Student’s Name and Registration Number:
Category Excellent (9 - 10) Good (7 - 8) Average (5 - 6) Below Average (1 - 4) Poor (ZERO) Grade
Identifying Problem
and specifying
constraints
Student restates the
problem clearly and
precisely and identifies
many constraints
Student restates the
problem clearly and
identifies several
constraints
Student restates the
problem clearly and
identifies some constraints
Student does not restate
the problem clearly and
identifies minor
constraints
Student does not restate the
problem clearly and fails to
identify constraints
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Exploring
Possibilities
Student thoroughly
analyzes the pluses and
minuses of a variety of
possible solutions
Student analyzes some
pluses and minuses of a
variety of possible
solutions
Student satisfactorily
analyzes the pluses and
minuses of a variety of
possible solutions
Student inadequately
analyzes the pluses and
minuses of a variety of
possible solutions
Student does not analyze
the pluses and minuses of a
variety of possible solutions
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Developing a design
proposal
Design proposal is
accurate and
comprehensive
Design proposal is
accurate ,containing all
pertinent elements
Design proposal is
adequate , containing all
pertinent elements
Design proposal is
inadequate and lacking
pertinent information
Design proposal is wrong
and incomprehensive
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Results and Analysis
All formulae, calculations
and conclusions are
accurate
All formulae, calculations
and conclusions are
accurate but some minor
steps are missing
Formulae, calculations
and conclusions contain
some inaccuracies
Formulae, calculations
and conclusions are
incorrect.
Student is unable to
perform any calculations
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Understanding of
Objectives vis-à-vis
Theory
Student fully understands
the link between
performed job and
associated theoretical
concepts
Student reasonably
understands the link
between performed job
and associated theoretical
concepts
Student has some
difficulty in explaining
link between job and
associated theoretical
concepts
Student cannot identify
the associated theoretical
concepts
Student is unable to answer
any question relating
associated theoretical
concepts
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Total Score Marks Obtained out of 50 Marks Obtained out of 10
Evaluated By: ____________________

6. 6
EVALUATION OF OPEN ENDED LAB: SCORING RUBRICS
Subject: Hydraulics Engineering Student’s Name and Registration Number:
Evaluated By: ____________________
Category Excellent (9 - 10) Good (7 - 8) Average (5 - 6) Below Average (1 - 4) Poor (ZERO) Grade
Topic
Understanding
Complete understanding of
topic
Good understanding of topic Fair understanding of topic
Minimum understanding of
topic
Poor understanding of
topic
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Apparatus Setup
Student can properly set up
the apparatus; fully aware of
the factors that couldalterthe
results
Student can properly set up
apparatus with little
supervision; aware of factors
that could alter results
Student can set up apparatus
with some help but has limited
ability to take care of factors
affecting results
Student has difficulty setting
up the apparatus
Student cannot set up
the apparatus at all.
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Time Management
Much time went into the
planning and design. Student
was self-motivatedthe whole
time seeking assistance as
needed.
Sometime went into the
planning and design. The
student needed some
refocusing but managed well.
Little time went into the
planning and design. The
student was sometimes
distracted or off task.
Little went into the design.
Student was often off task
and not focused on the
project.
All class time was
wasted. Student was not
focused on the task.
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Description of
research approach,
tools and
procedures,
compliance to
standard
Excellent logical approach,
well laid out design, complete
logical tools, complete
procedure, strictly comply to
a standard
Logical approach, adequately
laid out design, mostly logical
tools, complete procedure,
almost comply to a standard
Slightly logical approach,
partially laidout design, mostly
logical tools, partly complete
procedure, loosely comply to a
standard
Barely logical approach, no
laid out design, unclear
logical tools, partly complete
procedure, barley comply to
a standard
Misleading logical
approach, no laid out
design, no logical tools,
no complete procedure,
non-compliance to any
standard
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Explanation and
presentation of
results, Reasoning
discussion, Critical
view
Comprehensive result
presentation, informative
tables andfigures, limitations
mentioned, critical view and
reasoning
Sufficient result presentation,
informative tables and figures,
limitations mentioned,
adequate view and reasoning
Result presentation, somehow
informative tables and figures,
few limitations mentioned,
adequate view and reasoning
Result presentation, less
informative tables and
figures, no limitations
mentioned, adequate view
and reasoning
No result presentation,
no informative tables
and figures, no
limitations mentioned,
minimum view and
reasoning
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0
Grammar, Sentence
structure and
Submission
Perfect grammar, variance in
sentence structure and word
choice, submitted in time
Acceptable grammar, variance
in sentence structure and word
choice, submitted at the
eleventh hour
Acceptable grammar, some
variance in sentence structure
andword choice , submittedjust
at the deadline
Acceptable grammar, limited
variance in sentence
structure and word choice,
submitted after deadline
According to standard,
limited errors in
grammar, no variancein
sentence,no submission
Excellent 9 10
Good 7 8
Avg. 5 6
Below Avg. 1 2 3 4
Poor 0

7. 7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr.
No.
Description
Page
No.
1 Layout of Hydraulics Engineering Laboratory and General Safety guidelines 9
Experiments
1
To determine Chezy’s co-efficient (C) and Manning’s roughness co-efficient (n)
in laboratory flume
14
2
To experimentally investigate the relationship between specific energy (E) and
depth of flow (y)
20
3
To study the flow characteristics over a hump/weir and draw the water surface
profile over the hump
27
4
To study the flow characteristics of hydraulic jump development in tilting flume
in the laboratory
35
Design Exercises
1
1) To Plot velocity variation and discharge variation curves with respect to depth
of flow for a channel of circular section in the dimensionless form
2) Determine the conditions of flow for maximum velocity and maximum
discharge both graphically and analytically
37
2
A Trapezoidal channel having base width “B” (m), side slopes “x : 1” and
Manning’s roughness coefficient “n” is carrying a discharge “Q” (
𝑚3
𝑠𝑒𝑐
). Determine
both graphically and analytically the critical depth “𝑦𝑐", also calculate the critical
slope “𝑆𝑐", Take numerical values for 𝐵 =
Age,as 𝑡𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
600
𝑄 = 1.9𝐵
𝑛 =
𝐵
700
Take; x = 1.5 for odd registration number
x = 2 for even registration number
It is provided with a hump of height P, Assuming the hump to be frictionless and
using usual notations plot the following curves.
1) P~𝑦1
2) P~𝑦2
3) P~𝑦3
43
3
To develop the relationship between Surface Area, Elevation and Capacity of
Reservoir:
For a given reservoir develop
1) Elevation ~ Surface Area curve
2) Elevation ~ Capacity curve
3) Surface Area ~ Capacity curve
4) To develop co-relation between Elevation, Surface Area & Capacity of
reservoir to check the feasibility of project
48

8. 8
4
To estimate the live capacity of reservoir for various operational scenarios:
a) Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir so that constant maximum
supply can be assured from this reservoir if the losses are assumed to be
negligible.
b) Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir to have constant maximum
supply from the reservoir if 20% of the inflows are lost due to seepage
and evaporation.
c) Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir if outflow R/2 𝑚3
𝑠𝑒𝑐
⁄ has
to be released from the reservoir from d/s usage, also plot mass curve and
decide emptying and filling program in each case.
56
Open Ended Experiments
1 To study the characteristics of flow over a different roughened beds. 67
2 Measurement of discharge beneath a Sluice Gate 70

9. 9
JOB # 1
TITLE:
Layout of Hydraulics Engineering Laboratory and General Safety guidelines
PURPOSE:
1. To get familiar with the apparatus of laboratory and their functions and also known
which apparatus is placed at which position in the laboratory?
2. To get familiar with the hazards involved in working in this laboratory.
3. To get familiar with the safety precautions that must be taken while working in this
laboratory.
4. To get familiar with the emergency exit plan of the laboratory in case of any emergency.
INTRODUCTION:
Layout:
Layout means the plan view of the laboratory about the relative position of equipments as per
detailed measurements of all the objects and dimensions.
List of Equipments:
1. Model of Typical Cross-Regulator
2. Sediment Transport System
3. Adjustable Bed Flow Channel
4. Tilting Glass Flume (25 feet with accessories)
5. Fluid Friction Apparatus
a) Hydraulic Bench
b) Venturimeter
6. Basic Hydrology System
7. Francis Reaction Turbine
8. Centrifugal Pump
a) Digital Energy Meter
9. Reciprocating Pump
10. Evaporation Pan
11. Model of Taunsa Barrage
12. Standard Rain Gauge (8 inch Diameter)
a) Standard Rain Gauge (4.5 inch Diameter)
13. Anemometer
14. Wind Vane Apparatus
15. Instrument Shelter
a) Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometers graduated in °C
b) Maximum & Minimum Thermometer graduated in °C
16. Thermometer graduated in °C and °F
17. Barometer

10. 10

11. 11
HYDRAULICS ENGINEERING LABORATORY SAFETY GUIDELINES:
In Hydraulics Engineering laboratory, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen accidents during
conduct of lab experiments, Students must read these guidelines carefully and thoroughly
before attempting any laboratory activities. Following preventive measures and safe practices
shall be adopted:
GENERAL RULES:
1) Be mentally alert, always read the safety instructions and pay attention to safety signs.
2) Ask lab instructors if you are not sure about what to do.
3) Users must adhere to safety procedure of the laboratory.
4) Unauthorized persons are not permitted in the laboratory.
5) No running, jumping, horseplay, drinks, food and smoking are allowed in the
laboratory.
6) Always maintain awareness of the surrounding activities and walk in aisles to the
extent possible.
7) Maintain clean and orderly laboratories and work area. Discard immediately
unwanted items. Make sure all spilled liquids are wiped up immediately.
8) Students are responsible for maintaining work area in a safe and reasonable condition.
9) Be aware of the various experiment controls (start button, stop button, speed control)
for lab.
10) Be aware of the equipment harness when conducting experiments.
11) Do not leave equipments running unattended.
12) Any injuries should be reported immediately for proper care.
13) Working in this laboratory may require you to move or lift heavy items. Do not try to
be a hero! Be sure to follow appropriate lifting techniques. Ask for assistance
whenever you need it.
SPECIFIC RULES:
1. Dress Code
1) No high heel shoes what so ever. No loose shoelaces.
2) No rings, no bracelets, no necklaces, no watches or any other similar accessories that
may create risk when working with lab equipments.
3) No long coats, no long jackets or similar outfit that hangs out from the neck or shoulders
or waist. This sort of outfit may create the risk of stumbling over.
4) If long sleeves are worn, both sleeves should be rolled up prior to lab work.
2. Dry up wet floor
1) Floor should be kept dry at all times.

12. 12
2) Water on the floor must be swept away immediately.
3) Ensure all tripping and slipping hazards are removed.
4) While flumes are running, wet floor caution sign must be placed at entrances to the lab.
3. Keep water level within safety limit
1) Water level inside the flume/water related equipment must not rise beyond the safe
level.
2) Users to look out at all times in case water hose falls off or water overflows from
flume/water related equipment.
4. Gloves and rubber gloves
1) Wear safety gloves when handling metal sheet.
5. Power extension
1) All extension cords must be secured above ground level.
2) Ensure that electrical cords do not lie in water.
6. Equipment
1) Seek approval from staff before using any piece of machine/equipment.
2) Read and understand the safety precautions for the operation of machine/equipment
before use.
3) Secure all apparatus/equipment at all times.
4) Any fault (lighting/electrical), immediately inform the staff of lab.
5) Notify the staff if the experiment is to be continued or equipment is to be ‘ON’ after
office hours.
6) Use the appropriate tools at all times.
7) Do not touch anything that is not relevant with your experiment.
8) Put away tools and equipment in their proper place.
9) Only AUTHORIZED PERSONNEL may operate water pump.
10) Training is required for all equipment.
11) A status signboard must be displayed prominently near the experiment/equipment if it
is still running.
7. Damage of equipment/instrument
1) Report any damage of equipment/instrument to staff immediately.
2) Consider the safety for any person using the equipment or space after you.
8. Use of laboratory after office hours
1) No student is allowed to work ALONE in the laboratory after office hours.

13. 13
9. Firefighting equipment
1) Familiarize yourself with the location of fire extinguishers/fire hydrants, first‐ aid box.
10. Passage and Fire escape route
1) Know the fire escape route.
2) Do not obstruct the passage and the fire escape route.
11. Personal protective equipment:
1) Eye, ear, respiratory and hand protection to be used when there is a danger of injury.
2) Masks must be worn when there is dust or fumes in the air.
3) Wear the helmets to avoid any damage while performing experiment.

14. 14
EXPERIMENT # 1
TITLE:
To determine Chezy’s co-efficient (C) and Manning’s roughness co-efficient (n) in laboratory
flume
PURPOSE:
1. To determine the Chezy’s co-efficient “C” and Manning’s co-efficient “n”
2. To develop the relationship between “n” and “C”
3. To study the variation of “n” and “C” as the function of velocity
4. To develop uniform steady flow in laboratory flume
EQUIPMENT:
1. Glass sided Tilting flume
2. Slope adjusting arrangements (Built-in with Tilting flume)
3. Water pump (Built-in with Tilting flume)
4. Differential manometer (Built-in with Tilting flume)
5. Hook gauge (Built-in with Tilting flume)
INTRODUCTION:
Flow:
The moving water either due to gravity or pressure is said to be in flow.
Types of Flow:
1) With respect to Medium:
There are two types of flow w.r.t. medium. They are;
a) Pressure Flow/ Pipe Flow:
It is the type of flow which takes place due to pressure force provided that the internal diameter
of the pipe is fully wet.” e.g. flow in water supply pipes.
b) Open Channel Flow:
This flow takes place under the force of gravity and is open to the atmospheric pressure.
2) With respect to State of Flow:
There are three types of flow w.r.t. state of flow. They are;
a) Steady Flow:
If flow parameters remain constant w.r.t. time at any x-section, then it is steady flow.”
i.e.
𝝏
𝝏𝒕
= 𝟎 (1.1)
b) Unsteady Flow:
If flow parameters do not remain constant w.r.t. time at any x-section, then it is unsteady flow.”
i.e.
𝝏
𝝏𝒕
≠ 𝟎 (1.2)

15. 15
c) Uniform flow:
If the flow is having constant flow parameters w.r.t. distance, then it is uniform flow
i.e.
𝝏
𝝏𝒙
= 𝟎 (1.3)
Note: If we combine steady and uniform flow then we get steady uniform flow.
Or if the flow parameters do not change w.r.t time as well as distance then it will be called as
uniform steady flow.
Hydraulic Radius:
It is the ratio of flow area to the wetted perimeter.” It is used to measure efficiency of pipe or
channel.
Assumptions:
 Fluid is incompressible.
 Fluid is ideal i.e. no resistance between layers.
 Flow is uniform steady.
Chezy’s Formula:
Chezy’s equation is valid over the wide range of flows, like turbulent or uniform flows. This
equation is more diverse in use. It is a function of inertial, viscous force (flow forces) and the
relative roughness of the channel bed.
It is given as;
V = C √𝑹𝑺 (1.4)
Where; V = average velocity, C = Chezy’s constant
R = hydraulic radius, S = slope of bed of the channel.
Manning’s Formula:
Manning’s equation is an empirical equation that applies to an open channel flow. It is the
function of channel velocity, flow area and the channel slope. The Manning’s co-efficient
represents the roughness and the friction applied to the flow by the channel bed.
It is given as;
𝑽 =
𝟏
𝒏
𝑹
𝟐
𝟑 𝑺
𝟏
𝟐 (1.5)
Where;
R = hydraulic radius,
S = slope of the bed of the channel
n = Manning’s roughness co-efficient.
Relationship between “n” and “C”:
From Manning’s equation:

16. 16
𝑽 =
𝟏
𝒏
𝑹
𝟐
𝟑 𝑺
𝟏
𝟐
𝑽 =
𝟏
𝒏
𝑹
𝟏
𝟔 𝑹
𝟏
𝟐 𝑺
𝟏
𝟐
𝑽 =
𝟏
𝒏
𝑹
𝟏
𝟔 √𝑹𝑺 (1.6)
From Chezy’s Equation
V = C √𝑹𝑺 (1.4)
Comparing Eq. 1.4 & 1.6
C √𝑹𝑺 =
𝟏
𝒏
𝑹
𝟏
𝟔 √𝑹𝑺
C =
𝟏
𝐧
𝐑
𝟏
𝟔 (1.7)
PROCEDURE:
1) Allow the water to flow with certain depth in the flume.
2) Note down the readings of the differential manometer and see the corresponding
discharge from the discharge charts.
3) Take the depth at differing points and note it.
4) Calculate the area of flowing water.
5) Calculate the hydraulic radius and velocity by the formula, 𝑽 =
𝑸
𝑨
6) Calculate the co-efficient “C” and “n” accordingly.
HAZARDS INVOLVED IN OPERATING TILTING FLUME:
1) Danger of electric shock, while opening the switch cabinet and in contact with the
electrical equipment.
2) Danger of injury from falling objects while working underneath the flow channel while
it is in operation.
3) One of the supports may slip under load. While adjusting the inclination of flume
beyond the specified range.
4) Risk of spillover while filling the flume.
5) Leaks may allow large amounts of water to escape unnoticed.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR TILTING FLUME:
1) Safety shoes, safety helmet and gloves must be worn while operating the
equipment.
2) Never adjust the slope beyond the specified range. One of the supports may slip under
load.
3) Protect the switch cabinet against water incursion.
4) Fill the flume up to certain limits. There may be risk of spillover.
5) Never operate the flume without the supervision of lab instructor.

17. 17
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Flume width = B = 300mm
Slope = S =
Sr.
No.
Discharge Depth of flow
Area of
flow
Wetted
perimeter
Flow
velocity
Hydraulic
radius
C n
Q y B*y P = B + 2y V = Q/A R = A/P ---- ----
m3/sec m m2 M m/sec M ---- ----

18. 18
CONCLUSIONS:

19. 19
EXPERIMENT # 2
TITLE:
To experimentally investigate the relationship between specific energy (E) and depth of flow
(y)
PURPOSE:
1. To study the variation of specific energy as a function of depth of flow for a given
discharge
2. To study the variation of specific energy as a function of depth of flow when discharge
per unit width changes.
EQUIPMENT:
1. Glass sided Tilting flume
2. Hook gauge
INTRODUCTION:
Flume:
A channel above the ground mostly used for study purpose is called flume.
Figure 2.1: Glass sided Tilting Flume
Specific Energy:
The total energy per unit weight or flow rate at a particular cross section with respect to the
channel bed is known as specific energy.”
It is given by; 𝑬 = 𝒚 +
𝑽𝟐
𝟐𝒈
(2.1)
Units of specific energy are meters (m).

20. 20
Figure 2.2: Hydraulic and Energy Grade lines
Open Channel flow:
Flow taking place due to component of gravity along the channel bed slope is Open channel
flow.
Uniform flow:
It is the flow in which velocity of flow, depth, slope of bed and x-sec of channel remain constant
w.r.t. length.” Specific energy in case of uniform flow remains constant.
Specific energy curve or E-Y Diagram:
It is the graphical representation of variation of specific energy as a function of depth of flow.
In this curve we draw depth of flow on y-axis and specific energy on x-axis at a constant
discharge.
Purpose of E-Y diagram is to know that at what depth flow is of what type.
As 𝑬 = 𝒚 +
𝑽𝟐
𝟐𝒈
so 𝑬 = 𝒚 +
𝑸𝟐
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
And 𝑬 = 𝒚 +
𝑸𝟐
𝟐𝒈𝒚𝟐𝒃²
𝑬 = 𝒚 +
𝑸𝟐
𝟐𝒈𝒃²
(
𝟏
𝒚𝟐)
𝑬 = 𝒚 +
𝒒𝟐
𝟐𝒈
(
𝟏
𝒚𝟐)
E - y =
𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒚𝟐
(E – y) y² = constant

21. 21
Figure 2.3: Specific Energy versus Flow depth diagram
Minimum Specific Energy:
Energy corresponding to the critical depth is minimum specific energy.
As we know that 𝑬 = 𝒚 +
𝒒𝟐
𝟐𝒈𝒚𝟐
So, 𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒚𝒄 +
𝒒𝟐
𝟐𝒈𝒚 𝟐
𝒄
We know that 𝒚𝒄 = [
𝒒𝟐
𝒈
]
𝟏
𝟑
so 𝒒𝟐
= 𝒈𝒚𝟑
𝒄
Put in equation of Emin we get; 𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝟑
𝟐
𝒚𝒄 (2.2)
Critical Depth Of Flow: (yc)
It is the depth of flow corresponding to the minimum specific energy at constant discharge.” It
is given as;
𝑦𝑐 = [
𝑞2
𝑔
]
1
3
(2.3)
By increasing Q, yc will increase and different E ~ y diagrams would result for different
discharge values.
Critical Velocity: (Vc)
The velocity corresponding to critical depth of flow in an open channel is called critical
velocity.”
It is given as;
Vc = √𝒈𝒚𝒄 (2.4)

22. 22
Critical Flow:
It is the flow corresponding to the critical depth, when specific energy is minimum for a given
discharge.
Super Critical Flow:
The flow for which depth is less than the critical depth is termed as super critical flow.
Sub Critical Flow:
The flow with depth more than critical depth is called as sub critical flow.
Froude’s Number:
It is an index which is a ratio of inertial to the gravitational forces. It tells us about the state of
flow. “It is used to differentiate flow conditions and is given as;
𝐹𝑁 =
𝑉
√𝑔𝑦
(2.5)
If, FN < 1 Subcritical flow
FN = 1 Critical flow
FN > 1 Supercritical flow (Flow with larger velocity and smaller depth)
Alternate Depths:
For any value of specific energy other than the critical, there exists two depths; one
corresponding to super critical flow and the other corresponding to sub critical flow. These two
depths at a particular specific energy are called as alternate depths of flow.
PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust the glass sided Tilting flume accordingly and make it ready for experiment.
2. Adjust the slope of the flume and setup a flow in the flume.
3. Adjust the discharge and take the discharge value from the chart.
4. Take depth at different places along the flume and take the mean value for the depth.
5. Repeat the experiment after changing the slope of the flume.
HAZARDS INVOLVED IN OPERATING TILTING FLUME:
1. Danger of electric shock, while opening the switch cabinet and in contact with the
electrical equipment.
2. Danger of injury from falling objects while working underneath the flow channel while
it is in operation.
3. One of the supports may slip under load. While adjusting the inclination of flume
beyond the specified range.
4. Risk of spillover while filling the flume.
5. Leaks may allow large amounts of water to escape unnoticed.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR TILTING FLUME:
1. Safety shoes, safety helmet and gloves must be worn while operating the
equipment.

23. 23
2. Never adjust the slope beyond the specified range. One of the supports may slip under
load.
3. Protect the switch cabinet against water incursion.
4. Fill the flume up to certain limits. There may be risk of spillover.
5. Never operate the flume without the supervision of lab instructor.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Sr.
No.
Slope Depth of flow (m) Discharge q = Q/b
Area
of flow
Velocity of
flow
Specific
Energy E =y
+(v²/2g)
S y1 y2 y3 y Q (mᵌ/s) (m²/s) (m²) (m/s) (m)
for Discharge Q 1
for Discharge Q 2
for Discharge Q 3

24. 24
EXPERIMENT # 3
TITLE:
To study the flow characteristics over a hump/weir and draw the water surface profile over the
hump
PURPOSE:
1. To study the variation in the flow in the laboratory glass sided Tilting Flume by
introducing various types of weirs in it.
2. To draw the water surface profile over the hump.
EQUIPMENT:
1. Glass sided Tilting flume
2. Hook gauge
3. Broad crested sharp corner weir
4. Broad crested rounded corner weir
INTRODUCTION:
Weir or Hump:
It is an obstruction or structure which is constructed across a river or stream to the level of
water on the upstream side used to dam up a stream or a river over which water flows.
Figure 3.1: Different types of weirs in execution models
Sharp corner weir Round corner weir
Figure 3.2: Sharp and Round Cornered Weirs
Barrage:
Q 1 < Q 2 < Q 3

25. 25
It is a weir with vertical control gates or sluice which can be moved up and down.
Advantages of Barrages:
1. To raise the water up to the required level.
2. To control the flow of water.
Difference between Notch and Weir:
The only difference between notch and weir is that notch is of smaller size and made in the
plate structure whereas weir is made up of masonry or concrete material having larger size
1. When water is flowing under atmospheric pressure then that obstruction is weir.
2. When water is flowing under pressure then that obstruction is orifice.
Function of Weir:
It is a barrier used to alter the flow characteristics and to prevent the flood. It is also used to
measure the discharge of the channel.
The discharge in the weir is,
𝑄 = 𝐶 × 𝐿 × 𝐻𝑛
For rectangular weir/notch,
𝑄 = 𝐶 × 𝐿 × 𝐻1.5
Hump:
It is a streamline construction provided at the bed of channel. It is a local rise given to the
channel bed with the purpose to increase the depth of flow on the upstream side.
It is a kind of submerged weir.
Bernoulli’s Equation:
y1 + v1
2/2g = y2 + v2
2/2g + ΔZ
E1 = E2 + ΔZ
E2 = E1 – ΔZ
E1 > E2
Figure 3.3: Hump Height effect on Specific Energy

26. 26
From specific energy diagram, we can design the height of hump (ΔZ) easily.
Maximum height = ΔZmax. = Zc = E1 – Ec
When the fluid is flowing over a hump, the behavior of free water surface is sharply different
according to weather. The approach of flow is sub-critical or super-critical. The height of hump
can change the character of results.
If the approach of flow is sub-critical then the water level over the hump will reduce and vice
versa. For super-critical approach flow, if the hump height reaches ΔZmax .which isE1 – Ec, the
flow over the crest will exactly be the critical flow. If the hump height is more than ΔZmax.
Then it will cause damming action.
Critical Hump Height:
It is the minimum hump height that causes the critical depth (flow) over the hump.
Y2 = Yc ΔZ = Zc
Effects on Depth of Flow:
1. Depth of flow decreases with increase hump height over the hump up to a critical value
(yc) then it becomes constant with further increase in hump height.
2. Specific energy decreases over the hump due to decrease in depth of flow for same
discharge and slope, which causes depression of water over the hump.
Damming Action:
Where hump height is more than the critical hump height, there is a sudden increase in water
depth on upstream side. This phenomenon is called damming action.
PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust the glass sided Tilting flume at required slope and check if there is any problem
in arrangement or anything residual inside the flume causing obstruction in flow.
2. Setup a specific discharge in the flume.
3. Note down the manometer readings on u/s side on weir and on d/s side of the weir.
4. Compare these values with yc to write down the flow characteristics.
HAZARDS INVOLVED IN OPERATING TILTING FLUME:
1. Danger of electric shock, while opening the switch cabinet and in contact with the
electrical equipment.
2. Danger of injury from falling objects while working underneath the flow channel while
it is in operation.
3. One of the supports may slip under load. While adjusting the inclination of flume
beyond the specified range.
4. Risk of spillover while filling the flume.
5. Leaks may allow large amounts of water to escape unnoticed.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR TILTING FLUME:
1. Safety shoes, safety helmet and gloves must be worn while operating the
equipment.

27. 27
2. Never adjust the slope beyond the specified range. One of the supports may slip under
load.
3. Protect the switch cabinet against water incursion.
4. Fill the flume up to certain limits. There may be risk of spillover.
5. Never operate the flume without the supervision of lab instructor.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Type of weir Width (mm) Height (mm)
a) Round cornered 300 120
b) Sharp cornered 300 60
Slope = S = 1/500
Width of flume = B = 300 mm
Sr.
No.
Weir
type
Q Depth of Flow (mm) q = Q/b yc Flow type
mᵌ/sec U/S Over the Hump D/S m²/sec mm U/S
Over
hump
D/S
y1 y2 y3 y y1 y2 y3 y y1 y2 y3 y

28. 28
EXPERIMENT # 4
TITLE:
To study the flow characteristics of hydraulic jump development in tilting flume in the
laboratory
PURPOSE:
To achieve physically, the development of hydraulic jump in laboratory flume.
EQUIPMENT:
1. Glass sided Tilting flume
2. Hook gauge
INTRODUCTION:
Hydraulic Jump:
It is formed due to transformation of supercritical flow to subcritical flow.
Figure 4.1: Hydraulic jump simulatin in flume
Applications of Hydraulic Jump:
1. To dissipate the energy of water flowing over the hydraulic structures.
2. To avoid scouring d/s of hydraulic structure.
3. To recover head or raise the water level d/s of a hydraulic structure and thus to maintain
the high water in the channel for irrigation or other water distribution purposes.
4. To increase the weight of apron and thus to reduce the uplift pressure, under the
structure by raising water depth on the apron.
5. To mix chemicals used for water filtration etc.
Importance of Hydraulic Jump:
1. Location of hydraulic jump is very important on d/s side. For ideal situation d2 < yn2
then back water effect will be produced and jump will be submerged.
2. If d2 > yn2 then water will move forward more efficiently.
3. By decreasing d2 more hydraulic energy is dissipated, where d2 is depth required to
develop the jump.

29. 29
PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust the S-6 Tilting flume at required slope and check if there is any problem in
arrangement or anything residual inside the flume causing obstruction in flow.
2. Setup a specific discharge in the flume.
3. Note down the depth of the water surface before, after and at the hydraulic jump.
4. Repeat the above procedure with various values of discharge and calculate the results.
HAZARDS INVOLVED IN OPERATING TILTING FLUME:
1. Danger of electric shock, while opening the switch cabinet and in contact with the
electrical equipment.
2. Danger of injury from falling objects while working underneath the flow channel while
it is in operation.
3. One of the supports may slip under load. While adjusting the inclination of flume
beyond the specified range.
4. Risk of spillover while filling the flume.
5. Leaks may allow large amounts of water to escape unnoticed.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR TILTING FLUME:
1. Safety shoes, safety helmet and gloves must be worn while operating the
equipment.
2. Never adjust the slope beyond the specified range. One of the supports may slip under
load.
3. Protect the switch cabinet against water incursion.
4. Fill the flume up to certain limits. There may be risk of spillover.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Sr.
No.
Q q = Q/0.3 y0 y1 y2 yc x0 x1 x2
m3/sec m2/sec m m m m m m m

30. 30
DESIGN EXERCISE # 1
TITLE:
1) Plot Velocity – Variation and Discharge –Variation curves with respect to depth of flow
for a channel of circular section in dimensionless form
2) Determine the conditions of flow for maximum Velocity and maximum Discharge both
graphically and analytically
SOLUTION:
1)
Conduits running partially full are considered as open channels because the pressure in such
conduits is atmospheric.
In circular cross-section channels, velocity and discharge varies when the flow depth, y is
changed. Sewers are the most common examples of open channels. More the velocity, more
will be the suspended load.
SKETCH:
Considering Chezy’s formula,
𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆
= 𝐶√𝑆 √
𝐴
𝑃
Taking C and S as Constant, 𝑉 ∝ √
𝐴
𝑃

31. 31
Velocity will be maximum when
𝐴
𝑃
is maximum.
Now, wetted perimeter, P = Length of the arc ADB
= 2rθ, where θ is in radians.
Flow area, A = Area of the sector AOBD – Area of the Triangle AOB
=
𝜋𝑟2
2𝜋
. 2𝜃 −
1
2
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 2 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟2
𝜃 −
𝑟2
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑟2
( 𝜃 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2
)
V = C√𝑆 √𝑟2 (𝜃−
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2
)
2𝑟𝜃
When pipe is running full, 𝜃 = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Velocity when the pipe runs full, 𝑉
𝑓 = 𝐶√𝑆 √𝑟2 ( 𝜋−
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋
2
2𝜋𝑟
Or 𝑉
𝑓 = 𝐶√𝑆 √
𝑟
2
𝑉
𝑉𝑓
=
𝐶√𝑆 √
𝑟2(𝜃−
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2
)
2𝑟𝜃
𝐶 √𝑆 √
𝑟
2
= √𝜃−
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2
𝜃
Or
𝑉
𝑉𝑓
= √1 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2𝜃
(5.1)
𝑄
𝑄𝑓
=
𝐴𝑉
𝐴𝑓𝑉𝑓
=
𝐴
𝐴𝑓
𝑉
𝑉𝑓
=
𝑟2( 𝜃−
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2
)
𝜋𝑟2
. √1 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2𝜃
Or
𝑄
𝑄𝑓
= (𝜃 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2
).
1
𝜋
(1 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2𝜃
)
1
2 (5.2)
𝑦 = 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑟(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑦
𝑑
=
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2
(5.3)
𝜃 = cos−1
(1 −
2𝑦
𝑑
) (5.4)
θ may be obtained for different values of
𝑦
𝑑
, and hence
𝑉
𝑉𝑓
and
𝑄
𝑄𝑓
may be
obtained for different values of
𝑦
𝑑
.

32. 32
CALCULATION TABLE
𝒚
𝒅
𝜽
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝟐𝜽
𝑽
𝑽𝒇
= (𝟏 −
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝟐𝜽
)
𝟏
𝟐
𝑸
𝑸𝒇
Degree Radian
2)
𝑨
𝑨𝒇
=
𝟏
𝝅
(𝜽 −
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝟐
)
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝟐

33. 33
DESIGN EXERCISE # 2
TITLE:
A trapezoidal channel having base width ‘B’ m, side slopes ‘x: 1’ and Manning’s roughness
coefficient ‘n’ is carrying a discharge ‘Q’ (m3/sec) (shown in Figure 2.1). Take numerical
values for:
B =
𝐴𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦, 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
600
𝑄 = 1.9𝐵
𝑛 =
𝐵
700
x = 1.5 for odd registration number
x = 2 for even registration number
It is provided with a hump of height P. Assuming the hump to be frictionless and using usual
notations, plot the following curves:
1) P~y1
2) P~y2
3) P~y3
Take yo = 1.6 yc
Figure 2.1: Cross-Section of Trapezoidal Channel and water surface profile

34. 34
INTRODUCTION:
Referring to Figure 2.1 and applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1, 2 and 3
𝑦1 +
𝑉1
2
2𝑔
= 𝑃 + 𝑦2 +
𝑉2
2
2𝑔
= 𝑦3 +
𝑉3
2
2𝑔
𝑜𝑟 𝐸1 = 𝑃 + 𝐸2 = 𝐸3
𝑉1 =
𝑄
𝐴1
, 𝑉2 =
𝑄
𝐴2
, 𝑉3 =
𝑄
𝐴3
𝑜𝑟 𝑉1 =
𝑄
(𝐵 + 𝑥𝑦1)𝑦1
𝑉2 =
𝑄
(𝐵 + 𝑥𝑦2 )𝑦2
𝑉3 =
𝑄
(𝐵 + 𝑥𝑦3 )𝑦3
𝑦𝑜 = 1.6 𝑦𝑐
= 1.6 × 1.251 = 2.0016 𝑚
As 𝑦𝑜 > 𝑦𝑐 , the flow
𝑈
𝑆
ofthe hump is subcritical flow. Hence, water surface over
the hump will lower down.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑃 ≤ 𝑃𝑐, y1 = yo , y1 ≥ y2 ≥ yc
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦3 = 𝑦1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃 > 𝑃𝑐, y1 > yo > 𝑦𝑐 , y2 = yc
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦3 < 𝑦𝑐 < 𝑦𝑜
Also, y1 and y3 are the alternate flow depths for each E or consequently P value.
Calculations:

35. 35
DESIGN EXERCISE # 3
TITLE:
To develop the relationship between Surface Area, Elevation and Capacity of Reservoir
PURPOSE:
For a given reservoir develop:
1. Elevation ~ Surface Area curve
2. Elevation ~ Capacity curve
3. Surface Area ~ Capacity curve
4. To develop co-relation between Elevation, Surface Area & Capacity of reservoir to check
the feasibility of project
INTRODUCTION:
Reservoir:
Area occupied by water body due to construction of a dam is called as reservoir. A reservoir is
created with impounding of the part of runoff from the catchment upstream by the construction
of a dam across the river or stream.
The total volume of water that can be stored in the reservoir is termed as capacity of reservoir.
This capacity can be obtained by Engineering survey or by the contour maps so that the site
selected may be fulfilling the capacity requirement.
Classification/ Types of Reservoir:
1. Storage reservoir
2. Flood control reservoir
3. Detention reservoir
4. Distribution reservoir
5. Multipurpose reservoir
6. Balancing reservoir
Storage Reservoir:
It is constructed to store the water in the rainy season and release it later when the river flow is
low.
Flood Control Reservoir:
It is constructed for the purpose of flood control to protect the area on the downstream side
from the damage due to flood.
Detention Reservoirs:
It stores the excess of water during flood and release it after the flood. It is similar to storage
reservoir but is provided with gated spillways and the sluice ways to permit the flexibility of
operation.

36. 36
In storage and flood control reservoir flow cannot be controlled. But in detention reservoir we
can control flow.
Distribution Reservoir:
It is a small storage reservoir to tide over the peak demand of water for domestic water supply
and agricultural purposes.
Multipurpose Reservoir:
These are constructed for more than single purposes i.e. storage for Irrigation as well as Power
generation. For example. Tarbela and Mangla dams.
Balancing Reservoir:
It is the reservoir on the downstream of the main reservoir for holding water released from the
main reservoir.
Capacity of Reservoir:
The capacity of reservoir is defined as the amount of water which the reservoir can store. This
storage can be used for fulfilling the demand of downstream users for various activities. E.g.
water supply, irrigation purpose, hydral power generation etc.
It is decided on the basis of surplus and deficit. A reference line has to be use which tells us
that water is available in excess or less in amount. Storage capacity depends upon the lesser
value of surplus or deficit because that amount of water we have to store for future. If we store
larger value which indicates the large amount of water and the sedimentation problem has to
be occurred.
The main purpose of constructing the reservoir is to store water for emergency purposes, as
well as user requirement.
Practical Importance of Surface Area (S), Elevation (E) and Capacity (C) curves:
1) S-E Curve:
This curve provides us information about the land that is required for the reservoir, people
evacuation, deforestation and other Environmental Factors.
It is used in site selection before construction and needs modification time to time as the
area corresponding to particular elevation changes (due to sedimentation and erosion)
which affects the capacity of reservoir.
2) E-C Curve:
These are important to calculate the storage capacity by selecting the elevation of water
and it is used to select the level of spillways and sluiceways.
Some frequently used levels which can be calculated from this curve are:
1. Maximum level
2. Operational level
3. Dead level
3) S-C Curve:
This curve provides us information about area that is under water.

37. 37
4) S-C-E Curve:
This curve is used to check the feasibility of the project.
Types of storage:
There are two main types of storages.
1) Live storage
2) Dead storage
Live storage:
The live storage reduces with the reduction in life time of the reservoir. This also depends upon
the sedimentation process. To accommodate this reduction in capacity we have to plan to
increase the height of dam step by step. This is known as integrated water management. Live
storage is the capacity of the reservoir above the dead storage level which constituted useable
portion of the total storage. Live storage assures the supply of water for certain period of time
to meet the demand for the irrigation, Hydal power generation or public water supply etc.
Generally it is said for good projects the water is available about 80% of the design for
irrigation purposes.
For Hydal power generation 90% water should be available for maximum time.
For domestic purposes the water should be available 100%.
Dead storage:
It is the minimum amount of the water that should remain in the reservoir all the time is called
as dead storage. The amount of water in any reservoir should not be lesser than the dead storage.
Flood storage:
This is the storage contains between maximum reservoir level and full reservoir level. It varies
with the spill way capacity for a given design flood.
PROCEDURE:
1. Note down the depth (height) of the dam.
2. From the cross section of the dam note the width of the catchments area which is in (m)
& from the longitudinal cross section we will get the length which is also in (m).
3. Get the area form the following data and take mean of the area, in this way we will get
the idea of the area which is our catchment area.
4. We will do this method for the entire height of the dam but in strips which we are going
to consider of 1 m.
5. We will get the volume which is to be accommodated in the dam and the total volume
is obtained just by cumulating the whole volume.
6. Now as we got the total volume but this volume is in (m3) so we have to convert this in
MILLION CUBIC METER (MCM).
1MCM = 106 m3
1MAF = 43560 x 106 ft3

38. 38
7. Plot the desired curves.
8. Note the behavior of the curves against different depths, capacity and area.
DESIGN WORK:
For the following set of data related to the longitudinal section and cross-section of a river at a
dam site
DEVELOP:
1) Elevation ~ Surface Area curve
2) Elevation ~ Capacity curve
3) Surface Area ~ Capacity curve
4) Elevation, Surface Area & Capacity curve
5) Calculate the elevation of water required in the reservoir to store 2 BCM water.
(ROLL # = R = 90)
`
Figure 3.1: Longitudinal – Section
H3 = 45
m
H4 =75
m
1:600
1:500
9.00 (km) 15.00(km) 22.50(km) 45.00 (km)
H1 = 90
m
H2 = 60
m
1:100
1:250

39. 39
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.
Elevation
Interval
Height
Longitudinal Section Cross-Section
Top
surface
Area
Mean
surface
area
volume
of
reservoir
Capacity
of
reservoir
z1
(m)
z2
(m)
z2 -z1
(m)
slope
BW
(m)
TW
(m)
AW
(m)
slope
BW
(m)
TW
(m)
AW
(m)
(m2) (m2) (BCM) (BCM)

40. 40

41. 41

42. 42
DESIGN EXERCISE # 4
TITLE:
To estimate the live capacity of reservoir for various operational scenarios.
1) Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir so that constant maximum supply can be
assured from this reservoir if the losses are assumed to be negligible.
2) Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir to have constant maximum supply from
the reservoir if 20% of the inflows are lost due to seepage and evaporation.
3) Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir if outflow R/2 𝑚3
𝑠𝑒𝑐
⁄ has to be released
from the reservoir from d/s usage, also plot mass curve and decide emptying and filling
program in each case.
PURPOSE:
1. For a given reservoir develop:
 Estimation of capacity of reservoir for following operational conditions
 Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir so that constant maximum supply
can be assured from this reservoir if the losses are assumed to be negligible.
 Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir to have constant maximum supply
from the reservoir if 20% of the inflows are lost due to seepage and evaporation.
 Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir if outflow R/2 𝑚3
𝑠𝑒𝑐
⁄ has to be
released from the reservoir from d/s usage, also plot mass curve and decide
emptying and filling program in each case.
2. To plot the mass curve.
3. To propose suitable emptying & filling program for reservoir.
INTRODUCTION:
Reservoir:
Area occupied by water body due to construction of a dam is called as reservoir. A reservoir is
created with impounding of the part of runoff from the catchment upstream by the construction
of a dam across the river or stream.
The total volume of water that can be stored in the reservoir is termed as capacity of reservoir.
This capacity can be obtained by Engineering survey or by the contour maps so that the site
selected may be fulfilling the capacity requirement.
Capacity of Reservoir:
The capacity of reservoir is defined as the amount of water which the reservoir can store. This
storage can be used for fulfilling the demand of downstream users for various activities e.g.
water supply, irrigation purpose, Hydal power generation etc.
It is decided on the basis of surplus and deficit. A reference line has to be used which tells us
that water is available in excess or less in amount. Storage capacity depends upon the lesser
value of surplus or deficit because that amount of water we have to store for future. If we store

43. 43
larger value which indicates the large amount of water and the sedimentation problem has to
be occurred.
The main purpose of constructing the reservoir is to store water for emergency purposes, as
well as user requirement.
Reservoir Levels:
There are different reservoir levels:
Full ReservoirLevel:
Maximum level of water in normal operating condition is full reservoir level.
Maximum Water Level:
Highest level of water in reservoir when design flood discharge passes over the spillway.
Minimum Pool Level:
Minimum water level up to which we can withdraw water from reservoir under ordinary
conditions.
Dead Level:
Minimum possible water level up to which we can withdraw water under all type of conditions
(extra ordinary condition).
Reservoir Storage:
Dead Storage:
Water contained in the reservoir up to the dead level
OR
It is the volume of water held below the minimum pool level and it is equivalent to volume
of sediment expected to be deposited in the reservoir during the design life.
Figure 4.1: Different storage levels
Live/Useful Storage
It is the volume of water stored between the full reservoir level and minimum pool level. It
assures the supply of water for a specific period to meet the demand.

44. 44
Flood/Surcharge Storage
The volume of water stored between maximum water level and full reservoir level is called as
flood storage. It varies with the spillway capacity of dam for a given design flood.
Reservoir Yield
Volume of water which can be withdrawn from reservoir during a specified time period. (In
Pakistan it is 10 days daily yield, given by IRSA)
Primary Yield/Firm Yield/Safe Yield
Maximum quantity of water that can be supplied un-interruptedly from a reservoir in a
specified period of time during a critical dry year.
Secondary Yield
Quantity of water which is available during high flow in the river when yield is more than the
safe yield.
Average Yield
It is the arithmetic average of safe yield and secondary yield over a long period of time for a
reservoir.
DesignYield
It is the yield adopted in the design of reservoir and is usually considered on the
basis of urgency of water needs and the amount of risk involved.
HOW TO ESTIMATE LIVE STORAGE CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR
Live storage capacity of reservoir = Surplus or Deficit
(Whichever is smaller?)
UDO (Uniform Draw Off)
It is the amount withdrawn from the reservoir continuously at a constant rate throughout the
year for a prescribed time period. In Pakistan it is done on ten days basis by the IRSA
(Indus River Storage Authority)
It depends upon the downstream requirements like irrigation, hydropower requirement and the
water supply requirement. If surplus water remains in the reservoir then:
1) Chance of sedimentation
2) More Surface Area would be required.
3) More Elevation.
4) More compensation cost.
5) More deficit
So we’ll be requiring deficit water.
UDO = Total discharge in given time
Given time
Q
Time (t)
UDO

45. 45
How to find Capacity of Reservoir:
Live storage capacity of reservoir = Surplus or Deficit
(Whichever is smaller?)
Mass Curve:
It is the plot between cumulative inflows and demand (outflows) versus time.
This graph gives us:
1) Information about total amount of water available at particular time interval (t) in the
reservoir.
2) Amount of Surplus and Deficit can be calculated.
Mass Inflow Curve:
It is the graph plotted between cumulative inflows & time
Demand Flow Curve:
It is the graph plotted between cumulative outflows &time
Filling and Emptying Program:
Filling and emptying program is decided for a reservoir on the basis of surplus or deficit.
Q
Time (t)
UDO
Surplus
Deficit
Inflow discharge hydrograph
Time (t)
Demand curve
Mass inflow Curve
Cumulative
Discharge
(Q)

46. 46
During the period of surplus, the available water is in excess of requirement and the reservoir
is filled to fulfill the water deficiency during the dry months.
DESIGN DATA:
Time Inflows
4 Weekly Basis
4 60
8 75
12 85
16 125
20 190
24 225
28 245
32 285
36 235
40 205
44 135
48 80
52 65
FORMULAS TO BE USED IN CALCULATION:
Net Inflow = Inflow × (1 − losses(%))
Inflow yield =
Q × 28 × 24 × 3600
106
(MCM)
UDO =
Sum of inflow yield
No of data record
(MCM)
Surplus or Deficit = Inflow yield − UDO
PROCEDURE:
1) Time on the 4 weekly basis given along with the inflows.
2) Calculate the net inflows by considering the losses due to evaporation and seepage.
3) Calculate the inflow yield by the given formula in MCM.
4) Take the cumulative of the inflow yield column.
5) Calculate UDO by summing up the inflow yields divided by the no of data record.
6) Take the cumulative of the UDO column.
7) Calculate the difference between inflow yield and UDO.
𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
⁄

47. 47
8) If the value is positive write it in surplus column and if negative write it in deficit in
MCM.
9) Plot the mass curve that is between cumulative inflow yield and cumulative UDO vs.
time.
10) Also draw the emptying and filling program.
CALCULATION TABLES
CASE A
Roll No = 183
Case 1
Time Inflows
Net
inflow
Inflow
Yield
Cumulative
Inflow Yield
UDO
Cumulative
UDO
Surplus Deficit
4 weekly
Basis
MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM
𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
⁄
𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
⁄

48. 48
CASE B
Roll No. = 183
Case 2
Time Inflows
Net
inflow
Inflow Yield
Cumulative
inflow Yield
UDO
Cumulative
UDO
Surplus Deficit
4 weekly
Basis
MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM
𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
⁄
𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
⁄

49. 49
CASE C
Roll No = 183
Case 3
Time Inflows Net inflow
Inflow
Yield
Cumulative
inflow Yield
Outflow
yield
Cumulative
UDO
Surplus Deficit
4 weekly
Basis
MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM
𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
⁄
𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
⁄

50. 50

51. 51
OPEN ENDED EXPERIMENT
Experiment # 1
TITLE:
To study the characteristics of flow over a different roughened beds
PURPOSE:
1) To determine the effect of a roughness of bed on the depth of water at different flow rates
2) To obtain appropriate coefficients to satisfy the Manning’s Formula, by using the
artificially roughened bed of different materials
EQUIPMENT:
1) Glass sided Tilting Flume
2) Hook Gauge
3) Artificially roughened beds of different materials
INTRODUCTION:
For uniform flow over a roughened beds of different materials, the Manning’s formula states
that:
𝑽 =
𝟏
𝒏
𝑹
𝟐
𝟑 𝑺
𝟏
𝟐
Where;
n = Coefficient of roughness (dimensionless)
R = Hydraulic mean radius (m)
= Flow area (A) / Wetted perimeter (P)
S = Slope of bed of the channel
The actual fluid velocity can be calculated as:
V = Q / A
Where;
V = mean fluid velocity (m/s)
Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s)
A = Area of flow (m2)
= Breadth of channel (b) x Depth of flow (y)
PROCEDURE:
1) Allow the water to flow with certain depth in the flume.
2) Note down the readings of the differential manometer and see the corresponding
discharge from the discharge charts.
3) Take the depth at differing points and note it.

52. 52
4) Calculate the area of flowing water.
5) Calculate the hydraulic radius and velocity by the formula 𝑽 =
𝑸
𝑨
6) Calculate the co-efficient “n” accordingly.
HAZARDS INVOLVED IN OPERATING TILTING FLUME:
1) Danger of electric shock, while opening the switch cabinet and in contact with the
electrical equipment.
2) Danger of injury from falling objects while working underneath the flow channel while
it is in operation.
3) One of the supports may slip under load. While adjusting the inclination of flume
beyond the specified range.
4) Risk of spillover while filling the flume.
5) Leaks may allow large amounts of water to escape unnoticed.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR TILTING FLUME:
1) Safety shoes, safety helmet and gloves should be worn while operating the
equipment.
2) Never adjust the slope beyond the specified range. One of the supports may slip under
load.
3) Protect the switch cabinet against water incursion.
4) Fill the flume up to certain limits. There may be risk of spillover.
5) Never operate the flume without the supervision of lab instructor.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Flume width = B = 300mm
Slope = S = 1:500
Sr.
No.
Discharge Depth of flow
Area of
flow
Wetted
perimeter
Flow
velocity
Hydraulic
radius
n
Q y B x y P = B + 2y V = Q/A R = A/P ----
m3/sec m m2 m m/sec M ----
1
2
3
4
5
6

53. 53
CONCLUSIONS:
1. Does the value of n obtained correspond with the expected value?
2. Comment on the results.

54. 54
Experiment # 2
TITLE:
Measurement of Discharge beneath a Sluice Gate
PURPOSE:
1. To determine the relationship between upstream head and flow rate for water
flowing under a sluice gate.
2. To calculate the discharge coefficient and to observe the flow patterns obtained.
EQUIPMENT:
1. Adjustable sluice gate
2. Glass sided Tilting Flume
3. Point Gauge
INTRODUCTION:
Figure 2.1: Water surface profile and Sluice gate
For flow beneath a sharp edged sluice gate it can be shown that;
Therefore;
Where;
Q = Discharge (m3s-1)
Cd = Discharge coefficient (Dimensionless)
b = Breadth of weir (m)
yg= Height of sluice gate opening above bed (m)
y0 = Upstream depth of flow (m)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81ms-2)

55. 55
Where;
H0 = Total head upstream of weir (m)
H1 = Total head downstream of weir (m)
y1 = Downstream depth of flow (m)
V0 = Mean velocity upstream of weir (ms-1)
V1 = Mean velocity downstream of weir (ms-1)
EQUIPMENT SET UP:
1) Ensure the flume is level, with no stop logs installed at the discharge end of
the channel. Measure and record the actual breadth b (m) of the sluice gate.
2) Clamp the sluice gate assembly securely to the sides of the channel at a position
approximately mid-way along the flume with the sharp edge on the bottom of the
sluice gate facing upstream.
3) The datum for all measurements will be the bed of the flume. Carefully adjust
the hook gauge to coincide with the bed of the flume and record the datum
reading.
PROCEDURE:
1) Adjust the knob on top of the sluice gate to position the sharp edge of the
sluice gate 0.010m above the bed of the flume.
2) Gradually open the flow control valve and admit water until yo = 0.150m measured
using point gauge on the upstream side.
3) With yo at this height, calculate Q, Also measure y1 by using Point gauge on the
downstream side.
4) Raise the sluice gate in increments of 0.010m maintaining yo at the height of
0.150m by varying the flow of water. At each level of the sluice gate record the
values of Q and y1.
5) Repeat the procedure with a constant flow Q allowing yo to vary. Record the values
of y0 and y1.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Flume width = B = 300mm
Slope = S = 1:500
Breadth of sluice gate = b = …………….. (m)

56. 56
Sr.
No.
yg yo y1 Q Cd H0 H1
m m m m3s-1 - m m
1
2
3
4
RESULTS:
1) Plot graphs of Q against yg for constant y0 and y0 against yg for constant Q to
show the characteristics of flow beneath the weir.
2) Plot graphs of Cd against Q for constant y0 and Cd against yg for constant Q to
show the changes in Cd of flow beneath the weir.
CONCLUSIONS:
1) Comment on effects of yo and Q on the discharge coefficient Cd for flow
underneath the gate. Which factor has the greatest effect?
2) Comments on any discrepancies between actual and expected results.
3) Compare the values obtained for H1 and H0 and comment on any differences.