Electon microscopy
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Electron microscopy uses electrons instead of light to view specimens. The first transmission electron microscope was created in 1931 by Rusta and Knoll. An electron microscope works by firing electrons from an electron gun through a vacuum, using electric and magnetic fields to focus the electrons through an electron column onto a specimen. When the electrons interact with the specimen, they can be absorbed, scattered, reflected, or cause emission of other electrons or photons, allowing the microscope to image the specimen at high magnifications. Biological specimens often require fixation to preserve their structure for electron microscopy examination. Scanning electron microscopes use a focused beam of electrons to scan across and generate signals from the specimen surface.
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Tissue engineering involves removing cells from a source, expanding the cells in culture, transferring the cells onto a scaffold in optimum medium, placing the scaffold in culture to grow new tissue, and reimplanting the engineered tissue. Scaffolds degrade as the new tissue regenerates. Tissue engineered products could be regenerated from pluripotent stem cells before differentiation into mesenchymal, neural, or hematopoietic cells that form bone, cartilage, connective tissue, the nervous system, or blood cells. 3D printing of tissues is done by printing layers on biopaper gel, adding additional layers to create a 3D structure, fusing the layers, and allowing the biopaper to dissolve leaving the
The cell - basics
The document discusses the basic structural and functional properties of cells. It describes cells as the fundamental unit of living organisms, which can exist as single-celled prokaryotes like bacteria or multicellular eukaryotes. All cells are capable of communication, movement, reproduction, and produce extracellular environments, with prokaryotes reproducing asexually and eukaryotes sexually.
obstructive sleep apnoea
Sleep occurs in stages, with the deepest stages characterized by paralysis of voluntary muscles and rapid eye movements. Sleep apnea is a disorder where breathing stops briefly during sleep, often due to airway obstruction, which interrupts sleep quality. The main types are obstructive sleep apnea, caused by relaxation of throat muscles blocking the airway, and central sleep apnea, caused by failure of the brain to signal breathing muscles. Risk factors include obesity, large neck size, and family history. Treatment options include devices that use air pressure to keep the airway open as well as surgery in severe cases. Untreated sleep apnea can increase health risks like hypertension, heart disease, and diabetes.
Optical microscopy
Optical microscopy was invented by Robert Hooke in 1665 and uses optical light to magnify samples for examination. Key definitions are resolution, the ability to see two adjacent objects separately, and magnification, the ratio of the image produced to the actual sample dimensions. Optical microscopy is used to examine cervical smears, breast cancer imprints, frozen and paraffin sections, and culture cover slips. Stains or fluorescent labels are required to visualize transparent cells and tissues. Confocal microscopes focus and detect light for very sharp 3D images, while live cell imaging uses green fluorescent protein.
Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles have unique properties due to their large surface area to weight ratio and are used in a variety of sectors including medicine and automobiles. They can be engineered to have tailored electronic, chemical and optical properties and are available in different carrier formulations which help prevent the coarsening of products.
General surgery and abdominal emergencies revision
Due to embryonic development, the gastrointestinal tract can be divided into three sections - the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Pain is localized to different abdominal regions depending on the affected section: epigastric for foregut, umbilical for midgut, and suprapubic for hindgut. Common acute abdominal conditions present with pain in specific locations and include appendicitis in the right lower quadrant, cholecystitis in the right upper quadrant, and diverticulitis in the left lower quadrant. These conditions are diagnosed based on symptoms, physical exam findings, and imaging studies, and treated through medications, surgery, or both.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a condition where bones become less dense and more prone to fractures over time. It occurs when bone resorption exceeds bone formation, removing more calcium than can be replaced. Risk factors include older age, female gender, family history, smoking, excessive alcohol, medications, and lack of exercise. Symptoms may include fractures from minor falls or injuries, loss of height, back pain, and stooped posture. It is diagnosed using DEXA scans to measure bone mineral density. Treatment focuses on lifestyle changes like exercise, calcium/vitamin D supplements, and medications like bisphosphonates, denosumab, or raloxifene to slow bone loss and increase bone strength.
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### Types of TDM
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### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
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- 2. FIRST TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE 1931- RUSTA AND KNOLL
- 3. ELECTRON MICROSCOPE IS A VACCUUM ELECTRONS BEHAVE LIKE LIGHT ELECTRON HAS A NEGATIVE CHARGE THEREFORE ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS AFFECT ELECTRONS
- 4. ELECTRON GUN FILAMENT: HEAT UP CYLINDER: FOCUSES ELECTRONS ANODE: ACCELERATED ELECTRONS
- 5. ELECTRON COLUMN VACUUM SYSTEM ELECTRON AND MAGNETIC LENSES APPERTURES SPECIMEN IMAGE RECORDING
- 6. ELECTRON-SPECIMEN ABSORPTION: SAME MATERIAL AND THICKNESS ELECTRON SCATTERING: CREATE CONTRAST REFLECTION (ELECTRON SCATTERING): REFLECTION OF MAIN ELECTRON BEAM – BACKSCATTERED ELECTRONS EMISSION (INELASTIC SCATTERING): MAIN BEAM ELECTRONS TRANSFER ENERGY TO ORBITTING ELECRONS RESULTING IN EMISSION OF SECONDARY ELECTRONS. THIS LEADS TO PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS AND PHOTONS DIFFRACTION: THIS TAKES PLACE IN CRYSTALLINE SAMPLES BECAUSE THEY CAUSE ELECTRON SCATTERING TO VARIOUS DIRECTIONS
- 7. PREPARING BIOLOGICAL SPECIMENS FIXATION MAY BE REQUIRED TO PRESERVE THE STRUCTURE OF SPECIMEN IT IS NOT NEEDED IN SMALL SAMPLES FIXATION CAN BE CHEMICAL OR CRYO
- 8. SCANNING ELECTRON MICTOSCOPY ELECTRON GUN ANODE MAGNETIC LENS SCANNING COILS BACKSCATTERED ELECTRON DETECTOR SPECIMEN SECONDARY ELECTRON DETECTOR SCANNER