DNA is made up of millions of nucleotides that form a double helix structure. Each nucleotide consists of a phosphate, sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine. The bases bond together in a base-pairing rule with adenine bonding only with thymine and cytosine bonding only with guanine. The sequence of these bases along the DNA determines traits by coding for different proteins.
DNA:
content:
Definition
Examples
structure of DNA
rDNA
Sequence of DNA
Applications
History
Definition
DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. It is a long, double-stranded helical structure made up of smaller units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
DNA
The nucleotides in DNA are connected by bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, forming a sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases extend from the backbone and pair together to form complementary base pairs: adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine. These base pairs create the rungs of the DNA ladder-like structure.
Examples of DNA can be found in various organisms and even in some viruses. Here are a few examples:
Human DNA: The DNA found in the cells of humans contains the genetic information that determines our physical traits, such as eye color, height, and susceptibility to certain diseases. It consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes, with each chromosome containing a long DNA molecule.
Animal DNA: DNA exists in all animals, and each species has its unique DNA sequence. For example, the DNA of dogs, cats, horses, and birds contains the instructions that define their specific characteristics and traits.
Plant DNA: Plants also have DNA in their cells. The DNA of plants carries the information required for their growth, development, and reproduction. It determines factors like the color of flowers, the taste of fruits, and the plant's response to environmental conditions.
Bacterial DNA: Bacteria possess DNA in the form of circular molecules called plasmids and a single, main chromosome. Bacterial DNA carries the necessary information for bacterial growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Viral DNA: Some viruses have DNA as their genetic material. For example, the Herpes simplex virus and the Varicella-zoster virus have double-stranded DNA genomes. Viral DNA contains the instructions for the virus to infect host cells, replicate, and produce new viral particles.
Ancient DNA: DNA can also be extracted from ancient remains such as bones, teeth, or preserved tissue. By analyzing ancient DNA, scientists can gain insights into the genetic makeup of extinct species and ancestral populations, helping to understand evolutionary processes and genetic relationships.
Structure of DNA;
The structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded, helical molecule that consists of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of three components: a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
The structure of DNA is often described as a double
Streamlining DNA Preparation: Techniques and ApplicationsBlueheronbio
DNA preparation, or DNA prep, refers to the process of isolating and purifying DNA molecules from biological samples for various downstream applications. This essential step is crucial for conducting genetic analysis, molecular biology experiments, and diagnostic assays. DNA prep techniques encompass a range of methods, including extraction, purification, quantification, and quality assessment.
DNA:
content:
Definition
Examples
structure of DNA
rDNA
Sequence of DNA
Applications
History
Definition
DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. It is a long, double-stranded helical structure made up of smaller units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
DNA
The nucleotides in DNA are connected by bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, forming a sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases extend from the backbone and pair together to form complementary base pairs: adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine. These base pairs create the rungs of the DNA ladder-like structure.
Examples of DNA can be found in various organisms and even in some viruses. Here are a few examples:
Human DNA: The DNA found in the cells of humans contains the genetic information that determines our physical traits, such as eye color, height, and susceptibility to certain diseases. It consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes, with each chromosome containing a long DNA molecule.
Animal DNA: DNA exists in all animals, and each species has its unique DNA sequence. For example, the DNA of dogs, cats, horses, and birds contains the instructions that define their specific characteristics and traits.
Plant DNA: Plants also have DNA in their cells. The DNA of plants carries the information required for their growth, development, and reproduction. It determines factors like the color of flowers, the taste of fruits, and the plant's response to environmental conditions.
Bacterial DNA: Bacteria possess DNA in the form of circular molecules called plasmids and a single, main chromosome. Bacterial DNA carries the necessary information for bacterial growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Viral DNA: Some viruses have DNA as their genetic material. For example, the Herpes simplex virus and the Varicella-zoster virus have double-stranded DNA genomes. Viral DNA contains the instructions for the virus to infect host cells, replicate, and produce new viral particles.
Ancient DNA: DNA can also be extracted from ancient remains such as bones, teeth, or preserved tissue. By analyzing ancient DNA, scientists can gain insights into the genetic makeup of extinct species and ancestral populations, helping to understand evolutionary processes and genetic relationships.
Structure of DNA;
The structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded, helical molecule that consists of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of three components: a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
The structure of DNA is often described as a double
Streamlining DNA Preparation: Techniques and ApplicationsBlueheronbio
DNA preparation, or DNA prep, refers to the process of isolating and purifying DNA molecules from biological samples for various downstream applications. This essential step is crucial for conducting genetic analysis, molecular biology experiments, and diagnostic assays. DNA prep techniques encompass a range of methods, including extraction, purification, quantification, and quality assessment.
Explain the chemical basis of why proteins have such a large variety .pdfarjuncorner565
Explain the chemical basis of why proteins have such a large variety of structures but DNA has
so few.
Solution
The DNA is a molecule that carries the genetic information from one generation to another.
Structurally, DNA is made of 04 nitrogen containing nucleobases namely, Adenine (A), Guanine
(G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). These chemical bases pairs with each other, like A pairs
with T with 02 Hydrogen Bonds and C pairs with G with 03 Hydrogen bonds to form units called
Base Pairs. Each base is then attached to a 5 carbon sugar molecule and a phosphate group.
Combined base, sugar and phosphate are called nucleotide. These nucleotides are arranged in
two long strands to form a spiral structure called double helix. The double helix structure looks
like ladder, the base pairs form the ‘ladders rugs’ and sugar with phosphate forms the vertical
sidepieces of ladder. Only four different bases in nucleic acid but it contains a long backbone
with million of bases. The appearance of nucleotides in nucleic acid codes for the information
that is being carried out in the molecule.
Protein is a very large biological molecule that is composed of one or more polypeptides that are
folded into specific structures. Structurally, proteins are the polymers of 20 different Amino
Acids (AA). The AA are the building block of the the proteins. Each AA consist of - carbon
atom bonded specifically with carboxyl group (COO-), amino group (NH3+) and distinctive side
chain. The specific chemical property of different AA side chains leads to the role of each AA in
protein structure and function.
The AA are joined together by peptide bonds between - amino group of 1 AA to - carboxyl
group of second. Each polypeptides has 2 distinct ends, one terminates in -amino group (N-
terminus) and other in -carboxyl group (C-terminus) attached to the same tetrahedron atom C.
The proteins have large variety of structure is because, proteins have 20 different Amino Acids
and each amino acid contains a vast range of functional groups including alcohol, thiols,
thioesters, carboxylic acid, carboxamides and variety of basic groups. Proteins are complex
structure of 20 AA, but there are only four bases in DNA (A,T, C,G). A minimum of three bases
are required to code for at least 20 AA . The AA can be distinguished on the basis of their
properties of side chains. Few contain non polar side chains that do not interact with water, other
have uncharged but polar side chains. Some with charged side chain with basic groups. Unlike
DNA which forms ladder like structure protein adopts three dimensional structures. The protein
structure has four different levels. The primary structure is depicted by sequence of Amino Acid
in polypeptide chain. The secondary structure depicts the transformation of AA sequence into
and chains. The third level depicts the completely folded 3 Dimensional structure of protein.
The quaternary structure consist of different interactions between different polypeptides.
Explain the chemical basis of why proteins have such a large variety .pdfarjuncorner565
Explain the chemical basis of why proteins have such a large variety of structures but DNA has
so few.
Solution
The DNA is a molecule that carries the genetic information from one generation to another.
Structurally, DNA is made of 04 nitrogen containing nucleobases namely, Adenine (A), Guanine
(G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). These chemical bases pairs with each other, like A pairs
with T with 02 Hydrogen Bonds and C pairs with G with 03 Hydrogen bonds to form units called
Base Pairs. Each base is then attached to a 5 carbon sugar molecule and a phosphate group.
Combined base, sugar and phosphate are called nucleotide. These nucleotides are arranged in
two long strands to form a spiral structure called double helix. The double helix structure looks
like ladder, the base pairs form the ‘ladders rugs’ and sugar with phosphate forms the vertical
sidepieces of ladder. Only four different bases in nucleic acid but it contains a long backbone
with million of bases. The appearance of nucleotides in nucleic acid codes for the information
that is being carried out in the molecule.
Protein is a very large biological molecule that is composed of one or more polypeptides that are
folded into specific structures. Structurally, proteins are the polymers of 20 different Amino
Acids (AA). The AA are the building block of the the proteins. Each AA consist of - carbon
atom bonded specifically with carboxyl group (COO-), amino group (NH3+) and distinctive side
chain. The specific chemical property of different AA side chains leads to the role of each AA in
protein structure and function.
The AA are joined together by peptide bonds between - amino group of 1 AA to - carboxyl
group of second. Each polypeptides has 2 distinct ends, one terminates in -amino group (N-
terminus) and other in -carboxyl group (C-terminus) attached to the same tetrahedron atom C.
The proteins have large variety of structure is because, proteins have 20 different Amino Acids
and each amino acid contains a vast range of functional groups including alcohol, thiols,
thioesters, carboxylic acid, carboxamides and variety of basic groups. Proteins are complex
structure of 20 AA, but there are only four bases in DNA (A,T, C,G). A minimum of three bases
are required to code for at least 20 AA . The AA can be distinguished on the basis of their
properties of side chains. Few contain non polar side chains that do not interact with water, other
have uncharged but polar side chains. Some with charged side chain with basic groups. Unlike
DNA which forms ladder like structure protein adopts three dimensional structures. The protein
structure has four different levels. The primary structure is depicted by sequence of Amino Acid
in polypeptide chain. The secondary structure depicts the transformation of AA sequence into
and chains. The third level depicts the completely folded 3 Dimensional structure of protein.
The quaternary structure consist of different interactions between different polypeptides.
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Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
3. DNA Structure
DNA consists of two molecules that are arranged
into a ladder-like structure called a Double
Helix.
A molecule of DNA is made up of millions of
tiny subunits called Nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of:
1. Phosphate group
2. Pentose sugar
3. Nitrogenous base
5. Nucleotides
The phosphate and sugar form the backbone
of the DNA molecule, whereas the bases form
the “rungs”.
There are four types of nitrogenous bases.
7. Nucleotides
Each base will only bond with one other
specific base.
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Form a base pair.
Form a base pair.
8. Base-Pair Rule
Adenine <==> Thymine
Guanine <==> Cytosine
The sides of the DNA
ladder are phosphate &
sugar held together
by hydrogen bonds
9. DNA Structure
Because of this complementary base pairing,
the order of the bases in one strand
determines the order of the bases in the other
strand.
12. DNA Structure
To crack the genetic code found in DNA we
need to look at the sequence of bases.
The bases are arranged in triplets called
codons.
A G G - C T C - A A G - T C C - T A G
T C C - G A G - T T C - A G G - A T C
13. DNA Structure
A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a
protein.
Each unique gene has a unique sequence of
bases.
This unique sequence of bases will code for the
production of a unique protein.
It is these proteins and combination of proteins
that give us a unique phenotype.
14. How the Code Works
The combination of A,T,G,C determines what
traits you might have, for ex.
C A T C A T = purple hair
T A C T A C = yellow hair
15. Think of the bases of DNA like
letters.
Letters form words....
Words form sentences....
*endless
combinations
16.
17. Let's Review What We Know
About DNA
1. DNA stands for: De _____ ribo ______ acid
2. What is the shape of DNA? _______________
3. Adenine always pairs with _______________
4. The sides of the DNA ladder are deoxyribose and _____
5. Guanine always pairs with _____________
6. What is the complimentary sequence: A A T G C A
7. The two sides of DNA are held together by _______
bonds.
8. DNA is composed of repeating subunits called
______________________
9. What are the 4 bases that make up the rungs of the DNA
ladder? _______________________________________
