The document discusses how Henry Wadsworth Longfellow incorporated specific references to the American landscape in his epic poem The Song of Hiawatha in order to create a sense of national identity and culture. Longfellow deliberately altered original Native American legends by adding descriptions of locations, plants, animals, and terrain that would have been familiar to American readers. This was likely an attempt to establish a uniquely American literary tradition distinct from British romanticism, as well as to foster a common bond between Americans through their shared natural environment during a period of social and political tensions.

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Marie Jeruc
Prof. Range
ENG 474
23 November 2014
Building an American Identity with Landscape in Longfellow’s The Song of Hiawatha
The discussion of whether or not Henry Wadsworth Longfellow successfully created an
American, national epic poem with The Song of Hiawatha1 has circulated in literary criticism
since the poem’s publication. Understandably, scholars have fixated on Longfellow’s
presentation of American Indians. From Alan Trachtenberg’s interpretation of Hiawatha as a
“pan-Indian fusion event” (Trachtenberg 52) to Tom Nurmi’s criticism of appropriation and
Longfellow’s revision of the poet-artist’s role (Nurmi 245), scholars have thoroughly critiqued
Longfellow’s attempt to create the voice of the American nation with the legends of American
Indians. While this criticism is valid and justifiable, it inevitably ignores a pervasive and
unexplored theme that frames the entire poem: nature and the American landscape.
To explore the significance of the American landscape in Hiawatha, I will consult Chase
and Stellanova Osborn’s enlightening book “Hiawatha” With Its Original Indian Legends. This
resource couples each section of Longfellow’s poetic rendition of Hiawatha with the original
American Indian versions documented in Henry Rowe Schoolcraft’s Algic Researches, Oneota,
and Historical and Statistical Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of
the Indian Tribes of the United States (Osborn 62). Specifically, this book exposes where and
how Longfellow augmented the original legends with specific natural descriptions in his poetic
version. Thus, by examining a combination of original Indian legends with The Song of
Hiawatha, I intend to explore where Longfellow inserts landscape and natural imagery into these
1 Referred to as Hiawatha for the rest of this essay

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legends to adhere them specifically to American land. This task led me to a major question: why
would Longfellow deliberately alter these legends just to include specific references and names
of the American landscape?
In his article “Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, United States National Literature, And The
Canonical Erasure of Material Nature,” Lloyd Willis explains that Longfellow, despite near
erasure from the American literary canon, actually strove to create an “environmentally
determined American literature” (Willis 629). Longfellow envisioned that American national
literature would “draw its uniqueness from a North American environment that he understood in
physical and terrestrial terms—nature, for him, was a visible, tactile phenomenon, not a set of
abstractions” (Willis 629-630). Willis’ article helps us approach this question of why natural
elements, and specifically American natural elements, are so pervasive in Hiawatha--they have
the potential to create a bond between Americans that is tangible and omnipresent. Approaching
Hiawatha through a landscape-focused lens can provide an alternate way to consider how
Longfellow creates a national, American epic poem with a focus on landscape and nature.
Why would Longfellow Turn to Landscape?
First, it is important to explore two potential motivations that may have influenced
Longfellow’s desire to highlight the American landscape in Hiawatha. One reason could be
Longfellow’s desire to compete with British cultural and literary traditions. In his book Sacred
Places, John Sears explains that in the 19th century, when Americans set out to determine a
culture for themselves, it was inevitable that they “would turn to the landscape of America as the
basis of that culture” (Sears 4). Americans not only needed to turn to the landscape to find a
common identity for a country almost entirely made up of immigrants—American literature also

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needed a national element that placed it on par with the infamous British romantics. Sears also
explains that the “aesthetics of the sublime, the beautiful, and the picturesque” in the works of
Wordsworth, Byron, and Scott nearly merged culture and landscape into one entity, essentially
establishing the British literary tradition and cultural identity within the British landscape (Sears
4). Literate Americans (Longfellow is a prime example) would be well aware of the British
tradition and “desperately wished to meet European standards of culture and, at the same time,
develop a distinct national image” (Sears 4). Hiawatha gave Longfellow the opportunity to
create an American epic poem that links a picturesque American landscape with the country’s
culture and identity.
Another potential explanation for the pervasive presence of the American landscape in
Hiawatha could emerge out of the need for finding or creating unity in American culture during
the years of tension and division that induced America into civil war. Indeed, natural elements
are a central aspect of Native American culture, so it would make sense that Longfellow
attempted to maintain cultural accuracy by deliberately discussing nature so frequently.
However, nature could also provide the ideal element for the creation of an American national
identity in the 19th century, particularly during a decade of tension leading up to the Civil War
that would start only six years after the publication of Hiawatha. Alan Trachtenberg elucidates
this potential explanation in his book Shades of Hiawatha: “The pedagogical aim of The Song of
Hiawatha was not only to make ‘Indian’ the national ancestral figure but also to reinstall a love
of poetry, of the magic of meter and figurative language, in a nation that in the ominous year of
1855 was about to commit civil self-destruction” (Trachtenberg 77). Perhaps Longfellow sensed
a national yearning for unity as tensions between regions and races escalated during the mid-19th
century. In “The Literary Spirit of Our Country,” Longfellow comments on the potential of the

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American landscape to shape the heritage of the American people: “If climate and natural
scenery have a powerful influence in forming the intellectual character of a nation, our country
has certainly much hope for them” (The Works of HWL 368). Perhaps Longfellow turned to
nature as a last resort for establishing a common ground between Americans--in order to make
Hiawatha accessible to a large public audience, Longfellow needed to incorporate a unifying
element. With social, political, and emotional upheaval so prevalent in the mid-19th century,
nature was about the only unchangeable and universally accessible element left in American
culture.
Setting the Stage with Specific American Nature and Landmarks
After discussing some potential reasons for Longfellow’s choice to use the American
landscape, we can then look to Hiawatha to see how he places this poem within the framework
of the landscape. Locating descriptions of the American landscape in Hiawatha is only a
partially complete observation: it is critically important to compare Longfellow’s poem with its
original American Indian legend counterparts because Longfellow’s poetic descriptions of the
American landscape do not appear in the original legends. With my analysis and comparison of
Longfellow’s Hiawatha and the original legends, I hope to offer some possible explanations for
the abundant appearances of American landmarks and landscapes in this poem.
In order to establish a uniquely American identity and culture, Longfellow consciously
avoids traditional British images that define both the landscape and culture of England. In
Longfellow: A Rediscovered Life, Charles Calhoun includes commentary from Longfellow that
demonstrates his recognition of the uniqueness of the American landscape and its distinction
from standard British romantic poetry: “‘Let us have no more sky-larks and nightingales. For us

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they only warble in books. A painter might as well introduce an elephant or a rhinoceros into a
New England landscape.’ In creating an American imagery, we even might look, he notes, at the
language of our North American Indians” (Calhoun 83). Longfellow’s effort to distinguish an
American literary tradition from the British literary tradition manifests itself in the specific
description of birds in the section “Hiawatha’s Lamentation.” The birds join Hiawatha in
mourning the death of Chibiabos, and Longfellow specifically describes what types of birds add
their sorrowful song to the lamentation: “From the tree-tops sang the bluebird, / Sang the
bluebird, the Owaissa,…From the wigwam sang the robin, / Sang the robin, the Opechee,…And
at night through all the forest / Went the whippoorwill complaining” (Hiawatha 97). The
bluebird, robin, and whippoorwill are all native species of birds that are unique to the American
landscape. Longfellow ensures that we do not hear the song of the melancholy nightingale—we
hear the native cries of American birds and thus do not simply adopt British romantic standards
but present an American literary identity. In fact, here Longfellow might be seeking inspiration
from British literature (melancholy birdsong), but adapting it in order to create a uniquely
American experience with native species. The sorrowful birdsong mimics the presence of
British romantic birds, but is specifically American because it is sung by American birds.
Longfellow mimics successful elements of British Romantic literature, but simultaneously
establishes the uniqueness of American poetry by demonstrating the unique elements of
American nature.
In addition to descriptions of native species, Longfellow frequently devotes attention to
locations within the American landscape in Hiawatha. In the “Introduction” section of the poem,
the speaker tells the listener that “these legends and traditions” come “From the forests and the
prairies, / From the great lakes of the Northland, / From the land of the Ojibways, / From the land

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of the Dacotahs, / From the mountains, moors, and fen-lands” (Hiawatha 2). Indeed, the speaker
heard these stories “From the lips of Nawadaha,” but the stories themselves originate from the
American landscape (Hiawatha 2). Additionally, the speaker provides specific details that
describe the landscape, but also mark it as distinctly American—the great lakes are unique to the
Midwest/Northeast section of America, and of course the lands of the Ojibways and Dacotahs
can only be found in America. Longfellow not only chooses to incorporate nature into the
“Introduction” section, but also makes a deliberate choice to delineate this nature as specifically
American nature. Longfellow’s choice to incorporate specific references to American landscape
in the “Introduction” of Hiawatha is particularly noteworthy because there is not an
“Introduction” in Osborn’s documentation of the original legends—Longfellow created this
section exclusively for his poem. Perhaps this introductory material emphasizes an attempt to
create an American national epic because he placed the story of Hiawatha in a landscape with
which all readers, regardless of heritage, would be familiar.
Following the “Introduction,” “The Peace-Pipe” section is the first original legend that
Longfellow incorporates, but he also augments this section liberally to place a unified American
literary heritage within the American landscape. The speaker describes that during the process of
unification through Gitche Manito’s introduction of the peace pipe, different Indian tribes
travelled “From the Vale of Tawasentha, / From the Valley of Wyoming, / From the groves of
Tuscaloosa, / From the far-off Rocky Mountains, / From the Northern lakes and rivers,”
(Hiawatha 6). These specific locations are not mentioned in Osborn’s account of the original
legends—they are simply grouped together in a generic description of a “great distance” (Osborn
67). The original legend does differentiate the tribes based on their locations, but these
descriptions are not specific to American geography or borders. For example, the Senecas dwell

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in the “Dark Forest” and the Cayugas live in the “Open Country,” but these natural descriptions
are not as notorious as the name “Wyoming” or “Tuscaloosa” in Longfellow’s version (Osborn
67). While “Dark Forest” and “Open Country” might resonate with Native Americans,
Longfellow might have altered the descriptions so that all American readers could identify with
these locations: “Valley of Wyoming” and “far-off Rocky Mountains” are not only standard
geographical names for American territory, but also possible to locate on a map of the country,
whereas “Dark Forest” and “Open Country” are not limited to American topography. Longfellow
altered the original American Indian legend to accommodate all Americans—he ensured that
Americans did not need to be familiar with American Indian traditions in order to participate in
America’s origin story. By merging charted, standardized territories with traditional indigenous
communities, Longfellow uses America’s landscape and its indigenous people to create a
common origin story in American literature and culture.
Longfellow also provides an iconic American location when describing Hiawatha’s battle
with Pau-Puk-Keewis near the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior: “On the shores of Gitchee
Gumee, / Westward by the Big-Sea-Water, / Came unto the rocky headlands, / To the Pictured
Rocks of sandstone, / Looking over lake and landscape” (Hiawatha 114). In this scene,
Longfellow does not embellish the original legend with a variety of natural details, instead he
clarifies a natural reference that does occur in Algic Researches, which mentions a “very high
bluff of rock jutting out into the lake” (Osborn 215). While some 19th century readers might
deduce that this “bluff of rock” is the “Pictured Rocks” (especially if they are from the
Midwestern region of America), Longfellow probably assumed that not all of his American
audience would be able to make that association. In order to ensure that Hiawatha could serve as
an American epic for all Americans, he specifies that the “bluff of rock” is indeed the iconic

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“Pictured Rocks” of Lake Superior in Hiawatha. With a locatable, established natural site that is
named and claimed as uniquely part of the American landscape, Longfellow makes indigenous
legends accessible to non-indigenous Americans and includes them in a culture united by
landscape.
Longfellow frequently uses repetition of phrases and words in Hiawatha, but it is
important to examine that Longfellow repeats the names of specific locations to highlight its
importance for the creation of a national literature and identity. There are two different scenarios
in which Longfellow situates readers by the “shores of Gitche Gumee:” when mentioning
Hiawatha’s childhood home with Nokomis and when locating Hiawatha’s home in the context of
American geographical landmarks. Longfellow’s repeated mentions of “Gitche Gumee”
demonstrate his priority to create poetic sounds instead of maintain the accuracy of these
legends. Longfellow deliberately deviates from the legend’s authenticity in order to firmly plant
the American landscape as the creator of a national identity. In Algic Researches, the term
“Gitche Gumee” is not mentioned and the only reference to the location of Hiawatha’s childhood
home places it “near the edge of a wide prairie” which does not explicitly describe his home as
on the shores or by the water (Osborn 87). Longfellow references Gitche Gumee at the beginning
and end of Hiawatha, which creates a framework for the story that conveys the importance of
location when retelling Hiawatha’s experiences. In the section “Hiawatha’s Childhood,” the
speaker introduces the listener to the scenery of Hiawatha’s childhood home: “By the shores of
Gitche Gumee, / By the shining Big-Sea-Water, / Stood the wigwam of Nokomis,” and then in
the final section (“Hiawatha’s Departure”), the speaker again places the story in the setting of
Hiawatha’s home: “By the shore of Gitche Gumee, / By the shining Big-Sea-Water, / At the
doorway of his wigwam” (Hiawatha 18, 136). Since “Gitche Gumee” is not repeated to maintain

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the accuracy of American Indian legends, its purpose in Hiawatha might be to orient the reader
in the American landscape. It reiterates Americans’ sense of belonging on this landscape and
facilitates the formation of an American identity through the common bond of the American
landscape.
Traversing the American Landscape
Longfellow does not only incorporate natural landscapes and descriptions in Hiawatha;
he also includes a situation in which Hiawatha traverses the American landscape and witnesses
the specific distinctions of America’s vast and diverse territory. When Hiawatha travels to
confront his father, Longfellow alters this journey to create it into a “road trip” that not only
takes Hiawatha to his distant father, but also exposes him to the vast diversity and unique
features of the American landscape. The speaker describes how Hiawatha “Crossed the rushing
Esconaba, / Crossed the mighty Mississippi, / Passed the Mountains of the Prairie, / Passed the
land of Crows and Foxes, / Passed the dwellings of the Blackfeet, / Came unto the Rocky
Mountains” (Hiawatha 25). The original legends do not mention the specific details of the land
that Hiawatha traversed to confront his father, they just describe that Hiawatha “set out and soon
reached the place, for every step he took covered a large surface of ground. The meeting took
place on a high mountain in the west” (Osborn 96). The original legend does not include the
specific references to the scenic landscapes that are present in Longfellow’s poem, nor does it
define the destination as the Rocky Mountains specifically. I contend that Longfellow chose to
interpret “high mountain in the west” as the Rocky Mountains because they are such an iconic
and sublime element of the American landscape and prove the uniqueness and beauty of the
American landscape.

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White Man’s Invasion
Until now, my discussion of Longfellow’s deliberate natural descriptions in Hiawatha
presents this poem and its potential purpose in a wholesome light. However, we cannot ignore
the irony and ominous message in Hiawatha. At the end of the poem, Longfellow uses nature to
illustrate the erasure of the indigenous population; the very people that provided him with the
original legends that he adapted to create an American epic. Longfellow alludes to the theme of
American Indian erasure in the “Introduction,” but it is especially prevalent in the penultimate
section, “The White Man’s Foot,” when Longfellow introduces the ominous presence of the
white American settlers on indigenous territory. Longfellow incorporates the white invaders
through one of Hiawatha’s premonitions: “Wheresoe’er they tread, beneath them / Springs a
flower unknown among us, / Springs the White-man’s Foot in blossom” (Hiawatha 135). This
image in Hiawatha’s vision is crucial to examine because it demonstrates how the white man’s
physical imprints on the landscape mold and change it in order to accommodate the settlers’
presence. The white man’s foot does not tread lightly on Native American land—it actually
changes the land and introduces a new human population with an unknown plant that springs up
and acknowledges the white man’s claim on American Indian territory. Longfellow, like most of
his educated contemporaries, was aware of the precarious situation for indigenous people and
their ability to maintain control of the land that was quickly being taken away from them.
“The White-Man’s Foot” is perhaps the most liberal of Longfellow’s interpretations of
the original legend of Hiawatha because he extrapolates the reference of the miskodeed, a small
white flower that is one of the earliest species of Northern plants, to represent the infiltration of
European Americans into indigenous land (Osborn 240-241). Indeed, this small, white flower
does appear in the original record of this legend in Algic Researches, but it does not represent or

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serve as a premonition for the erasure of indigenous people. The original legend says, “As the
sun increased, [Peboan] grew less and less in stature, and anon had melted completely away.
Nothing remained on the place of his lodge fire but the miskodeed” (Osborn 241). If Longfellow
read this legend as a discussion of the vanishing American Indian, he read it incorrectly. This
legend is an allegory of the seasons and the transition from “Peboan,” which means winter, to
spring (Osborn 241). Longfellow interpreted this legend as a metaphor for the erasure of the
entire American Indian population, not just the disappearance of winter. Longfellow is able to
make this leap though, because he uses nature and the American landscape to validate the white
American usurping of indigenous territory. The early-blooming white flower in Hiawatha is a
metaphor that legitimates the white man’s treading on and claiming of American Indian lands for
himself. Additionally, in “The White-Man’s Foot,” we actually see Longfellow take this notion
of invasion and erasure a step further. In Longfellow’s biography, Calhoun explains another
facet of Longfellow’s views: the indigenous people’s “day had passed, and it was time they
either accepted assimilation into Euro-American culture or moved on to less settled lands. They
were literally a dying race” (Calhoun 203). Longfellow presents the encroachment of the white
men on American Indian territory gradually; just one flower blooms to introduce their presence
in the landscape. However, Longfellow includes a new landscape in his poem for American
Indians who do not want to accommodate white settlers or assimilate into their culture.
Incorporating an Imaginary Landscape
With a consistent focus on the physical components of the American landscape, why does
Longfellow repeatedly reference the imaginary “kingdom of Ponemah” throughout Hiawatha?
Longfellow’s repeated mentions of Ponemah might seem out of place because this kingdom does

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not provide a space for literal connection between American land and American people, which is
a central message in all of Longfellow’s descriptions of nature and landscape. Discussing
Ponemah’s purpose redirects the discussion of Hiawatha from an idyllic national unity to a stark
reality: the recurring references to Ponemah gently remind readers of an inevitable American
Indian erasure. Not surprisingly, Longfellow uses the American landscape to reiterate the
inevitability of indigenous erasure, and thus offers an alternative landscape for indigenous
peoples who are unwilling or unable to assimilate into a new, immigrant-influenced, national
identity. Perhaps Longfellow creates the “kingdom of Ponemah” because it alleviates guilt and
tension of American expansionism and domination across the land because it provides an
alternate location for displaced American Indians.
Longfellow could be perpetuating “the theory of the ‘vanishing race,’” which “became a
convenient rationale for the nation’s refusal to meet the tribes halfway on common ground”
(Trachtenberg 9). Trachtenberg provides a possible explanation for the purpose of the kingdom
of Ponemah. Since white Americans were unable and unwilling to accommodate indigenous
peoples, they literally could not find a “common ground” for both populations. Thus,
Longfellow’s Ponemah provides a new ground (of sorts) in an attempt to justify American Indian
erasure from the American landscape. Instead of embracing a distinct American Indian identity
into the national American identity, Longfellow repeatedly includes references to this imaginary,
“Heaven-like” space for Indians, like Hiawatha, who could not fully assimilate into the white
American culture.
Longfellow’s intention for creating a unified American identity through the landscape
requires that indigenous people also have the same goal—a goal that is not reflected in
Hiawatha’s character. Longfellow runs into a problem with his protagonist: instead of embracing

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the white Americans, Hiawatha is wary of “the people with white faces” because in his vision,
they are “restless, struggling, toiling, striving” and encroaching on the territory of Hiawatha and
his people (Hiawatha 135, 136). Hiawatha also foresees the American Indian nation “scattered”
and “weakened, warring with each other” (Hiawatha 136). In order to preserve the vision of
unity and creation of culture through literature, Longfellow needs to remove Hiawatha from the
American landscape because he brings attention to the impossibility of unification. In all three
original accounts of Hiawatha’s Departure, not a single one mentions Hiawatha interacting with
“the Black-Robe chief, the Pale-face,” who appears in Longfellow’s version and signals the
entrance of the white men and the exit of the indigenous people (Hiawatha 138). In Algic
Researches, Hiawatha leaves the physical world and dwells with his brother in the North—there
is not a specific motivation for this move (Osborn 247). In Longfellow’s Hiawatha, the presence
of the white people serves as the catalyst for Hiawatha’s departure to the kingdom of Ponemah.
The repeated references of “the kingdom of Ponemah, / ...the land of the Hereafter” occur with
increasing regularity toward the end of the poem, particularly in the sections “Hiawatha’s
Lamentation,” “The Ghosts,” “The Famine,” and “Hiawatha’s Departure” (Hiawatha 99, 121,
125, 130, 142). The repetition of and increasing inclusion of this phrase, which typically
accompanies the presence of death, suggests the increasing pressure from white American
expansion and the imminence of Native American vanishment. However, instead of simply
eliminating indigenous people from the landscape, Longfellow attempts to minimize the damage
of the white man’s foot and offer a mystical paradise to which all American Indians can emigrate
when white settlement encroaches on their land.
Conclusion

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Trachtenberg claims that with his poem Hiawatha, Longfellow intended to “make the
white nation seem an outgrowth of red roots” (Trachtenberg 60), but his analysis is not entirely
satisfying. Longfellow never directly links indigenous people and white European Americans
into one identity— the introduction of the white American presence in Hiawatha appears only at
the very end of the poem and does not demonstrate an adaption of or connection with American
Indian traditions or roots. The only specified connection between these two demographics in
Hiawatha is the connection through the American landscape. There is not enough evidence in
Hiawatha to suggest that Longfellow wanted to create the American identity with origins in the
American Indian identity, so how did Longfellow intend to create a 19th century American
identity?
In order to answer that question, another one must be posed first: what is the American
identity? Is it the customs and legacy of the American indigenous peoples? The melding of
cultures from all parts of the world in a community comprised predominantly of myriad cultures
and races? Longfellow may have attempted to answer this question back in 1855 with The Song
of Hiawatha, but perhaps not in the way that readers and literary scholars frequently discuss.
Indeed, Longfellow makes some questionable moves with his creation of a “pan-Indian event”
and adherence to the “vanishing Indian” trope in order to define an American identity. However,
perhaps another way to approach Longfellow’s attempt at creating a national, unified identity is
to examine how he uses unique American nature and landscapes to create a common link
between all Americans. For centuries, the American identity has consisted of blended cultures
and nations that relocated to this continent, so perhaps we should not read The Song of Hiawatha
as an origin story, but as an attempt to unify all Americans with the only tangible element that a
melting pot of cultures and races could genuinely experience. Maybe Longfellow foresaw the

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futility of merging a diverse country of people into a generic American culture, so he uses the
American landscape in an epic poem so that Americans have at least one commonality with
every person around them. In order to consider Longfellow successful in his mission to create an
American national epic poem that represents a distinctly American identity, we must
acknowledge the relevance and importance of nature and the American landscape in The Song of
Hiawatha.
I hereby reaffirm the Lawrence University Honor Code
-Marie Jeruc
Works Cited
Calhoun, Charles C. Longfellow: A Rediscovered Life. Boston: Beacon Press, 2004. Print.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. “The Literary Spirit of Our Country.” The Works of Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow, Vol 2. Wadsworth House: 1909. 366-373. Web.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. The Song of Hiawatha. Mineola: Dover Publications, 2006.
Print.
Nurmi, Tom. “Writing Ojibwe: Politics and Poetics in Longfellow’s Hiawatha” The Journal of
American Culture 35.1 (2012): 244-257. Print.
Osborn, Chase and Stellanova Osborn. “Hiawatha” With Its Original Indian Legends. Lancaster:
The Science Press Printing Company, 1944. Print.
Sears, John F. Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century. New

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York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Print.
Trachtenberg, Alan. Shades of Hiawatha: Staging Indians, Making Americans. New York: Hill
and Wang, 2004. Print.
Willis, Lloyd. “Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, United States National Literature, And The
Canonical Erasure of Material Nature.” American Transcendental Quarterly 20.4 (2006):
629-646. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 17 Nov. 2014.