1. Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, has been used since the 1940s to stimulate oil and gas production but recent technological advances have led to a modern fracking boom. 2. Possible pathways for groundwater contamination from fracking include leaking storage pits for wastewater, cracks in well casings allowing fluid migration, and connections between new and natural fractures. 3. Research on the health effects of contaminated water near fracking sites suggests increased risk of low birth weight, congenital heart defects, and neural tube defects. However, more research is still needed to fully understand risks to public health.

1. Fracking & Water Contamination:
Know the Facts
EHOH 6614
March 31, 2014
Brian Bandle
Vicka Chaplin
Jennifer Nash
June Samadi
Shannon Sandrock

2. History of Fracking

3. Pre-Hydraulic Fracturing
The 1800s:
In 1859, Edwin Drake drilled the first commercial U.S. oil
well.
The 1860s:
Human-induced fracturing was performed using liquid
nitroglycerin to create fractures within a well to stimulate oil
production.
The 1930s:
Drillers had the idea of using an acid (HCl or HF) instead of
nitroglycerin as a non-explosive substitute.
● The fracture channels became more resistance to re-
closing, thus enhanced productivity.
Drake Well, 1859

4. Early Hydraulic Fracturing
The 1940s:
Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas
Corporation (Amoco) began to establish a
relationship between a well’s performance
and the treatment pressures put on it.
The Halliburton Oil Well Cementing
Company conducted two successful
commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments
on March 17, 1947, marking the birth of
hydraulic fracturing.
Hugoton Gas Field, 1947

5. Early Hydraulic Fracturing
The 1960s: In 1968, Pan American Petroleum
introduced “massive hydraulic fracturing.”
● The process of injecting high volumes of
fluids and proppants into a well.
● The Atomic Energy Commission began
testing the feasibility of using nuclear
explosions for fracturing.
● Project Gasbuggy (1967)
● Project Rulison (1969)
● Project Rio Blanco (1973)
● Project Bronco (1975)

6. Modern Hydraulic Fracturing
The 1990s: George P. Mitchell became the
“Father of Modern Fracking.”
● pioneered the technique of horizontal
drilling and combined it with hydraulic
fracturing.
● The first horizontal well was drilled in
1991.
● This kick started the modern fracking
age.

7. Fracking Production Processes

8. Hydraulic Fracturing: Production Process
● Hydraulic Fracturing is commonly used for unconventional reservoirs, such
as shale formations.
○ “Unconventional” refers to the low permeability of the reservoir that in order to gain access
to oil and gas, the reservoir needs to be mechanically “stimulated” to create more
permeability.
● It is important to make note that hydraulic fracturing or fracking is
technically the process of using water and material (usually sand and
chemical additives) to create small fractures in a formation, not including
the process of drilling a well.
● New and old wells are used to extract oil and gas with hydraulic fracturing
so it is important to understand the ways in which a well is drilled and the
components of a well.

9. Site Setup
● Construction of site conducted generally with Best
Management Practices
○ Including construction of roads, transport
of equipment, placement of well and
support structures, water usage, etc.
● Once site has been constructed and drilled the
drill rig is removed and site prepared for hydraulic
fracturing.
● Surface facilities and layout usually have mobile
equipment:
○ Fracture fluid storage tanks
○ Sand storage
○ Chemical trucks
○ Blending equipment
○ Pumping equipment
○ Data monitoring van (monitors all activities)

10. Drilling, Casing and Cementing
● Once initial hole is drilled casing is used to line the inside of
the drilled hole or wellbore.
○ Casing is a steel pipe used to line wellbore.
● There are specifications used by oil and gas companies for
casing strength, thickness, and length for a given situation.
● Each full length casing is called a casing string.
● Wells are constructed of many casing strings.
○ Strings are set in well and cemented under specific
state requirements.
○ There are also standards for cement types by the
American Petroleum Institute.
● Cementing is the process of putting cement around casing
strings.
○ Class A/Portland cement is the most common type
used by the oil and gas industry.
○ The type used can be tailored to individual well
depending on what state will allow.
● Casing and cementing of wells is accomplished in multiple
steps from largest diameter casing to the smallest.

11. Fracturing
● Once all drilling, casing and cementing are completed the fracturing fluid is pumped
through small perforations in the horizontal portions of the wellbore at high
pressures.
● The fracturing process occurs in a few stages:
○ clearing the well from cement and debris
○ prepping the wellbore and opening the formation for the flow of proppant
material
○ the proppant solution is pushed into the wellbore which helps to hold the
fractures open
○ a flush of the wellbore to remove excess proppant solution
● The additives in fracturing fluid and the sand components hold open these small
fractures allowing for gas or oil to flow into the well once the water has been pumped
out of the well.

12. How Can Fracking Contaminate
Groundwater?

13. Possible Contaminants:
● Fracking one well uses 3-5 million gallons of water of which about 1% is
chemicals
○ Hundreds of chemicals may be added to fracking fluid
○ What happens to this water?
■ 10-30% returns to the surface and is called "flowback" or
wastewater.
■ Wastewater may contain chemicals and is captured and stored for
treatment or disposal.
● Methane gas is the main component of natural gas and is released during
fracking
○ Methane can rise from deep underground into upper levels of rock close
to the surface.
Explore Shale, (2011)

14. Leaking or overflowing of wastewater ponds and storage
and tanks
● Wastewater produced must be
stored at the surface for
treatment or disposal
● Chemical-laden fluids can spill or
leak out of the containment
receptacles.
● Contamination of groundwater,
land, or nearby fields and
streams.
Mooney, C. (2011)

15. Cracks or breaks in the concrete casing that surrounds the
gas pipe can allow methane and chemicals to seep out
● The cement is designed to
isolate the pipes from
groundwater and prevent natural
gas leaks
● Intense pressure is forced
through the pipes during the
fracking process, which can
cause cracks.
● Wastewater is pulled back up
through the same pipes to the
surface for removal
Mooney, C. (2011)

16. Connections between new and old fissures can create new
pathways for the chemicals and methane to travel through
to groundwater sources and the surface.
● New fissures opened via fracking
can connect to natural fissures
or old gas wells, providing a
pathway for methane or
chemicals to flow up to
groundwater or the surface.
Mooney, C. (2011)

17. Current Regulations and Policy Implications
● Many regulations currently exist, but companies do not
carefully adhere to them
● Faulty cementing is the primary suspect in possible
sources of groundwater contamination
● The number of wells far exceeds the number of
available inspectors
● Policy Implications:
○ Tightened regulations casing thickness and durability
○ Limitations to what can be added to fracking fluid
○ Increase in personnel to help monitor drilling sites

18. Health Effects of Contaminated H2O

19. Health Effects of Contaminated H2O
● More than 700 chemicals are used in the fracking process:
○ 100 identified known or suspected endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)
○ 29 chemicals that are either known or possible carcinogens
○ 11 chemicals that have been known to disrupt the body’s hormones
● Examined the potential health effects of 353 chemicals that are used during fracking
process, Colborn et al. 2011
○ 75% of these chemicals potentially affect the skin, eyes, respiratory, and
gastrointestinal systems.
○ Nearly 50% could affect brain/nervous system, kidneys, and cardiovascular
system
○ 37% could affect the endocrine system
○ 25% are potential carcinogens that have the potential to cause mutations

20. Health Effects of Contaminated H2O
● Examined association between birth defects and proximity to fracking sites
in PA, Hill. 2012
○ Increased prevalence of low birth weight for those living within 2.5 KM
to a well
● Examined association between birth defects and proximity to fracking sites
in CO, McKenzie et al. 2014
○ Increased risk of congenital heart defects (OR=1.3) and neural tube
defects (OR=2.0)
“The currently available evidence indicates that the potential risks to public health from exposure to emissions that are
associated with shale gas extraction process are low if the operations are properly run and regulated.”
- Dr John Harrison, Public Health Watchdog, director of Public Health England Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental
Hazards

21. Health Effects of Contaminated H2O
● Although fracking is not a new process there is not enough research to
determine the impact on human health
● Steps for the future:
○ Air and water monitoring for communities around fracking locations
○ Increase in studies (both health and environmental) / Health impact
assessments
○ Strict regulations and full disclosure of all chemicals used/FracAct
○ Temporary moratoriums?

22. Current Issues & Conclusions

23. Global Energy - Changing the Map
● International Energy Agency (IEA):
○ "The global energy map is changing [...] is being redrawn by the
resurgence in oil and gas production in the United States."
● Projections - by 2020, the U.S. will:
○ Produce more oil than Saudi Arabia
○ Produce more natural gas than Russia
● U.S. energy use trends:
○ Consuming less, producing more
- Tomain (2013)

24. Colorado Policy Issues:
● Industry & environmental orgs DO have some things in
common - chemical disclosure policy (adopted 2011):
○ Disagreed re: support for oil and gas development using fracking
○ Disagreed re: public health and the environmental impacts of fracking
○ Agreed: a disclosure rule should be enacted to regulate fracking
● Barrier to change: definitive evidence difficult to obtain
○ Are damages due to fracturing or development process accidents?
○ Chemical blends are proprietary
○ Occurs deep underground - verifying damage is costly (or impossible)
○ Explicit causal pathway is typically needed for most policy change
- Heikkila, Pierce, Gallaher, Kagan, Crow, & Weible. (2014); Fitzgerald, T. (2013).

25. Areas of Research 2013-2014
Research about fracking is active in diverse subjects including:
● Mathematical modeling of potential hazards
● Economic studies of the impacts of domestic energy production, as well as
global security, trade, etc. (e.g. European energy businesses relocating to
the USA)
● Site tests for contamination of water (and air, soil, etc.)
● Geological surveys to determine where the gas and water is, what the
underground “landscape” is like
● Geochemical mapping, field tests
● Exploring potential impacts of fracking on climate change
● New methods of testing for contamination

26. Researchers Conclude: Need More Research
“The few reliable data which have become available, as well as hydrogeological
considerations, point in the direction of considerable salt concentrations and toxic constituents,
e.g., Hg, As, Pb, Zn, Cd, BTX, PAHs, or even radioactive elements. The identification and
assessment of reaction products and metabolites, which are produced as a result of the
fracking operation and the metabolic activity of microorganisms, are important topics for
further research. [...] need for a better understanding of the environmental impact of
fracking operations.”
- Gordalla, Ewers, & Frimmel. (2013).
“A lack of sound scientific hydrogeological field observations and a scarcity of published
peer-reviewed articles on the effects of both conventional and unconventional oil and gas
activities on shallow groundwater make it difficult to address these issues. [...] we identify
two areas where field-focused research is urgently needed to fill current science gaps
related to unconventional gas extraction.”
- Jackson, Gorody, Mayer, Roy, Ryan, & Van Stempvoort. (2013)

27. EPA:
“EPA is working with states and other key stakeholders to help ensure that natural gas
extraction does not come at the expense of public health and the environment. The
Agency's focus and obligations under the law are to provide oversight, guidance and,
where appropriate, rulemaking that achieve the best possible protections for the air, water
and land where Americans live, work and play. The Agency is investing in improving
our scientific understanding of hydraulic fracturing, providing regulatory clarity with
respect to existing laws, and using existing authorities where appropriate to enhance
health and environmental safeguards.”
“EPA is conducting a study to better understand any potential impacts of hydraulic
fracturing on drinking water and groundwater. The scope of the research includes
the full lifespan of water in hydraulic fracturing.”
from EPA.gov.
“investing in improving
our scientific understanding”

28. Conclusions
1. Ongoing research is needed, with open access to accurate data.
2. Public health must remain actively involved in the conversation.
“It is clear that hydraulic fracturing IS a public health issue, just as fuel poverty
and carbon reduction are public health issues. It is also clear that it is a
complex issue: there will never be all the necessary information to make
risk free choices, so governments will, as usual, have to seek to balance
the known – and suspected – risks to health on the basis of what
evidence there is, until such time as the evidence is stronger. To do that, it
is imperative to ensure a public health approach is included when planning and
decision making on this issue takes place: that cannot be too soon.”
- Mackie, Johnman, & Sim. (2013).

29. References
● American Gas and Oil Historical Society. “Gasbuggy” tests for Nuclear Fracturing. American Gas and Oil Historical Society. Retrieved March 19, 2014. http://aoghs.
org/oilfield-technologies/project-gasbuggy/
● Explore Shale. (2011). ExploreShale.org. Retrieved March 15, 2014, from http://exploreshale.org/
● FrackingResource.org. (2014) The History of Fracking. FrackingResource.org Retrieved March 19, 2014. http://frackingresource.org/what-is-fracking/hydraulic-
fracturing-overview/the-history-of-fracking/
● First Oil Well, First Oil Well Fire. American Gas and Oil Historial Society. Retrieved March 20, 2014. http://aoghs.org/oil-and-gas-history/first-well-first-oil-well-fire/
● Fitzgerald, T. (2013). Frackonomics: Some Economics of Hydraulic Fracturing.
● Gordalla, Ewers, & Frimmel. (2013). Hydraulic fracturing: a toxicological threat for groundwater and drinking-water? Environ. Earth Sciences, 70 (8), pp 3875–3893. DOI:
10.1007/s12665-013-2672-9
● Heikkila, T., Pierce, J. J., Gallaher, S., Kagan, J., Crow, D. A. and Weible, C. M. (2014), Understanding a Period of Policy Change: The Case of Hydraulic Fracturing
Disclosure Policy in Colorado. Review of Policy Research, 31: 65–87. doi: 10.1111/ropr.12058
● Hydraulic Fracturing. FracFocus.org website. http://fracfocus.org/hydraulic-fracturing-process Copyright 2014. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
● Kershner, Kate. "How Hydraulic Fracking Works" 13 November 2012. HowStuffWorks.com. http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/hydraulic-fracking.
htm Retrieved March 11, 2014.
● Jackson, Gorody, Mayer, Roy, Ryan, & Van Stempvoort. (2013), Groundwater Protection and Unconventional Gas Extraction: The Critical Need for Field-Based
Hydrogeological Research. Ground Water, 51: 488–510. doi: 10.1111/gwat.12074
● Mackie, Johnman, & Sim. (2013). Hydraulic fracturing: A new public health problem 138 years in the making? Public Health, 127 (10), pp 887–888.
● Mooney, C. (2011). The Truth about Fracking. Scientific American, 305(5), 80-85. Retrieved March 6, 2014, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1111-80
● Penn State Public Broadcasting. (2014).
● Shale Gas 101. U.S. Department of Energy website. http://www.energy.gov/fe/shale-gas-101 Retrieved March 14, 2014.
● Tomain, J. P. (2013). Shale Gas and Clean Energy Policy.
● McKenzie LM, Guo R, Witter RZ, Savitz DA, Newman LS, Adgate JL. Birth outcomes and maternal residential proximity to natural gas development in rural Colorado.
Environmental Health Perspectives. 2014.
● Hill, E. Unconventional natural gas development and infant health: evidence from Pennsylvania. Cornell University: Working Paper, Charles Dyson School of Applied
Economics and Management, 2012.
● Kassotis C, et al. Estrogen and Androgen Receptor Activities of Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals and Surface and Ground Water in a Drilling-Dense Region.
Endocrinology. 2014. 155;897-907.