This document provides guidance for consumers considering investing in a solar photovoltaic (PV) system. It discusses factors to consider such as system sizing, location, incentives available and costs. The best location for a PV system is a south-facing roof that receives maximum sunlight with no shading obstructions. State incentives like rebates and net metering can help reduce the upfront costs, though PV remains more expensive than grid electricity initially. Careful planning is recommended to ensure a PV system is right for the home or business.
NanoGrids for Home Application in a Power Cloud Framework Alessandro Burgio
Thanks to recent innovations driven by European Union and national policies, lately it has been possible to see the realization of effective renewable energy technologies, for both large and small-scale use, alongside considerable cost reductions for customers. As a result, businesses and households can increasingly produce and consume, some or all, their own electricity, either instantaneously or in a deferred manner through decentralized storage, behind the connection point with the grid (i.e. the meter). In such a way, it is possible to maximize self-consumption in order to increase their efficiency of energy use and reduce their exposure to electricity prices. In the paper, the use of the so-called Nanogrid for Home Application is proposed to achieve the result of the self-consumption maximization. Moreover, a framework of exchanging energy among Prosumers (Power Cloud) is illustrated to promote the use of Nanogrids for Home Applications.
The aim of this paper to review the applications of photovoltaic panels in different areas in
different manner.Off grid,grid connected and hybrid method of application are most widely used.Depending
upon locations and requirement of power,they are used.The benefits of solar power is described here in brief.
Shagg Energy Ltd is an ISO certified Indian company that provides solar energy solutions including solar power plants, rooftop systems, water pumps, heaters and home lighting. It was founded in 2011 and aims to maximize the use of renewable energy and make customers energy efficient through offerings like solar parks with small 1-10MW projects. Solar energy is abundant in India and can help address the country's large electricity access and supply gap as only 12.5% of land is suitable for solar installations but this could provide enough energy to meet 5,909 million tons of oil equivalents per year. Shagg provides a variety of solar products and turnkey solutions tailored for domestic, commercial and industrial use.
IRJET- Management of Smart Grid Power System using Zigbee TechnologyIRJET Journal
1) The document discusses using ZigBee technology to manage a smart grid power system. ZigBee is a low-cost wireless networking standard that can be used to reliably transmit data in a smart grid network.
2) A smart grid system is proposed that uses ZigBee modules and a microcontroller to control energy from renewable sources like solar and wind. This system aims to efficiently distribute energy generated from renewable resources to meet demand.
3) Traditional power systems are centralized with one-way energy flow from plants to consumers. Smart grids aim to tackle increasing demands, reduce costs, use less fossil fuels, and incorporate renewable energy sources through advanced monitoring, distribution and control technologies.
The document summarizes a training session held by Kyocera and MyGen in November 2010. It includes introductions, an agenda covering photovoltaics, Kyocera products, the MyGen system, and a hands-on installation session. Key details provided include Kyocera's long history and financial strength, its solar module production capabilities, quality testing processes, and real-world performance data from its 25+ year old solar installation in Japan.
IRJET-Investigation on Solar Power System for Residential BuildingIRJET Journal
This document summarizes an investigation into using a solar power system for a residential building. It discusses that solar panels can harness sunlight and convert it into electricity. The key advantages are that solar energy is renewable, can reduce electricity bills, and has low maintenance costs. However, the initial costs are high, it is weather dependent, and solar energy storage is expensive. It provides steps for maintaining a solar power system, including cleaning panels regularly and checking electrical connections. It also outlines the basic components of a solar power system and considerations for wiring solar panels to batteries and locating equipment.
This document provides a history of solar energy technology and the role of information technology in the solar energy industry. It discusses how IT has enabled more efficient use of solar power through data collection, monitoring, and optimization of solar panel systems. The document outlines the evolution from centralized to distributed energy systems and how the smart grid facilitates greater integration of renewable resources like solar. It also explores current and future applications of IT in areas like solar supply chain management, performance boosting algorithms, control systems, and the shift to more decentralized solar energy generation.
NanoGrids for Home Application in a Power Cloud Framework Alessandro Burgio
Thanks to recent innovations driven by European Union and national policies, lately it has been possible to see the realization of effective renewable energy technologies, for both large and small-scale use, alongside considerable cost reductions for customers. As a result, businesses and households can increasingly produce and consume, some or all, their own electricity, either instantaneously or in a deferred manner through decentralized storage, behind the connection point with the grid (i.e. the meter). In such a way, it is possible to maximize self-consumption in order to increase their efficiency of energy use and reduce their exposure to electricity prices. In the paper, the use of the so-called Nanogrid for Home Application is proposed to achieve the result of the self-consumption maximization. Moreover, a framework of exchanging energy among Prosumers (Power Cloud) is illustrated to promote the use of Nanogrids for Home Applications.
The aim of this paper to review the applications of photovoltaic panels in different areas in
different manner.Off grid,grid connected and hybrid method of application are most widely used.Depending
upon locations and requirement of power,they are used.The benefits of solar power is described here in brief.
Shagg Energy Ltd is an ISO certified Indian company that provides solar energy solutions including solar power plants, rooftop systems, water pumps, heaters and home lighting. It was founded in 2011 and aims to maximize the use of renewable energy and make customers energy efficient through offerings like solar parks with small 1-10MW projects. Solar energy is abundant in India and can help address the country's large electricity access and supply gap as only 12.5% of land is suitable for solar installations but this could provide enough energy to meet 5,909 million tons of oil equivalents per year. Shagg provides a variety of solar products and turnkey solutions tailored for domestic, commercial and industrial use.
IRJET- Management of Smart Grid Power System using Zigbee TechnologyIRJET Journal
1) The document discusses using ZigBee technology to manage a smart grid power system. ZigBee is a low-cost wireless networking standard that can be used to reliably transmit data in a smart grid network.
2) A smart grid system is proposed that uses ZigBee modules and a microcontroller to control energy from renewable sources like solar and wind. This system aims to efficiently distribute energy generated from renewable resources to meet demand.
3) Traditional power systems are centralized with one-way energy flow from plants to consumers. Smart grids aim to tackle increasing demands, reduce costs, use less fossil fuels, and incorporate renewable energy sources through advanced monitoring, distribution and control technologies.
The document summarizes a training session held by Kyocera and MyGen in November 2010. It includes introductions, an agenda covering photovoltaics, Kyocera products, the MyGen system, and a hands-on installation session. Key details provided include Kyocera's long history and financial strength, its solar module production capabilities, quality testing processes, and real-world performance data from its 25+ year old solar installation in Japan.
IRJET-Investigation on Solar Power System for Residential BuildingIRJET Journal
This document summarizes an investigation into using a solar power system for a residential building. It discusses that solar panels can harness sunlight and convert it into electricity. The key advantages are that solar energy is renewable, can reduce electricity bills, and has low maintenance costs. However, the initial costs are high, it is weather dependent, and solar energy storage is expensive. It provides steps for maintaining a solar power system, including cleaning panels regularly and checking electrical connections. It also outlines the basic components of a solar power system and considerations for wiring solar panels to batteries and locating equipment.
This document provides a history of solar energy technology and the role of information technology in the solar energy industry. It discusses how IT has enabled more efficient use of solar power through data collection, monitoring, and optimization of solar panel systems. The document outlines the evolution from centralized to distributed energy systems and how the smart grid facilitates greater integration of renewable resources like solar. It also explores current and future applications of IT in areas like solar supply chain management, performance boosting algorithms, control systems, and the shift to more decentralized solar energy generation.
Microgrids provide numerous benefits to both customers and society. They improve electric reliability and resilience by continuing to supply power when the central grid fails. Microgrids also enhance cost savings and revenue opportunities for customers. Additionally, microgrids promote clean energy adoption, strengthen the central grid, bolster cybersecurity, provide local economic benefits, and improve community well-being during disasters. In conclusion, microgrids offer a flexible solution that provides reliable power while creating value for customers and society in many ways.
Electrical Energy Storage: An Issue for Consumers and Power Players 2Lately, ...Aidan Vosz
Lately, we are burdened by a few things electricity: The rising costs of our household power rates, electrical hazards and how to avoid it, alternative to electrical energy for our use, energy shortage and outages. At least these are the issues we ordinary citizens face. However, if you ask the electrical utility companies, these issues are secondary concerns compared to the one they are tackling right now: The issue of electrical energy storage.
- Blackouts can be caused by under-frequency, under-voltage, and aging infrastructure issues. Historical blackouts have affected millions worldwide due to events like hurricanes, equipment failures, and overloads. Blackouts have social, economic, and safety impacts and critical facilities require backup generators. Prevention strategies include consumption regulation, energy efficiency, grid maintenance, and developing smart grids.
This document provides an overview of electrical metering and monitoring systems. It discusses the importance of metering, what meters measure (energy usage, power demand, power quality issues), and where to install meters (incoming utility service, load equipment, alternative energy sources). It also provides examples of metering solutions, products, and how to understand the data collected by meters. The key information is that meters measure energy usage and power demand, help optimize energy usage, and provide data to understand electrical loads and power quality issues.
The document discusses the growing market for solar photovoltaics and distributed generation due to factors such as rising energy costs, environmental concerns, and policy incentives. It provides statistics on U.S. energy consumption trends and the contribution of renewables. The remainder outlines the basics of photovoltaic systems and components, incentives for installations, industry partnerships for training, and some of the largest photovoltaic projects completed in the U.S.
This document provides information about net metering and solar energy options for property owners in Ontario. It summarizes that net metering allows homeowners to send excess electricity generated from solar panels back to the grid for credits on their energy bills. It describes two options: 1) a solar power purchase agreement where a developer installs and maintains the system at no upfront cost to the homeowner, or 2) investing in a system directly and joining net metering. Testimonials from satisfied customers praise the consultant's services and the financial benefits of investing in solar energy.
Micro-grids supply energy to rural areas using multiple distributed energy sources and manage supply and demand complexities. They include renewable sources like solar PV, biomass and waste heat recovery. Micro-grids have lower transmission losses than large-scale generation. They reduce grid upgrades needed by lowering transmission loads. Components include distributed generation sources, communication controls, and energy storage like batteries. Flow batteries are well-suited for bulk storage applications due to their longevity and lesser maintenance requirements. Lithium-ion batteries are applicable when precision and system dependence is high.
Bangalore | Jul-16 | MINI/MICRO GRID FOR RURAL AREASSmart Villages
This document discusses policies, frameworks, issues and challenges related to mini/micro grids for rural electrification in India. It provides an overview of the government's initiatives to expand electricity access such as strengthening the distribution network and deploying both grid-connected and off-grid renewable energy systems. Mini/micro grids are presented as an option to provide electricity access to all. Benefits, components, costs and examples of mini/micro grid projects are described. Key issues and challenges discussed include paying capacity, existing free power policies, lack of guidelines for grid integration and exit options. A draft framework to address these issues is being developed through stakeholder consultations.
Solar photovoltaic power plants are a reliable solution to current power issues as they are non-polluting and require little maintenance. The Karnataka government provides opportunities for electricity consumers to install grid-connected solar rooftop systems from 1 kW to 1000 kW in capacity. Consumers can receive a tariff of Rs. 9.56/unit without subsidies or Rs. 7.2/unit with subsidies for generating solar power. Net metering and tax incentives are provided to encourage more individuals and organizations to install rooftop solar power systems. Freyrenergy offers customized solar off-grid and hybrid systems from 500W to 10kW for residential, commercial and industrial applications.
This document provides information on why solar is a good option and promotes the services of Microgrid. Some key points:
- Microgrid has extensive experience installing residential and commercial solar systems in St. Louis, having completed numerous high-profile projects.
- Solar provides benefits like taking control of electricity costs, reducing dependence on foreign energy, and helping the environment. Government incentives can reduce the upfront cost of solar by over 30%.
- The solar industry is growing rapidly in the US due to falling costs and rising electricity rates. Missouri has some of the best incentives in the country currently to adopt solar.
- Microgrid uses high-quality components like SolarWorld panels and Enphase microinverters that
This document discusses a proposed Smart Energy Distribution Management (SEDM) system that uses solar power and battery storage to help reduce power consumption. The SEDM controls power sockets using wireless communication based on the battery status and sets times for power usage. It can supply power from both the commercial grid and stored solar energy. The system prioritizes which devices to power based on preset battery level thresholds to make most efficient use of available energy. A hardware architecture is presented using a microcontroller, relays, wireless communication, and power monitoring to manage energy distribution from the solar and battery sources.
Newcastle City Council installed a 20 kW solar PV system at a sports facility to reduce electricity costs from peak capacity charges. However, peak demand did not align with solar output, so a battery was added. SwitchDin software integrated the separate solar, battery, and control systems to optimize performance and allow the Council to monitor and control the system. The hybrid system is expected to reduce costs while meeting renewable energy goals.
Andrew Keith, Senior Environmental Scientist at HECO, discusses the current state of residential photovoltaics in Hawaii, drawing on 15 years of using PV on his home. Slides from the REIS seminar series at the University of Hawaii at Manoa on 2009-11-05.
Distributed generation takes advantage of small-scale power generation located near end users to provide electricity with benefits over traditional large-scale power plants. These include increased reliability as failures have localized impact, flexibility to adopt new technologies more easily, and reduced transmission losses. However, issues can include difficulty with load following due to variable renewable sources, potential voltage and stability problems integrating with the grid, and higher capital costs compared to large plants. Careful planning is needed to address power quality impacts on frequency and voltage from large amounts of distributed generation as well as connection challenges like bidirectional power flows, protection schemes, reactive power support, and power conditioning.
The document discusses the advantages and design of a solar barge system for generating renewable energy from photovoltaic panels mounted on floating barges. Key advantages include mobility to avoid hazards or access remote areas, ability to generate power while in motion, and minimal environmental impact. Example barge designs ranging from 320x80 feet to over 1000 feet are presented along with estimated costs and power generation calculations for various locations off the coasts of the US.
This document discusses electric vehicles from the perspective of a utility and some of the impacts and opportunities that electric vehicles present. It notes that widespread electric vehicle adoption could nearly double the electrical demand of the average home. However, utilities can mitigate increased loads through infrastructure upgrades and smart grid technologies that allow for optimized and flexible charging. The utility discussed has received a smart grid grant and deployed smart meters, and is considering time-of-use rates and smart charging integration to help manage electric vehicle loads.
This document discusses team building and the stages of team development. It defines teamwork as people working together as a cohesive group and team building as establishing collaboration and trust between members. The stages of team development are forming, storming, norming, and performing. Forming involves defining goals and roles. Storming occurs as members realize tasks are difficult and resistance emerges. Norming happens as members accept the team, roles, and each other. Performing means the team works well together with understanding of strengths, weaknesses, and ability to prevent conflicts. Effective teams have commitment to shared goals, clear roles and responsibilities, and good systems, relationships, and participation.
A large international media group like Future PLC would be well suited to distribute my music magazine product. Future PLC already produces over 200 publications across various genres, including several niche music magazines, and would have the resources and experience to effectively produce and distribute a magazine covering my genre. As there are currently no other magazines targeting my specific genre, my magazine could fill a gap in the market and find success without direct competition.
La cirrosis biliar primaria es una enfermedad crónica del hígado caracterizada por la inflamación y destrucción progresiva de los conductos biliares, lo que provoca colestasis. Puede deberse a un trastorno autoinmune donde el sistema inmunitario ataca por error el tejido hepático sano. Se presenta en etapas que van desde cambios asintomáticos en los análisis de sangre hasta síntomas avanzados como ictericia, encefalopatía hepática e hipertensión portal. El tratamiento
Microgrids provide numerous benefits to both customers and society. They improve electric reliability and resilience by continuing to supply power when the central grid fails. Microgrids also enhance cost savings and revenue opportunities for customers. Additionally, microgrids promote clean energy adoption, strengthen the central grid, bolster cybersecurity, provide local economic benefits, and improve community well-being during disasters. In conclusion, microgrids offer a flexible solution that provides reliable power while creating value for customers and society in many ways.
Electrical Energy Storage: An Issue for Consumers and Power Players 2Lately, ...Aidan Vosz
Lately, we are burdened by a few things electricity: The rising costs of our household power rates, electrical hazards and how to avoid it, alternative to electrical energy for our use, energy shortage and outages. At least these are the issues we ordinary citizens face. However, if you ask the electrical utility companies, these issues are secondary concerns compared to the one they are tackling right now: The issue of electrical energy storage.
- Blackouts can be caused by under-frequency, under-voltage, and aging infrastructure issues. Historical blackouts have affected millions worldwide due to events like hurricanes, equipment failures, and overloads. Blackouts have social, economic, and safety impacts and critical facilities require backup generators. Prevention strategies include consumption regulation, energy efficiency, grid maintenance, and developing smart grids.
This document provides an overview of electrical metering and monitoring systems. It discusses the importance of metering, what meters measure (energy usage, power demand, power quality issues), and where to install meters (incoming utility service, load equipment, alternative energy sources). It also provides examples of metering solutions, products, and how to understand the data collected by meters. The key information is that meters measure energy usage and power demand, help optimize energy usage, and provide data to understand electrical loads and power quality issues.
The document discusses the growing market for solar photovoltaics and distributed generation due to factors such as rising energy costs, environmental concerns, and policy incentives. It provides statistics on U.S. energy consumption trends and the contribution of renewables. The remainder outlines the basics of photovoltaic systems and components, incentives for installations, industry partnerships for training, and some of the largest photovoltaic projects completed in the U.S.
This document provides information about net metering and solar energy options for property owners in Ontario. It summarizes that net metering allows homeowners to send excess electricity generated from solar panels back to the grid for credits on their energy bills. It describes two options: 1) a solar power purchase agreement where a developer installs and maintains the system at no upfront cost to the homeowner, or 2) investing in a system directly and joining net metering. Testimonials from satisfied customers praise the consultant's services and the financial benefits of investing in solar energy.
Micro-grids supply energy to rural areas using multiple distributed energy sources and manage supply and demand complexities. They include renewable sources like solar PV, biomass and waste heat recovery. Micro-grids have lower transmission losses than large-scale generation. They reduce grid upgrades needed by lowering transmission loads. Components include distributed generation sources, communication controls, and energy storage like batteries. Flow batteries are well-suited for bulk storage applications due to their longevity and lesser maintenance requirements. Lithium-ion batteries are applicable when precision and system dependence is high.
Bangalore | Jul-16 | MINI/MICRO GRID FOR RURAL AREASSmart Villages
This document discusses policies, frameworks, issues and challenges related to mini/micro grids for rural electrification in India. It provides an overview of the government's initiatives to expand electricity access such as strengthening the distribution network and deploying both grid-connected and off-grid renewable energy systems. Mini/micro grids are presented as an option to provide electricity access to all. Benefits, components, costs and examples of mini/micro grid projects are described. Key issues and challenges discussed include paying capacity, existing free power policies, lack of guidelines for grid integration and exit options. A draft framework to address these issues is being developed through stakeholder consultations.
Solar photovoltaic power plants are a reliable solution to current power issues as they are non-polluting and require little maintenance. The Karnataka government provides opportunities for electricity consumers to install grid-connected solar rooftop systems from 1 kW to 1000 kW in capacity. Consumers can receive a tariff of Rs. 9.56/unit without subsidies or Rs. 7.2/unit with subsidies for generating solar power. Net metering and tax incentives are provided to encourage more individuals and organizations to install rooftop solar power systems. Freyrenergy offers customized solar off-grid and hybrid systems from 500W to 10kW for residential, commercial and industrial applications.
This document provides information on why solar is a good option and promotes the services of Microgrid. Some key points:
- Microgrid has extensive experience installing residential and commercial solar systems in St. Louis, having completed numerous high-profile projects.
- Solar provides benefits like taking control of electricity costs, reducing dependence on foreign energy, and helping the environment. Government incentives can reduce the upfront cost of solar by over 30%.
- The solar industry is growing rapidly in the US due to falling costs and rising electricity rates. Missouri has some of the best incentives in the country currently to adopt solar.
- Microgrid uses high-quality components like SolarWorld panels and Enphase microinverters that
This document discusses a proposed Smart Energy Distribution Management (SEDM) system that uses solar power and battery storage to help reduce power consumption. The SEDM controls power sockets using wireless communication based on the battery status and sets times for power usage. It can supply power from both the commercial grid and stored solar energy. The system prioritizes which devices to power based on preset battery level thresholds to make most efficient use of available energy. A hardware architecture is presented using a microcontroller, relays, wireless communication, and power monitoring to manage energy distribution from the solar and battery sources.
Newcastle City Council installed a 20 kW solar PV system at a sports facility to reduce electricity costs from peak capacity charges. However, peak demand did not align with solar output, so a battery was added. SwitchDin software integrated the separate solar, battery, and control systems to optimize performance and allow the Council to monitor and control the system. The hybrid system is expected to reduce costs while meeting renewable energy goals.
Andrew Keith, Senior Environmental Scientist at HECO, discusses the current state of residential photovoltaics in Hawaii, drawing on 15 years of using PV on his home. Slides from the REIS seminar series at the University of Hawaii at Manoa on 2009-11-05.
Distributed generation takes advantage of small-scale power generation located near end users to provide electricity with benefits over traditional large-scale power plants. These include increased reliability as failures have localized impact, flexibility to adopt new technologies more easily, and reduced transmission losses. However, issues can include difficulty with load following due to variable renewable sources, potential voltage and stability problems integrating with the grid, and higher capital costs compared to large plants. Careful planning is needed to address power quality impacts on frequency and voltage from large amounts of distributed generation as well as connection challenges like bidirectional power flows, protection schemes, reactive power support, and power conditioning.
The document discusses the advantages and design of a solar barge system for generating renewable energy from photovoltaic panels mounted on floating barges. Key advantages include mobility to avoid hazards or access remote areas, ability to generate power while in motion, and minimal environmental impact. Example barge designs ranging from 320x80 feet to over 1000 feet are presented along with estimated costs and power generation calculations for various locations off the coasts of the US.
This document discusses electric vehicles from the perspective of a utility and some of the impacts and opportunities that electric vehicles present. It notes that widespread electric vehicle adoption could nearly double the electrical demand of the average home. However, utilities can mitigate increased loads through infrastructure upgrades and smart grid technologies that allow for optimized and flexible charging. The utility discussed has received a smart grid grant and deployed smart meters, and is considering time-of-use rates and smart charging integration to help manage electric vehicle loads.
This document discusses team building and the stages of team development. It defines teamwork as people working together as a cohesive group and team building as establishing collaboration and trust between members. The stages of team development are forming, storming, norming, and performing. Forming involves defining goals and roles. Storming occurs as members realize tasks are difficult and resistance emerges. Norming happens as members accept the team, roles, and each other. Performing means the team works well together with understanding of strengths, weaknesses, and ability to prevent conflicts. Effective teams have commitment to shared goals, clear roles and responsibilities, and good systems, relationships, and participation.
A large international media group like Future PLC would be well suited to distribute my music magazine product. Future PLC already produces over 200 publications across various genres, including several niche music magazines, and would have the resources and experience to effectively produce and distribute a magazine covering my genre. As there are currently no other magazines targeting my specific genre, my magazine could fill a gap in the market and find success without direct competition.
La cirrosis biliar primaria es una enfermedad crónica del hígado caracterizada por la inflamación y destrucción progresiva de los conductos biliares, lo que provoca colestasis. Puede deberse a un trastorno autoinmune donde el sistema inmunitario ataca por error el tejido hepático sano. Se presenta en etapas que van desde cambios asintomáticos en los análisis de sangre hasta síntomas avanzados como ictericia, encefalopatía hepática e hipertensión portal. El tratamiento
The document discusses the use of various new media technologies in the construction, research, planning, and evaluation stages of projects. Photoshop was used to create layouts and edit images for a magazine cover and film poster. Final Cut Pro provided tools to edit a trailer to a professional standard through filters, animations, and transitions. GarageBand was used to create a custom soundtrack for the trailer by layering downloaded audio samples. After Effects was utilized to add animated effects and rippling to logos at the start of the trailer, improving its professional quality.
The document discusses what the author has learned about various technologies from constructing their product. They learned how to use Photoshop features like the channel mixer, grids, guides, and layers to construct a professional-looking front cover. They also learned how to export files in different formats and continue working across different versions of Photoshop. InDesign allowed them to make a contents page and spread, using features like display performance, the direct selection tool, and grids. They also learned how to update placed Photoshop images. Blogger taught them how to make posts with text, images, videos and presentations and change post dates. Prezi helped them make online presentations with images, while Slideshare and YouTube allowed them to upload and
Jesus performed miracles to demonstrate that the Kingdom of God was present and bring liberation to people. His miracles included exorcisms, healings, and raising the dead to restore people and point to God's power. Jesus relied on his own divine authority to perform miracles as signs that the Kingdom of God was at hand through his ministry.
The document discusses common stock characters that are often seen in horror films. These include the jock, who is arrogant and meets an early death; the final girl, who is intelligent and survives until the end; Pandora, who seems innocent but is later revealed to be evil; the pervert, whose sexual obsessions lead to an early demise; the wanderer, who goes for help and is never seen again; and the popular girl, the female equivalent of the jock who meets an early demise due to her arrogance. These stock characters and their traits are commonly used conventions in the horror genre.
A solution is a mixture of two components, a solute and a solvent. The solute is the substance being dissolved and is less abundant, while the solvent does the dissolving and is more abundant. Solutions can become more or less concentrated depending on how much solute is dissolved. Molarity is used to describe concentration and is calculated as moles of solute per liter of solution. Dilutions add water to more concentrated solutions to make them weaker. Mixtures are classified based on particle size and whether they exhibit the Tyndall effect.
The class Insecta is the most abundant and diverse animal class, containing over 1 million identified species. Insects have three body regions (head, thorax, abdomen), three pairs of legs, and either two pairs of wings or one pair of wings. They have an open circulatory system and respiratory system of spiracles. Insects exhibit either complete or incomplete metamorphosis in their life cycles. Some insect orders include beetles, flies, butterflies/moths, bees/wasps/ants, and true bugs. Insects play both beneficial roles such as pollination and decomposition, and harmful roles as agricultural pests and disease vectors.
Phylum Porifera consists of multicellular organisms with pores and no true tissues or organs. They have a porous skeleton made of calcium carbonate, silica, or collagen spicules. Porifera live in aquatic environments and have a simple structure with outer, inner, and pore cell layers. They reproduce both asexually through budding and sexually by releasing eggs and sperm.
This document provides an overview of the four basic tissue types - epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue. It discusses the characteristics, functions and examples of each tissue type. In particular, it examines the different cell layers, shapes and surfaces of epithelial tissue, the various cell types and extracellular matrix components of connective tissue, and the three main categories of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.
Water is essential for all life and makes up a large percentage of the human body. It is present in every cell and is required for enzyme action, transport of solutes, and the folding of biomolecules like proteins and nucleic acids. Water regulates body temperature and accelerates biochemical reactions by providing ions. The polarity and hydrogen bonding properties of water molecules are responsible for many of water's unique properties, such as its high melting point, heat capacity, and ability to dissolve polar and ionic compounds. These properties make water essential for the structure and function of biological molecules and living organisms.
This document contains a disclaimer for a guide on residential solar energy. It states that the guide was produced with support from the U.S. Department of Energy and other organizations, and that reference to commercial products or processes does not imply endorsement by the U.S. government. It also notes that the views expressed in the guide do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. government. The document then lists the authors and others who contributed to the guide.
@SolarPriceQuote @HybridSolarPower @SolarWorldPower Solar System GuideAbu Zafar
This document provides information about hybrid solar power systems from Hybrid Solar Power. It discusses how the solar PV system works to convert sunlight into electricity using solar panels, an inverter, and connection to the main power grid. It also covers system components, maintenance requirements, maximizing solar benefits, and warranty details.
In this paper we study how to establish photovoltaic solar power plant Design as well as calculation of power production, base on that to further we find recommendation and techniques to optimized cost of PV solar power plant. To establishment of green and sustainable development of solar PV power plant to reduce a burden of state electricity board.
This presentation is a technical description and definition of the solar photo voltaic panel process prepared for a Professional Writing technical writing course.
Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity that can power homes and businesses off the electric grid. An off-grid solar power system consists of solar panels that capture energy from the sun, batteries to store excess energy, an inverter to convert DC power to AC, and a charge controller to regulate energy flow. This allows homes and buildings to have independent power without relying on traditional electric utilities, reducing costs and providing electricity even during outages or in remote areas without grid infrastructure. Off-grid solar systems are environmentally friendly as they do not produce emissions from fossil fuels.
Presentation for Final Year Students about Solar.pptxHafizAsimKhayyam
The document provides information about the components and types of solar photovoltaic systems. It discusses solar panels, inverters, mounting structures, and different types of PV systems including on-grid, off-grid, and hybrid systems. It also outlines the process for installing a solar system which includes site surveying, system designing, procurement, construction of mounting structures, installation of panels and inverters, and commissioning.
How Does Solar Energy Work Step-by-Step Guide.pptxGoldi Solar
Goldi Solar is a trailblazing proponent of clean energy and is adamant about the critical role that solar energy can and should play in the global transition away from fossil fuels and traditional power generation. Our goal is to raise public knowledge of this vital energy technology so that we can harness the energy of the Sun.
By now, we are all familiar with the concept of generating electricity from the sun. The notion is almost an afterthought when we have mobile access to GPS satellites and apps for seemingly anything the mind can imagine. The calculator on my desk, and perhaps on yours, is solar-powered. If your cell phone goes dead on a hiking trip, hook it up to any number of solar phone chargers available on the market and you’re back in
business. Even those GPS satellites are powered by the sun as they whirl through space 12,000 miles above Earth.
The document discusses solar energy and stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) systems. It covers topics like amortizing costs of PV systems, estimating loads for off-grid systems, battery storage capacity, and selecting the system voltage. For battery storage, it notes that lead-acid batteries are commonly used due to their cost-effectiveness, and that battery capacity decreases at colder temperatures and faster discharge rates. Batteries can be wired in series or parallel to achieve the desired voltage or capacity.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on the design of solar PV systems. It discusses the types of solar PV systems including grid-connected and off-grid systems. It provides block diagrams and compares the different systems. It also outlines the design process, advantages, applications, and future scope of solar PV systems. The presentation was given by Arpit Garg to the Department of Electrical Engineering at Poornima College of Engineering.
Solar 101 Austin Energy Commercial CustomersShanda Sansing
This document provides an overview of solar power systems from Texas Solar Power Company. It discusses the benefits of solar energy, how solar cells generate electricity from sunlight, and the three basic types of solar systems - grid-tie, grid-tie with battery backup, and stand-alone off-grid systems. It also addresses factors that determine ideal locations for solar installations, system components, electricity production estimates, cost analyses, and financial considerations for investing in solar power.
This document discusses photovoltaic (PV) systems, which convert sunlight directly into electricity using solar cells. It describes two main types of PV systems: grid-tie systems, which are connected to the utility power grid and can supply power to a home while also sending excess power back to the grid; and off-grid systems, which operate independently without a grid connection and require batteries to store solar power for use when the sun isn't shining. The basic components of PV systems are described as solar modules, inverters to convert DC to AC power, charge controllers, and batteries for off-grid systems. Installation examples and diagrams of both grid-tie and off-grid systems are provided.
Know the 7 most necessary parts of solar panels. If you are keen on switching to the solar energy over the conventional one, then you must check this out.
The annual PV installed capacity in Japan exceeded 1 GW for the first time in 2011, driven by residential installations. Total PV production increased 8% while module prices continued to decline. The government established new policies and increased budgets to promote renewable energy including expanding the residential PV subsidy program and launching a feed-in tariff in 2012. Several local governments also offered PV subsidies. Utilities completed MW-scale solar power plants and Japan's total installed PV capacity rose to nearly 5 GW.
Off grid solar power systems design is said to be complex. In this presentation, a simple design process is described: starting by load assessment, then moving to estimating array energy output; estimating array power and determining required number of modules as well as the size of other system components.
This presentation is adapted from a course delivered online by Mathy Mpassy Isinki. After ten years spent providing energy solutions in remote off grid locations, he describes himself as an off grid energy solutions business and technical sales professional; his goal is to share with you what he has learned the last ten years.
On-grid Solar Inverter For Home Types, Prices, Benefits & Working.pptxGoldi Solar
Due to its flexibility and affordability, on-grid solar systems are generally the primary choice for home solar systems. Consider solar electricity as an efficient and green energy source. On-grid systems allow you to start with a direct energy plant. Upgrade it when you’re satisfied with its performance. Add a battery bank to your solar system to maximize its potential. If you also are looking for a solar panel manufacture, you must contact Goldi Solar.
This presentation covers renewable energy options including solar thermal, photovoltaics, and wind. It discusses the basic technology behind each option, costs, financial incentives, and considerations for installation such as roof orientation and shading issues. Installation costs can be recouped in 5-7 years for solar thermal and wind may provide the quickest payback if installed in an appropriate location.
Soralite Power provides engineering solutions for grid-tied and off-grid solar rooftop power plants between 1 kW to 100 kW in size. They offer feasibility studies, design, installation, commissioning, and long-term maintenance for both commercial and residential customers. Their services help customers reduce electricity costs through solar power generation and earn tax benefits from investments in solar energy systems.
Solar Panel System – Solar Panels, Batteries & Solar System Installation All ...Oneroof Solar
This document provides an overview of solar panel systems, including their benefits, key components, types of solar panels, factors to consider before installing, costs, maintenance requirements, common misconceptions, and steps for installation. Solar panel systems offer an eco-friendly way to generate one's own electricity and reduce utility bills while helping the environment. Key components include the solar panels, batteries for energy storage, an inverter to convert energy to usable form, and a mounting structure. Installation requires evaluating site suitability and energy needs before working with an expert to design, permit, and install a reliable solar power system tailored to individual needs and budget.
Solar Panel System – Solar Panels, Batteries & Solar System Installation All ...
Eere pv guide35297
1. A Consumer’s Guide
Get Your Power from theSun
Bringing you a prosperous future where energy is clean, abundant, reliable, and affordable
2. Contents
Background
What is a solar electric or photovoltaic system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Are incentives available to help reduce the cost? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Investing in a PV system
Why should you buy a PV system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Is your home or business a good place for a PV system? . . . . . . . . . .5
How big should your PV system be, and what features
should it have? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
How much will you save with your PV system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
How much does a PV system cost? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
How can you finance the cost of your PV system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Selecting a PV provider
Who sells and installs PV systems? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
How do you choose among PV providers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
How do you choose among competing bids? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Is the lowest price the “best deal”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Before connecting a PV system to the grid
What should you know about permits? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
What should you know about insurance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
How do you get an interconnection agreement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
How do you get a net-metering agreement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
What should you know about utility and inspection sign-off? . . . .16
What should you know about warranties? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Getting help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Cover photo: This PV system, integrated into an awning over the
back porch of a home in California, generates electricity while
shading the family's outdoor activities. (Courtesy of AstroPower/PIX12345)
Photo opposite: These PV modules are light and flexible, which
makes them suitable for roofing shingles.
This Consumer’s Guide is based on a state-specific guide written
by Tom Starrs and Howard Wenger for the California Energy
Commission, which was supported, in part, by the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado.
ii
3. Get Your Power from theSun
Are you thinking about buying a solar electric system for your home or busi-
ness? If so, this booklet provides some basic information that can help you.
Solar electric systems, which are also called photovoltaic or PV systems,
are reliable and pollution-free. They make use of a renewable source of ener-
gy—the sun. And PV systems for homes and businesses are becoming more
affordable all the time.
PV works best in an energy-efficient building. So, adding insulation and ener-
gy-efficient lighting, appliances, and windows is a good idea, to reduce your
home’s overall electricity use before you install a PV system.
To make PV systems even more affordable, several states offer financial incen-
tives through solar rebates and other programs. Some utilities have net meter-
ing programs, which further enhance the economics of PV. Net metering
means that when your PV system generates more power than you need, the
excess goes to the utility grid and the meter runs backward. This allows you
to receive full retail value for the power that your PV system generates.
This booklet can guide you through the process of buying a solar electric sys-
tem. It is not a technical guide to designing or installing a system—for that
information, we recommend consulting an experienced PV system designer
or supplier.
A PV system can be a substantial investment. As with any investment, careful
planning will help you make the right decisions for your home or business. Warren Gretz, NREL/PIX06283
1
4. Background
What is a solar electric or technology the U.S. energy source
photovoltaic system? of choice for the 21st century.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert The basic building block of PV tech-
sunlight directly to electricity. They nology is the solar “cell.” Multiple
work any time the sun is shining, PV cells are connected to form a PV
but more electricity is produced “module,” the smallest PV compo-
when the sunlight is more intense nent sold commercially. Modules
and strikes the PV modules directly range in power output from about
(as when rays of sunlight are perpen- 10 watts to 300 watts. A PV system
dicular to the PV modules). Unlike connected or “tied” to the utility
solar thermal systems for heating grid has these components:
water, PV does not use the sun's
heat to make electricity. Instead, • One or more PV modules, which
electrons freed by the interaction are connected to an inverter
of sunlight with semiconductor • The inverter, which converts the
materials in PV cells are captured system's direct-current (DC) elec-
in an electric current. tricity to alternating current (AC)
PV allows you to produce electricity— • Batteries (optional) to provide
without noise or air pollution—from energy storage or backup power
a clean, renewable resource. A PV in case of a power interruption
system never runs out of fuel, and it or outage on the grid.
won't increase U.S. oil imports. Many
PV system components are manufac- AC electricity is compatible with
tured right here in the United States. the utility grid. It powers our lights,
These characteristics could make PV appliances, computers, and televisions.
Solar
Panels
Inverter Utility
Service
Meter
Home Power/
Appliances 03529701
Residential grid-connected PV system
2
5. Special appliances that run directly Are incentives available to
on DC power are available, but they help reduce the cost?
can be expensive.
Yes, many states offer incentives.
Before you decide to buy a PV system, For specific information, call one of
there are some things to consider: the contacts listed under “Getting
Help” at the end of this booklet.
First, PV produces power intermit- Another excellent source is the
tently because it works only when National Database of State Incent-
the sun is shining. This is not a prob- ives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE).
lem for PV systems connected to the Prepared by the North Carolina Solar
utility grid, because any additional Center, this database contains infor-
electricity required is automatically mation on financial and regulatory
delivered to you by your utility. In incentives that promote renewable
the case of non-grid, or stand-alone, energy technologies.
PV systems, batteries can be pur-
chased to store energy for later use. Net Metering—In more than 35
states, customers who own PV sys-
Second, if you live near existing tems can benefit from laws and
power lines, PV-generated electricity regulations that require “net” electric
is usually more expensive than con- meter reading. The customer is billed
ventional utility-supplied electricity. for the net electricity purchased from
Although PV now costs less than the utility over the entire billing
1% of what it did in the 1970s, the period—that is, the difference
amortized price over the life of the between the electricity coming from
system is still about 25 cents per the power grid and the electricity
kilowatt-hour. This is double to generated by the PV system. Through
quadruple what most people pay for net metering, the customer obtains
electricity from their utilities. A solar the full retail electricity rate—rather
rebate program and net metering can than the much lower wholesale
help make PV more affordable, but rate—for kilowatt-hours of PV-pro-
they can't match today's price for duced electricity sent to the utility
utility electricity in most cases. power grid. The benefits of net
Finally, unlike the electricity you metering to consumers are especially
purchase monthly from a utility, PV significant in areas such as Hawaii
power requires a high initial invest- and New York, which have high
ment. This means that buying a PV retail electric rates. Utilities also
system is like paying years of electric benefit because the solar-generated
bills up front. Your monthly electric energy often coincides with their
bills will go down, but the initial periods of “peak” demand for
expense of PV may be significant. electricity.
By financing your PV system, you Property and Sales Tax—Tax
can spread the cost over many years, incentives may include a sales tax
and rebates can also lighten your exemption on the PV system pur-
financial load. chase, a property tax exemption,
or state personal income-tax credits,
3
6. AstroPower/PIX12346
PV awnings such as this one in California provide both
electricity and shade.
all of which provide an economic growth. In the United States, the
benefit to consumers by lowering U.S. Department of Energy has been
high capital costs. The U.S. govern- involved in a program known as
ment also provides financial support TEAM-UP, or Technology Experience
for PV technology through a tax to Accelerate Markets in Utility
credit for commercial uses of solar Photovoltaics. Through this program,
energy. This energy investment credit some 80 utilities in 40 states have
provides businesses (but not individ- installed more than 7 megawatts
uals or utilities) with a 10% tax credit of grid-connected PV; supplier buy-
and 5-year accelerated depreciation downs and consumer rebates range
for the cost of equipment used to between $2 and $4 per watt.
generate solar electricity.
Residential Energy Rate—This
Buy-Down—Rebates and buy- is the average retail residential rate
downs, typically based on the rated for energy from utilities, in cents
power of the system, help to defray per kilowatt-hour. Check your utility
high capital costs and to create bill for your actual rate.
competitive, sustainable market
4
7. Investing in a PV system
Why should you buy a PV location looks promising, your PV
system? provider can determine whether your
home or business can effectively use
People decide to buy PV systems for
a PV system.
a variety of reasons. Some people
want to help preserve the Earth's The orientation of your PV system
finite fossil-fuel resources and reduce (the compass direction that your sys-
air pollution. Others want to invest tem faces) affects its performance. In
in an energy-producing improve- the United States, the sun is always
ment to their property. Some people in the southern half of the sky but is
like the security of reducing the higher in the summer and lower in
amount of electricity they buy from the winter. Usually, the best location
their utility because it makes them for a PV system is a south-facing
less vulnerable to future price roof, but roofs that face east or west
increases. And some people just may also be acceptable. Flat roofs
appreciate the independence that also work well for solar electric sys-
a PV system provides. tems, because PV modules can be
mounted flat on the roof facing the
If you plan to build a home away
sky or bolted on frames tilted toward
from an established utility service,
the south at an optimal angle. They
inquire about the cost of installing
can also be attached directly to the
a utility line. Often, the cost of
roof as “PV shingles.”
extending conventional power to
your residence is higher than the If a rooftop can't be used, your solar
cost of a solar option. modules can also be placed on the
ground, either on a fixed mount or
Whatever your reason, solar energy
a “tracking” mount that follows the
is widely thought to be the energy
sun to orient the PV modules. Other
source of choice for the future, and
options (often used in multifamily
you may be able to take advantage
or commercial applications) include
of a state-sponsored program to help
mounting structures that create cov-
make it your energy choice for today
ered parking, or that provide shade
and tomorrow.
as window awnings.
Is your home or business a Is your site free from shading by
good place for a PV system? trees, nearby buildings, or other
Can you locate your system obstructions?
so it works well? To make the best use of your PV sys-
A well-designed PV system needs tem, the PV modules must have a
clear and unobstructed access to the clear “view” of the sun for most or
sun's rays for most or all of the day, all of the day—unobstructed by trees,
throughout the year. You can make roof gables, chimneys, buildings, and
an initial assessment yourself. If the other features of your home and the
5
8. surrounding landscape. Some poten- cost more. System sizing, discussed
tial sites for your PV system may later in this booklet, should also be
be bright and sunny during certain discussed with your PV provider.
times of the day, but shaded during
other times. Such shading may sub- What kind of roof do you have,
stantially reduce the amount of elec- and what is its condition?
tricity that your system will produce. Some types of roofs are simpler and
To be eligible for some rebates, your cheaper to work with, but a PV sys-
system must be unshaded between tem can be installed on any type.
certain hours during certain times of Typically, roofs with composition
the year. Some states have laws that shingles are the easiest to work with,
establish your right to protect your and those with slate are the most
solar access through the creation of difficult. In any case, an experienced
a “solar easement.” Your PV provider solar installer will know how to
can help you determine whether work on all types and can use roof-
your site is suitable for a solar ing techniques that eliminate any
electric system. possibility of leaks. Ask your PV
provider how the PV system affects
Does your roof or property your roof warranty.
contain a large enough area
for the PV system? If your roof is older and needs to be
The amount of space that a PV replaced in the near future, you may
system needs depends on the size want to replace it at the time the PV
of the system you purchase. Some system is installed to avoid the cost
residential systems require as little of removing and reinstalling your
as 50 square feet (for a small “starter” PV system. PV panels often can be
system), but others could need as integrated into the roof itself, and
much as 1,000 square feet. some modules are actually designed
Commercial systems are typically as three-tab shingles or raised-seam
even larger. If your location limits metal roof sections. One benefit of
the size of your system, you may these systems is their ability to offset
want to install one that uses more the cost of roof materials.
efficient PV modules. Greater effi-
ciency means that the module needs
How big should your PV
less surface area to convert sunlight system be, and what features
into a given amount of electric should it have?
power. PV modules are available To begin, consider what portion of
in a range of types, and some offer your current electricity needs you
more efficiency per square foot would like your PV system to meet.
than others do (see table on the For example, suppose that you would
next page). Although the efficiency like to meet 50% of your electricity
(percent of sunlight converted to needs with your PV system. You
electricity) varies with the different could work with your PV provider
types of PV modules available today, to examine past electric bills and
higher efficiency modules typically
6
9. determine the size of the PV system produced by your system on an
needed to achieve that goal. annual basis (see the section on net
metering). Finally, customers eligible
You can contact your utility and for net metering vary from utility to
request the total electricity usage, utility; for example, net metering
measured in kilowatt-hours, for your could be allowed for residential cus-
household or business over the past tomers only, commercial customers
12 months (or consult your electric only, or both.
bills if you save them). Ask your PV
provider how much your new PV One optional feature to consider is
system will produce per year (also a battery system to provide energy
measured in kilowatt-hours) and storage (for stand-alone systems) or
compare that number to your annual backup power in case of a utility
electricity usage (called demand) to power outage (for grid-connected
get an idea of how much you will systems). Batteries add value to your
save. In the next section, we'll pro- system, but at an increased price.
vide more information on estimating
how much you will save. As a rule, the cost per kilowatt-hour
goes down as you increase the size
Some solar rebate programs are of the system. For example, many
capped at a certain dollar amount. inverters are sized for systems up to
Therefore, a solar electric system 5 kilowatts, so even if your PV array
that matches this cap maximizes is smaller (say, 3 kilowatts), you may
the benefit of the solar rebate. have to buy the same size of inverter.
Labor costs for a small system may
To qualify for net metering in some be nearly as much as those for a large
service territories, your PV system system, so you are likely to get a bet-
must have a peak generating capacity ter price for installing a 2-kilowatt
that is typically not more 10 kilo- system all at once, rather than
watts (10,000 watts), although this installing 1 kilowatt each year for
peak may differ from state to state. two years.
Also, utilities have different provi-
sions for buying excess electricity
Roof Area Needed in Square Feet (shown in Bold Type)
PV Module
Efficiency (%) PV Capacity Rating (Watts)
100 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 10,000
4 30 75 150 300 600 1,200 3,000
8 15 38 75 150 300 600 1,500
12 10 25 50 100 200 400 1,000
16 8 20 40 80 160 320 800
For example, to generate 2,000 watts from a 12%-efficient system, you need 200 square feet of roof area.
7
10. How much will you save electricity will not be worth as much
with your PV system? as the electricity you actually use.
You may earn only 2 cents per
The value of your PV system's elec-
kilowatt-hour—or less than half the
tricity depends on how much you
retail rate—for your excess power.
pay for electricity now and how
much your utility will pay you for PV systems produce most of their
any excess power that you generate. electricity during the middle of the
If your utility offers net metering day, when residential electric loads
(and so pays the full retail price for tend to be small. If your utility does
your excess electricity), you and your not offer net metering, you may
utility will pay the same price for want to size your system to avoid
each other's electricity. You can use generating electricity significantly
the calculation box on the next page beyond your actual needs.
to roughly estimate how much elec-
tricity your PV system will produce How much does a PV
and how much that electricity will system cost?
be worth. Actual energy production
No single answer applies in every
from your PV system will vary by up
case. But a solar rebate and other
to 20% from these figures, depending
incentives can always reduce the
on your geographic location, the
cost. Your price depends on a num-
angle and orientation of your system,
ber of factors, including whether
the quality of the components, and
your home is under construction and
the quality of the installation.
whether PV is integrated into the
Also, you may not get full retail roof or mounted on top of an exist-
value for excess electricity produced ing roof. The price also depends on
by your system on an annual basis, the PV system rating, manufacturer,
even if your utility does offer net retailer, and installer.
metering. Be sure to discuss these
The size of your system may be the
issues with your PV provider. Request
most significant factor in any meas-
a written estimate of the average
urement of costs versus benefits.
annual energy production from the
Small, single-PV-panel systems with
PV system. However, even if an esti-
built-in inverters that produce about
mate is accurate for an average year,
75 watts may cost around $900
actual electricity production will
installed, or $12 per watt. These
fluctuate from year to year because
small systems offset only a small
of natural variations in weather
fraction of your electricity bill. A
and climate.
2-kilowatt system that meets nearly
If your utility does not offer net all the needs of a very energy-
metering, you can still use the calcu- efficient home could cost $16,000
lation box to determine the amount to $20,000 installed, or $8 to $10 per
of electricity your system will watt. At the high end, a 5-kilowatt
produce. However, this is not as system that completely meets the
straightforward, because the excess energy needs of many conventional
8
11. Calculating Electricity Bill Savings for a Net-Metered PV System
• Determine the system's size in kilowatts (kW). A reasonable range is from
1 to 5 kW. This value is the “kW of PV” input for the equations below.
• Based on your geographic location, select the energy production factor
from the map below for the “kWh/kW-year” input for the equations.
Energy from the PV system = (kW of PV) x (kWh/kW-year) = kWh/year
Divide this number by 12 if you want to determine your monthly energy reduction.
Energy bills savings = (kWh/year) x (Residential Rate)/
100 = $/year saved
(Residential Rate in this above equation should be in dollars per kWh; for example,
a rate of 10 cents per kWh is input as $0.10/kWh.)
For example, a 2-kW system in Denver, CO, at a residential energy rate of
$0.07/kWh will save about $266 per year: 1,900 kWh/kW-year x $0.07/kWh
x 2 kW = $266/year.
Note: The uncertainty of the
contoured values is generally ±10%.
In mountainous and other areas of
complex terrain, the uncertainty may
be higher.
homes can cost $30,000 to $40,000 How can you finance the cost
installed, or $6 to $8 per watt. These of your PV system?
prices are rough estimates; your
When it comes to financing the cost
costs depend on your system's con-
of purchasing and installing your
figuration, your equipment options,
PV system, there are some special
and other factors. Your local PV
programs particular to financing
providers can give you more accurate
solar and other renewable energy
estimates or bids.
9
12. Schott Applied Power Corp./PIX08808
This 20-kilowatt PV system produces electricity for the common
areas of a shopping center in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
investments. But most of the relatively simple. It is also one way
options will be familiar to you. to avoid additional loan application
forms and fees.
The best way to finance PV systems
for homes is through a mortgage If mortgage financing is not avail-
loan. Mortgage financing options able, look for other sources of fin-
include your primary mortgage; a ancing, such as conventional bank
second mortgage, such as a U.S. loans. Seek the best possible combi-
Department of Housing and Urban nation of low rate and long term.
Development (HUD) Title 1 loan; or This allows you to amortize your PV
a home-equity loan that is secured system as inexpensively as possible.
by your property. There are two Because your PV system is a long-
advantages to mortgage financing. term investment, the terms and
First, mortgage financing usually pro- conditions of your financing are
vides longer terms and lower interest likely to be the most important
rates than other loans, such as con- factor in determining the effective
ventional bank loans. Second, the price of your PV-generated power.
interest paid on a mortgage loan is
generally deductible on your federal PV systems for businesses are proba-
taxes (subject to certain conditions). bly best financed through a compa-
If you buy the PV system for your ny's existing sources of funds for
home at the same time that you capital purchases—such as Small
build, buy, or refinance the home, Business Administration loans or
adding the cost of the PV system to conventional bank loans.
your mortgage loan is likely to be
10
13. Selecting a PV provider
Who sells and installs PV should have the lowest travel costs).
systems? Contact these providers and find out
what products and services they offer.
In some areas, finding a PV provider
The following questions may give you
can be as simple as picking up the
a good sense of their capabilities:
telephone directory and looking
under “Solar Energy Equipment and Has the company installed grid-
Systems—Dealers.” However, many connected PV systems? If not,
of the listings are solar water-heating has it installed grid-independent
companies and many companies (or stand-alone) PV systems?
might not be experienced in PV sys-
tem design or installation. Similarly, Experience in installing grid-
many electrical contractors, although connected systems is valuable
proficient in typical electrical con- because some elements of the instal-
tracting work, might not have expert- lation—particularly interconnection
ise in PV or residential roof-mounting with the local utility—are unique
techniques. How do you identify solar to these systems. Because grid-
electric system providers? Here are connected systems are relatively
several suggestions. uncommon, however, most contrac-
tors with PV experience have worked
• Check the Source Guide for renew- only on stand-alone systems. So,
able energy businesses (including they have experience with all aspects
PV) by name, product type, business of PV system installation except
type, and location: http://energy. connection with the utility grid.
sourceguides.com/index.shtml However, a competent company
with PV experience should not be
• Contact the Solar Energy Industries
eliminated just because it has not
Association (SEIA) at 202-628-7745
yet installed grid-connected PV.
for a list of solar service providers.
Experience with off-grid systems is
• Contact your utility company valuable, because grid-independent
to see which vendors it might systems are more technically com-
recommend. plex than grid-tied systems.
• Conduct a search on the Internet. How many years of experience
Reputable, professional contractors does the company have installing
with experience in PV systems are PV systems?
the best choice for the actual This issue speaks for itself: A contrac-
installation. tor who has been in business a long
time probably understands how to
How do you choose among work with customers and to compete
PV providers? effectively with other firms.
Compile a list of prospective PV
providers. (Those closest to you
11
14. Is the company properly licensed? can tell you about any judgments or
PV systems should be installed by complaints against a state-licensed
an appropriately licensed contractor. electrician. Consumers should call
This usually means that either the the city and county they live in for
installer or a subcontractor has an information on how to evaluate con-
electrical contractor's license. Your tractors. The Better Business Bureau
State Electrical Board can tell you is another source of information.
whether a contractor has a valid
electrician's license. Local building How do you choose among
departments might also require that competing bids?
the installer have a general contrac- If you decide to get more than one
tor's license. Call the city or county bid for the installation of your PV
you live in for additional informa- system (always a good idea), make
tion on licensing. sure that all bids are made on the
same basis. For example, a bid for a
A solar rebate program may require
system mounted on the ground is
that, in addition to being properly
usually very different from another
licensed, installers must demonstrate
bid for a rooftop system.
that they have special knowledge
about installing PV systems. This spe- Similarly, some PV modules generate
cial knowledge may be demonstrated more electricity per square foot than
in one of the following ways: others. Bids should clearly state the
maximum generating capacity of the
• Possession of a solar contractor
system (measured in watts or kilo-
specialty license, issued by a local
watts). If possible, have the bids spec-
building jurisdiction, that recog-
ify the system capacity in “AC watts”
nizes—through testing or other
under a standard set of test condi-
means—special knowledge of PV
tions, or specify the output of the
systems
system at the inverter.
• Certification in PV systems by a
Also request an estimate of the
group such as the state chapter
amount of energy that the system
of SEIA
will produce on an annual basis
• A letter from the PV system manu- (measured in kilowatt-hours).
facturer stating that the installer Because the amount of energy
has the experience and training depends on the amount of sun-
needed to install the system light—which varies by location, sea-
properly. son, and year to year—it’s unlikely
the contractor will quote a specific
Does the company have any figure, but a range of ±20% is realis-
pending or active judgments tic. Bids also should include the total
or liens against it? cost of getting the PV system up and
As with any project that requires a running, including hardware, instal-
contractor, due diligence is recom- lation, connection to the grid, per-
mended. Your state electrical board mitting, sales tax, and warranty.
12
15. Your warranty is a very important
factor for evaluating bids. A solar
rebate program may require that
systems be covered by a two-year
parts-and-labor written installation
warranty, for example, in addition
to any manufacturers' warranties on
specific components. The installer
may offer longer warranties. Also, ask
yourself, “Will this company stand
behind the full-system warranty for
the next two years?”
Is the lowest price the “best
deal”?
It might not be. You generally get
what you pay for, and it's possible
that a low price could be a sign of
inexperience. Companies that plan
to stay in business must charge
enough for their products and A home in the woods of New
Alan Ford/PIX09507
services to cover their costs, plus a Hampshire had too much shade
fair profit margin. Therefore, price to use PV on the roof. The
should not be the only considera-
solution was installing a
tion, and quality should probably
rank high on the list. freestanding PV array.
13
16. Before connecting a PV system to the grid
What should you know about rely on Article 690 for guidance in
permits? determining whether your PV system
has been properly designed and
If you live where a homeowners asso-
installed. If you are one of the first
ciation must approve a solar electric
people in your community to install
system, you or your PV provider may
a grid-connected PV system, your
need to submit your plans. You’ll
local building department may not
need approval before you begin
have experience in approving one
installing your PV system. However,
of these systems. If this is the case,
some state laws stipulate that you
you and your PV provider can speed
have the right to install a solar
the process by working closely with
electric system on your home.
building officials to bring them up
You will probably need to obtain per- to speed on the technology.
mits from your city or county building
department. These include a building What should you know about
permit, an electrical permit, or both. insurance?
Typically, your PV provider will take For grid-connected PV systems, your
care of this, rolling the price of the electric utility will require that you
permits into the overall system price. enter into an interconnection agree-
However, in some cases, your PV ment (see also the next section).
provider may not know how much Usually, these agreements set forth the
time or money will be involved in minimum insurance requirements to
“pulling” a permit. If so, this task keep in force. If you are buying a PV
may be priced on a time-and-materi- system for your home, your standard
als basis, particularly if additional homeowner’s insurance policy is
drawings or calculations must be usually adequate to meet the utility’s
provided to the permitting agency. requirements. However, if insurance
In any case, make sure the permit- coverage becomes an issue, contact
ting costs and responsibilities are one of the groups listed in the Getting
addressed at the start with your PV Help section.
provider before installation begins.
How do you get an
Code requirements for PV systems interconnection agreement?
vary somewhat from one jurisdiction
Connecting your PV system to the
to the next, but most are based on
utility grid will require an intercon-
the National Electrical Code (NEC).
nection agreement and a purchase
Article 690 in the NEC spells out
and sale agreement. Federal law and
requirements for designing and
some state public utility commission
installing safe, reliable, code-compliant
regulations require utilities to supply
PV systems. Because most local
you with an interconnection agree-
requirements are based on the NEC,
ment. Some utilities have developed
your building inspector is likely to
14
17. simplified, standardized interconnec- Practice for Utility Interface of
tion agreements for small-scale PV Photovoltaic Systems. Institute of
systems. Electrical and Electronic Engineers,
Inc., New York, NY (1998).
The interconnection agreement speci-
fies the terms and conditions under • Underwriters Laboratories, UL
which your system will be connected Subject 1741: Standard for Static
to the utility grid. These include your Inverters and Charge Controllers for
obligation to obtain permits and insur- Use in Photovoltaic Power Systems
ance, maintain the system in good (First Edition). Underwriters
working order, and operate it safely. Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL
The purchase and sale agreement spec- (December 1997).
ifies the metering arrangements, the
You don’t need to fully understand
payment for any excess generation,
these standards, but your PV provider
and any other related issues.
and utility should. It is your obliga-
The language in these contracts tion to make sure that your PV
should be simple, straightforward, provider uses equipment that com-
and easy to understand. If you are plies with the relevant standards,
unclear about your obligations under however, so be sure to discuss this
these agreements, contact the utility issue.
or your electrical service provider for
clarification. If your questions are How do you get a net-
not answered adequately, contact metering agreement?
one of the groups in the Getting Some utilities offer customers with
Help section. PV systems the option to net meter
National standards for utility inter- the excess power generated by the
connection of PV systems are being PV system. As noted, this means that
adopted by many local utilities. The when the PV system generates more
most important of these standards power than the household can use,
focuses on inverters. Traditionally, the utility pays the full retail price
inverters simply converted the DC for this power in an even swap as the
electricity generated by PV modules electric meter spins backward, and
to the AC electricity we use in our your PV power goes into the grid.
homes. More recently, inverters have Net metering allows eligible cus-
evolved into remarkably sophisticat- tomers with PV systems to connect
ed devices to manage and condition to the grid with their existing single
power. Many new inverters contain meter. Almost all standard utility
all the protective relays, disconnects, meters can measure the flow of
and other components necessary to energy in either direction. The meter
meet the most stringent national spins forward when electricity is
standards. Two of these standards are flowing from the utility into the
particularly relevant: building and spins backward when
• Institute of Electrical and Electronic power is flowing from the building
Engineers, P929: Recommended to the utility.
15
18. For example, in one utility program, the system size, because you may want
customers are billed monthly for the to limit generating excess electricity.
“net” energy consumed. If the cus- Such a “dual metering” arrangement is
tomer’s net consumption is negative the norm for industrial customers who
in any month (i.e., the PV system generate their own power.
produces more energy than the cus-
tomer uses), the balance is credited What should you know about
to subsequent months. Once a year, utility and inspection sign-off?
on the anniversary of the effective After your new PV system is
date of the interconnection agree- installed, it must be inspected and
ment, the utility pays the customer “signed off” by the local permitting
for any negative balance at its whole- agency (usually a building or electri-
sale or “avoided cost” for energy, cal inspector) and most likely by
which may be quite small, perhaps the electric utility with which you
less than 2 cents per kilowatt-hour. entered into an interconnection
Net metering allows customers to get agreement. Inspectors may require
more value from the energy they your PV provider to make corrections
generate. It also simplifies both the (which is fairly common in the con-
metering process (by eliminating the struction business). A copy of the
need for a second meter) and the building permit showing the final
accounting process (by eliminating inspection sign-off may be required
the need for monthly payments from to qualify for a solar rebate program.
your utility). Be sure to ask your
utility about its policy regarding What should you know about
net metering. warranties?
Under the federal Public Utility Warranties are key to ensuring that
Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), utili- your PV system will be repaired if
ties must allow you to interconnect something should malfunction dur-
your PV system. They must also buy ing the warranty period. PV systems
any excess electricity you generate, eligible for some solar rebate pro-
beyond what you use in your home or grams must carry a full (not “limit-
business. If your utility does not offer ed”) two-year warranty, in addition
net metering, it will probably require to any manufacturers’ warranties on
you to use two meters: one to measure specific components. This warranty
the flow of electricity into the build- should cover all parts and labor,
ing, the other to measure the flow of including the cost of removing any
electricity out of the building. If net defective component, shipping it to
metering is not available, the utility the manufacturer, and reinstalling
will pay you only a wholesale rate for the component after it is repaired
your excess electricity. This provides a or replaced. The rebate program’s
strong incentive to use all the electrici- two-year warranty requirement
ty you generate so that it offsets elec- supersedes any other warranty
tricity you would otherwise have to limitations. In other words, even if
purchase at the higher retail rate. This the manufacturer’s warranty on a
may be a factor in how you optimize particular component is less than
16
19. two years, the system vendor must Know the financial arrangements,
provide you with a two-year warran- such as contractor's bonds, that
ty. Similarly, even if the manufactur- ensure the warranty will be honored.
er’s warranty is a limited warranty (A warranty does not guarantee that
that does not include the cost of the company will remain in busi-
removing, shipping, and reinstalling ness). Find out whom to contact
defective components, the system if there is a problem. Under some
vendor must cover these costs if solar rebate programs, vendors must
the retailer/vendor also installed provide documentation on system
the system. and component warranty coverage
and claims procedures. To avoid any
Be sure you know who is responsible later misunderstandings, be sure to
for honoring the various warranties read the warranty carefully and
associated with your system—the review the terms and conditions
installer, the dealer, or the manufac- with your retailer/vendor.
turer. The vendor should disclose the
warranty responsibility of each party.
Getting Help
For more information on solar electric This Web site has a listing of state
systems, please contact: Public Utility Commissions that you
National Association of State Energy may contact.
Officials (NASEO) Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA)
1414 Prince Street 1616 H Street, N.W., Suite 800
Suite 200 Washington, DC 20006
Alexandria, Virginia 22314 Phone: 202-628-7745 • Fax: 202-628-7779
Phone: 703-299-8800 • Fax: 703-299-6208 www.seia.org
www.naseo.org/members/states.htm The Solar Energy Industries Association
Check the above Web site to find the is the national trade association of the
contact for your state energy office, solar industry. Many states have a state
which typically promotes the develop- chapter of the national SEIA organiza-
ment and use of renewable energy tion, which can be found on SEIA’s
resources in your state. The office might Web site.
offer technical assistance, sponsor work-
shops and forums, and provide general Other helpful Web sites
information to resident energy con- Solar Energy Technologies Program:
sumers on renewable energy resources www.eere.energy.gov/solar
and applications.
National Center for Photovoltaics:
National Association of Regulatory and www.nrel.gov/ncpv
Utility Commissioners (NARUC)
1101 Vermont, N.W. Million Solar Roofs: www.millionsolar-
Suite 200 roofs.com
Washington, DC 20005 Database of State Incentives for
Phone: 202-898-2200 • Fax: 202-898-2213 Renewable Energy (DSIRE):
www.naruc.org www.dsireusa.org
17
20. About the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
A Strong Energy Portfolio for a Strong America
Energy efficiency and clean, renewable energy will mean a stronger economy, a
cleaner environment, and greater energy independence for America. By investing in
technology breakthroughs today, our nation can look forward to a more resilient
economy and secure future.
Far-reaching technology changes will be essential to America's energy future.
Working with a wide array of state, community, industry, and university partners,
the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
invests in a portfolio of energy technologies that will:
• Conserve energy in the residential, commercial, industrial, government, and transporta-
tion sectors
• Increase and diversify energy supply, with a focus on renewable domestic sources
• Upgrade our national energy infrastructure
• Facilitate the emergence of hydrogen technologies as vital new "energy carriers."
The Opportunities
Biomass Program—Using domestic, plant-derived resources to meet our fuel,
power, and chemical needs
Building Technologies Program—Homes, schools, and businesses that use less
energy, cost less to operate, and, ultimately, generate as much power as they use
Distributed Energy & Electric Reliability Program—A more reliable energy
infrastructure and reduced need for new power plants
Federal Energy Management Program—Leading by example, saving energy
and taxpayer dollars in federal facilities
FreedomCAR & Vehicle Technologies Program—Less dependence on foreign
oil, and eventual transition to an emissions-free, petroleum-free vehicle
Geothermal Technologies Program—Tapping the Earth's energy to meet
our heat and power needs
Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program—Paving the
way toward a hydrogen economy and net-zero carbon energy future
Industrial Technologies Program—Boosting the productivity and competitiveness
of U.S. industry through improvements in energy and environmental performance
Solar Energy Technology Program—Utilizing the sun's natural energy to
generate electricity and provide water and space heating
Weatherization & Intergovernmental Program—Accelerating the use of today's
best energy-efficient and renewable technologies in homes, communities, and businesses
Wind & Hydropower Technologies Program—Harnessing America's abundant
natural resources for clean power generation
To learn more, visit www.eere.energy.gov
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
a DOE national laboratory, produced this Consumer’s Guide for:
U.S. Department of Energy
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
1000 Independence Avenue, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20585
December 2003 • DOE/GO-102003-1844